Phonology
Inventory
Consonants
|
|
Labial
|
Coronal
|
Dorsal
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
n
|
|
|
| Stop
|
p
|
t
|
k
|
|
| Fricative
|
f β
|
s ð
|
ɣ
|
h
|
| Flap
|
|
ɾ
|
|
|
| Lateral
|
|
l
|
|
|
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Close
|
i iː
|
|
u uː
|
| Mid
|
e eː
|
ə̥
|
o oː
|
| Open
|
a aː
|
|
|
Phonotactics
Syllable structure
(C1)V(C2)
- C1: Any consonant or one of /pɾ tɾ kɾ βɾ ðɾ ɣɾ/
- C2: One of /n s ɾ l/
- V: Any vowel
Consonant Clusters
|
|
pɾ
|
tɾ
|
kɾ
|
βɾ
|
ðɾ
|
ɣɾ
|
m
|
p
|
t
|
k
|
f
|
h
|
β
|
ð
|
ɣ
|
n
|
s
|
ɾ
|
l
|
| n
|
npɾ
|
ntɾ
|
nkɾ
|
nβɾ
|
nðɾ
|
nɣɾ
|
nm
|
np
|
nt
|
nk
|
nf
|
nh
|
nβ
|
nð
|
nɣ
|
|
ns
|
|
|
| s
|
spɾ
|
ntɾ
|
nkɾ
|
sβɾ
|
sðɾ
|
sɣɾ
|
sm
|
sp
|
st
|
sk
|
sf
|
sh
|
sβ
|
sð
|
sɣ
|
sn
|
|
|
sl
|
| ɾ
|
ɾpɾ
|
ɾtɾ
|
ɾkɾ
|
ɾβɾ
|
ɾðɾ
|
ɾɣɾ
|
ɾm
|
ɾp
|
ɾt
|
ɾk
|
ɾf
|
ɾh
|
ɾβ
|
ɾð
|
ɾɣ
|
ɾn
|
ɾs
|
ɾɾ
|
ɾl
|
| l
|
lpɾ
|
ltɾ
|
lkɾ
|
lβɾ
|
lðɾ
|
lɣɾ
|
lm
|
lp
|
lt
|
lk
|
lf
|
lh
|
lβ
|
lð
|
lɣ
|
ln
|
ls
|
|
|
Stress
Allophony
- Voiced fricatives [β ð ɣ] become voiced stops [b d g] before [ɾ]
- [n] assimilate in place of articulation to following consonants [m n ŋ ɴ]
- [h] become voiced [ɦ] between voiced vowels
- [ə̥] are assimilated into aspiration after stops [p t k]
- [ə̥] become [ʔ] word-initially
- [ə̥] become [ɦ] between vowels
- [ɾɾ] are realized as [r]
Ortography
Romanization
| Phoneme
|
Grapheme
|
| Consonants
|
| m
|
m
|
| n
|
n
|
| p
|
p
|
| t
|
t
|
| k
|
k
|
| f
|
f
|
| β
|
b
|
| s
|
s
|
| ð
|
d
|
| ɣ
|
g
|
| h
|
h
|
| ɾ
|
r
|
| l
|
l
|
| Vowels
|
| a
|
a
|
| e
|
e
|
| i
|
i
|
| o
|
o
|
| u
|
u
|
| aː
|
aa
|
| eː
|
ee
|
| iː
|
ii
|
| oː
|
oo
|
| uː
|
uu
|
| ə̥
|
'
|
Script
| Base syllables
|
|
|
'
|
a
|
e
|
i
|
o
|
u
|
| ∅
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| m
|
|
|
|
|
|
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| n
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| p
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| t
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| k
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| b
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| d
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| g
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| f
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| s
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| h
|
|
|
|
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|
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| r
|
|
|
|
|
|
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| l
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Diacritic syllables
|
|
|
'
|
a
|
e
|
i
|
o
|
u
|
| pr
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| tr
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| kr
|
|
|
|
|
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| br
|
|
|
|
|
|
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| dr
|
|
|
|
|
|
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| gr
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Single consonants
|
| n
|
|
| s
|
|
| r
|
|
| l
|
|
Morphology
Verbs
Tense/Aspect
| 1st Affix
|
2nd Affix
|
Tense / Aspect
|
Alternative
|
| None
|
|
None
|
|
Gnomic
|
|
| Past
|
|
None
|
|
Past perfective
|
|
| Past
|
|
Past retrospective
|
Distant past
|
| Present
|
|
Past continuous
|
|
| Future
|
|
Past prospective
|
|
| Present
|
|
None
|
|
Present perfective
|
|
| Past
|
|
Present retrospective
|
Near past
|
| Present
|
|
Present continuous
|
|
| Future
|
|
Present prospective
|
Near future
|
| Future
|
|
None
|
|
Future perfective
|
|
| Past
|
|
Future retrospective
|
|
| Present
|
|
Future continuous
|
|
| Future
|
|
Future prospective
|
Distant future
|
Mood
| Type
|
Mood
|
Use
|
| Realis
|
Indicative
|
|
Factual statement
|
| Irrealis
|
Epistemic
|
Alethic
|
|
States truth or logical necessity
|
| Potential
|
|
States probability of something happening
|
| Deductive
|
|
States something supported by indirect evidence
|
| Interrogative
|
|
Questions the action
|
| Deontic
|
Desiderative
|
|
States internal desire for something
|
| Expectative
|
|
States external desire for something
|
| Necessitative
|
|
States internal necessity for something
|
| Directive
|
|
States external necessity for something
|
| Capacitative
|
|
States internal ability to do something
|
| Permissive
|
|
States external ability to do something
|
Nouns
Case
| Case
|
Use
|
| Nominative
|
|
Marks the agent of a verb
|
| Absolutive
|
|
Marks the object of a verb
|
| Dative
|
|
Marks the indirect object or theme of the verb
|
| Genitive
|
|
Marks possession of or relation with something
|
| Instrumental
|
|
Marks an instrument or tool used to carry out the action
|
| Comitative
|
|
Mark accompaniment of something
|
| Privative
|
|
Marks the lack of company by something
|
| Locative
|
|
Marks the location or time of the action
|
Number
| Number
|
Use
|
| Singulative
|
|
Marks a single object of a mass noun
|
| Plurative
|
|
Marks multiple instances of countable and mass nouns
|
Pronouns
| Person
|
Number
|
Case
|
| NOM
|
ABS
|
DAT
|
GEN
|
| First
|
Singular
|
|
|
|
|
| Plural
|
Exclusive
|
|
|
|
|
| Inclusive
|
|
|
|
|
| Second
|
Singular
|
|
|
|
|
| Plural
|
Exclusive
|
|
|
|
|
| Inclusive
|
|
|
|
|
| Third
|
Singular
|
|
|
|
|
| Plural
|
|
|
|
|
Determiners
| Type
|
Demonstrative
|
Interrogative
|
| Proximal
|
Medial
|
Distal
|
| Object
|
|
|
|
|
| Manner
|
|
|
|
| Reason
|
|
|
|
| Location
|
|
|
|
| Time
|
|
|
|
Quantifiers
| Type
|
Use
|
| Universal
|
|
Every option
|
| Existential
|
|
Large amount of
|
|
|
V
|
|
|
V
|
|
|
V
|
|
|
V
|
|
|
Pair of
|
| Negatory
|
|
No option
|
| Elective
|
|
Any option
|
| Alternative
|
|
A different option
|
Adpositions
| Type
|
|
Use
|
| Spatial
|
Location
|
|
Above, on the surface
|
|
|
Below
|
|
|
In front of
|
|
|
Behind
|
|
|
Near
|
|
|
Between, amongst
|
|
|
Inside
|
| Movement
|
|
Over, across the surface
|
|
|
Under
|
|
|
Through
|
|
|
To (direction)
|
|
|
To (destination)
|
|
|
From (origin)
|
|
|
Into
|
|
|
Out from
|
| Temporal
|
|
Since
|
|
|
Before
|
|
|
During
|
|
|
After
|
|
|
Until
|
| Composition
|
|
Of
|
| Purpose
|
|
In order to
|
| Cause
|
|
Because of
|
| Reference
|
|
About
|
Numerals
Numerals are base 20 with sub-base 5
Single digit numbers
| 0
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
| 0
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
| 5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 10
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
14
|
| A
|
B
|
C
|
D
|
E
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 15
|
16
|
17
|
18
|
19
|
| F
|
G
|
H
|
J
|
K
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Multiple digit numbers
| x400
|
x20
|
x1
|
Total
|
|
|
2
|
E
|
34
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
40
|
14
|
|
|
C
|
4
|
244
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
240
|
4
|
| 5
|
J
|
7
|
2367
|
|
|
|
|
| 2000
|
360
|
7
|
Derivation
Affixation patterns
| Verbs
|
| Conversion
|
Pattern
|
Changes
|
Example
|
| Root
|
→
|
Verb
|
Verbalization
|
-on -un
|
|
| Verb
|
→
|
Verb
|
Opposite
|
|
|
| Verb
|
→
|
Verb
|
Causative
|
|
|
| Verb
|
→
|
Verb
|
Complementary
|
|
|
| Nouns
|
| Root
|
→
|
Noun
|
Nominalization
|
-∅, -r, -l
|
|
| Noun
|
→
|
Noun
|
Augmentative
|
|
|
| Noun
|
→
|
Noun
|
Diminutive
|
|
|
| Noun
|
→
|
Noun
|
Place of...
|
|
|
| Adjectives
|
| Root
|
→
|
Adjective
|
Adjectivalization
|
-s
|
|
| Adjective
|
→
|
Adjective
|
Augmentative
|
|
|
| Adjective
|
→
|
Adjective
|
Diminutive
|
|
|
| Adjective
|
→
|
Adjective
|
Opposite
|
|
|
| Adverbs
|
| Root
|
→
|
Adverb
|
Adverbalization
|
-s'r, -s'l
|
|
| Adverb
|
→
|
Adverb
|
Augmentative
|
|
|
| Adverb
|
→
|
Adverb
|
Diminutive
|
|
|
| Adverb
|
→
|
Adverb
|
Opposite
|
|
|
Compounding patterns
| Pattern
|
Construction
|
Example
|
| HEAD w/ quality of MODIFIER
|
HEAD + MODIFIER
|
|
| HEAD originated from MODIFIER
|
|
| HEAD made of MODIFIER
|
|
| HEAD benefitting MODIFIER
|
|
| Do HEAD to MODIFIER
|
|
| Mix of HEAD and MODIFIER
|
|
Syntax
The following color coding will be used for the examples in order to facilitate understanding of the sentence structure
verbs - adverb - subject - adjective - object - adjective - ind. object - adjective - others
Word order
- Noun
- Adjective
- Quantifier
- Numeral
- Genitive
Default sentence structure
- Verb
- Subject
- Object
- Indirect object
- Oblique argument
Relative Constructions
- be [come-pst late guy-nom]-nom cousin.abs 1s.gen
- The [he came late] guy is my cousin
- give-pst 1s-nom rose-abs [see-pst kate-nom girl-abs]-dat
- I gave the rose to the [Kate saw her] girl
- know john-nom [write-pst 1s-nom letter-abs woman-dat]-abs
- John knows the [I wrote a letter to her] woman
- tell-pst [die-pst father-nom boy-gen]-nom 1s-abs
- The [his father died] boy told me something