Lahob languages

Lahob
Lahobic
Created by	–
Geographic distribution	northern Evandor and most of Márusúturon
Linguistic classification	One of the world's primary language families Lahob
Proto-language	Proto-Lahob
Subdivisions	Pwaɬasd-Ngos Central Lahobic Tlengastic Woŋom-Baan Šlokhowdeš Chlouvānem

The Lahob languages (also Lahobic; [...] Chl. lahūvumi dældai) are a large Calémerian language family, most widely spoken on the continent of Márusúturon.

Proto-Lahob

Phonology

Consonants

Proto-Lahob's reconstructed phonemic inventory is almost universally agreed on by Calemerian linguists (apart from the phonemicity of *ŋʷ), with only some doubts about the realizations of certain phonemes. Its consonant inventory was the following:

→ PoA ↓ Manner		Labials	Dentals	Palatals	Velars	Labiovelars	Laryngeals
Nasals		m	n		ŋ	(ŋʷ)	ɴ
Stops	Unvoiced	p pʰ	t̪ t̪ʰ	c cʰ	k kʰ	kʷ kʷʰ
	Voiced	b bʱ	d̪ d̪ʱ	ɟ ɟʱ	g gʱ	gʷ gʷʱ
Fricatives		f v	s ɬ	š	x ɣ		h ʕ
Approximants			r l	j		w

The exact quality of the reconstructed phonemes *š and *ʕ is unclear. For *š, the various theories are about substantially close phones such as [ʃ ʂ ɕ] or even [ç]. *ʕ is much more problematic. In most Lahob languages, this phoneme is only shown by its effect on neighboring vowels, which is different depending on the language but it always backs the vowel, lowers it, or does both. Chlouvānem is the exception as it directly reflects it, without any change in vowel quality, as its infamous /ɴ̆/ phoneme, whose extremely high occurrence is due to Proto-Lahob *ʕ, *l, (often) *ɬ, and *ŋ having all merged into it. As, however, other Lahob languages have a backed or lowered vowel, but never a nasalized one in the contexts where *ʕ is reconstructed, Calemerian linguists think that the Chlouvānem phoneme being nasal is a post-Proto-Lahob development.

An easy example word is the first person pronoun *ʕiŋi, which is reflected as:

• Chlouvānem lili
• Proto-Central-Lahobic *ɛŋi > Łaȟoḇeyšer ên /ɛn/, Łokow eng /eŋ/, Yełeshian Lawo yeng /jeŋ/, Shershan Lawo êŋ /ɛŋ/
• Proto-Pwaɬasd-Ngos *ɤŋi > Tundra Pwaɬasd ěni /ɤni/, Ngos ɤni /ɤni/

Vowels

Proto-Lahob's vowel inventory, on the other hand, is fairly simple, with five pairs of long and short vowels - /a aː e eː o oː i iː u uː/ - plus the two vowels /ɨ ə/. The non-high vowels could also form diphthongs with /ɨ̯ ɪ̯ ʊ̯/, while /i iː/ only could with /ʊ̯/ and /u uː/ only with /ɪ̯/. Diphthongs centered on schwa, once controversial among Lahob linguists, have now become accepted by most linguists because of *əj being so far the only reasonable explanation for palatalized consonants in Chlouvānem - as with e.g. *nodəjn-ə- "to hit, strike" > nadьn- "to trip into, to hit" - much like the *əjV sequence explains the distinction between CʲV and CjV (as with *ʕiŋjō > liliā "my, mine" (*CjV > CʲV) and *ērəjo > yarya "beer" (*CəjV > CjV)).

Morphology

First declension

First declension nouns are those also known as *-s nouns, and distinguished four types of stems: o-stems, u-stems, i-stems, and *n-stems (cf. Chlouvānem s-nouns in -as, -us, -is, -oe). Here follows the declension of first declension nouns with a comparison in Chlouvānem and Woŋom, for the only two branches that did not merge this class with another (there are no attested n-stems in Woŋom-Baan languages anyway).

	Proto-Lahob			Chlouvānem			Woŋom
	o-stems
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	*frāt-os	*frāt-ant	*frāt-aj	prātas	prātāt	prāte	wot	woti
Vocative	*frāt-āw			prātau
Accusative	*frāt-u	*frāt-asuj	*frāt-ajir	prātu	prātāṣa	prātaih
Ergative	*frāt-ej	*frāt-ōjo	*frāt-ōn	prātei	prātāya	prātān	wosi	woto
Genitive	*frāt-i	*frāt-ajwo	*frāt-umi	prāti	prāteva	prātumi		wotum
Instrumental	*frāt-op	*frāt-ōbʱan	*frāt-ajnīko	prātap	prātābhan	prātenīka
Exessive	*frāt-ot		*frāt-ōmōn	prātat		prātāmān
Ablative	*frāt-ux		*frāt-ajnits	prātų		prātenīs
Translative	*frāt-on	*frāt-oguš	*frāt-ijawr	prātan	prātaus	prātyoh
Dative	*frāt-awm		*frāt-osām	prātom		prātasām	woto	wotso
Essive	*frāt-ox	*frāt-iŋgin	*frāt-egem	prātą	prātigin	prātėm
Locative	*frāt-e		*frāt-iʕīm	prāte		prātilīm
	u-stems
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	*kewʕəd-u-s	*kewʕəd-u-nt	*kewʕəd-āw-s	kældus	kældūt	kældaus
Vocative	*kewʕəd-u			kældu
Accusative	*kewʕəd-aw-u	*kewʕəd-u-suj	*kewʕəd-aw-ir	kældavu	kældūṣa	kældavih
Ergative	*kewʕəd-aw-e(j)	*kewʕəd-ū-jo	*kewʕəd-ū-n	kældave	kældūya	kældūn
Genitive	*kewʕəd-aw-i	*kewʕəd-owwo	*kewʕəd-owmi	kældavi	kældagva	kældǣmi
Instrumental	*kewʕəd-u-p	*kewʕəd-aw-bʱan	*kewʕəd-u-nīko	kældup	kældobhan	kældunīka
Exessive	*kewʕəd-u-t		*kewʕəd-aw-mōn	kældut		kældomān
Ablative	*kewʕəd-u-ux		*kewʕəd-u-nits	kældų		kældunīs
Translative	*kewʕəd-u-n	*kewʕəd-u-guš	*kewʕəd-u-jawr	kældun	kældugus	kælduyoh
Dative	*kewʕəd-aw-awm		*kewʕəd-u-sām	kældavom		kældusām
Essive	*kewʕəd-aw-x	*kewʕəd-u-ŋgin	*kewʕəd-aw-egem	kældą	kældugin	kældavėm
Locative	*kewʕəd-aw-e		*kewʕəd-u-ʕīm	kældave		kældulīm
	i-stems
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	*əskutr-i-s	*əskutr-i-nt	*əskutr-āj-s	skuṭis	skuṭīt	skuṭais
Vocative	*əskutr-i			skuṭi
Accusative	*əskutr-aj-u	*əskutr-i-suj	*əskutr-aj-ir	skuṭayu	skuṭīṣa	skuṭaih
Ergative	*əskutr-aj-e(j)	*əskutr-ī-jo	*əskutr-ī-n	skuṭaye	skuṭīya	skuṭīn
Genitive	*əskutr-aj-i	*əskutr-ojjo	*əskutr-j-umi	skuṭayi	skuṭajña	skuṭyumi
Instrumental	*əskutr-i-p	*əskutr-aj-bʱan	*əskutr-i-nīko	skuṭip	skuṭebhan	skuṭinīka
Exessive	*əskutr-i-t		*əskutr-aj-mōn	skuṭit		skuṭemān
Ablative	*əskutr-j-ux		*əskutr-i-nits	skuṭyų		skuṭinīs
Translative	*əskutr-i-n	*əskutr-i-guš	*əskutr-i-jawr	skuṭin	skuṭigus	skuṭyoh
Dative	*əskutr-aj-awm		*əskutr-i-sām	skuṭayom		skuṭisām
Essive	*əskutr-aj-x	*əskutr-i-ŋgin	*əskutr-aj-egem	skuṭę	skuṭigin	skuṭayėm
Locative	*əskutr-aj-e		*əskutr-i-ʕīm	skuṭaye		skuṭilīm
	n-stems
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	*hoʕ-õ	*hoʕ-en-ant	*hoʕ-en-ī	haloe	halenāt	halenī
Vocative
Accusative	*hoʕ-en-u	*hoʕ-en-asuj	*hoʕ-en-ajir	halenu	halenāṣa	halenaih
Ergative	*hoʕ-en-ej	*hoʕ-en-ōjo	*hoʕ-en-ōn	halenei	halenāya	halenān
Genitive	*hoʕ-en-jes	*hoʕ-en-wo	*hoʕ-õ-mi	halenies	halemva	haloemi
Instrumental	*hoʕ-en-op	*hoʕ-õ-bʱan	*hoʕ-õ-nīko	halenap	haloebhan	haloenīka
Exessive	*hoʕ-en-ot		*hoʕ-õ-mōn	halenat		haloemān
Ablative	*hoʕ-en-ux		*hoʕ-õ-nits	halenų		haloenīs
Translative	*hoʕ-en-on	*hoʕ-en-oguš	*hoʕ-en-ijawr	halenan	halenaus	halenyoh
Dative	*hoʕ-en-awm		*hoʕ-õ-sām	halenom		haloesām
Essive	*hoʕ-en-î(x)	*hoʕ-õ-gin	*hoʕ-õ-gem	halen	haloegin	haloem
Locative	*hoʕ-en-je		*hoʕ-en-iʕīm	halenie		halenilīm

Second declension

Second declension nouns are those that end in -m (except for -āj nouns), and also have three different possible stems: o-stems, u-stems, and i-stems. Here follows the declension of first declension nouns with a comparison in Chlouvānem, Yełeshian Lawo, and Tundra Pwaɬasd.

	Proto-Lahob			Chlouvānem			Yeł. Lawo		Tundra Pw.
	o-stems
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	*juɟ-om	*juɟ-iwā	*juɟ-oms	yujam	yujivā	yujās
Vocative	*juɟ-e			yuje
Accusative	*juɟ-om-u	*juɟ-m-es	*juɟ-m-ajir	yujamu	yujmes	yujmaih
Ergative	*juɟ-m-ego	*juɟ-m-ēn	*juɟ-ōm-ūn	yujmæ	yujmian	yujāmūn
Genitive	*juɟ-om-i	*juɟ-m-ajwo	*juɟ-om-nān	yujami	yujmeva	yujaṃrān
Instrumental	*juɟ-om-op	*juɟ-o-bʱan	*juɟ-om-nīko	yujamap	yujabhan	yujaṃrīka
Exessive	*juɟ-om-ot		*juɟ-o-mōn	yujamat		yujamān
Ablative	*juɟ-om-ux		*juɟ-m-ajnits	yujamų		yujmenīs
Translative	*juɟ-om-on	*juɟ-m-ix	*juɟ-m-ent	yujaman	yujmį	yujmėt
Dative	*juɟ-om-awm		*juɟ-om-sām	yujamom		yujaṃsām
Essive	*juɟ-om-x	*juɟ-m-enne	*juɟ-m-egem	yujmą	yujmenne	yujmėm
Locative	*juɟ-om-n(j)aj		*juɟ-m-iʕīm	yujaṃrye		yujmilīm
	u-stems
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	*tūl-u-m	*tūl-w-iwā	*tūl-u-ms	tūlum	tūlvivā	tūlūs
Vocative	*tūl-w-e			tūlve
Accusative	*tūl-u-m-u	*tūl-w-es	*tūl-u-jir	tūlumu	tūlves	tūluyih
Ergative	*tūl-u-go	*tūl-w-ēn	*tūl-u-m-ūn	tūluga	tūlvyan	tūlumūn
Genitive	*tūl-u-m-i	*tūl-w-ajwo	*tūl-u-m-nān	tūlumi	tūlveva	tūluṃrān
Instrumental	*tūl-u-m-op	*tūl-u-bʱan	*tūl-um-nīko	tūlumap	tūlubhan	tūluṃrīka
Exessive	*tūl-u-m-ot		*tūl-u-mōn	tūlumat		tūlumān
Ablative	*tūl-u-m-ux		*tūl-w-ajnits	tūlumų		tūlvenīs
Translative	*tūl-u-m-on	*tūl-w-ix	*tūl-u-nt	tūluman	tūlvį	tūlūt
Dative	*tūl-u-m-awm		*tūl-u-m-sām	tūlumom		tūluṃsām
Essive	*tūl-u-m-x	*tūl-u-nne	*tūl-u-gem	tūlų	tūlunne	tūlugem
Locative	*tūl-u-m-n(j)aj		*tūl-u-ʕīm	tūluṃrye		tūlulīm
	i-stems
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct	*sgāt-i-m	*sgāt-i-iwā	*sgāt-i-ms	ṛgātim	ṛgātīvā	ṛgātīs
Vocative	*sgāt-j-e			ṛgātie
Accusative	*sgāt-i-m-u	*sgāt-j-es	*sgāt-i-jir	ṛgātimu	ṛgāties	ṛgātīh
Ergative	*sgāt-i-go	*sgāt-j-ēn	*sgāt-i-m-ūn	ṛgātya	ṛgātiyan	ṛgātimūn
Genitive	*sgāt-i-m-i	*sgāt-j-ajwo	*sgāt-i-m-nān	ṛgātimi	ṛgātieva	ṛgātiṃrān
Instrumental	*sgāt-i-m-op	*sgāt-i-bʱan	*sgāt-im-nīko	ṛgātimap	ṛgātibhan	ṛgātiṃrīka
Exessive	*sgāt-i-m-ot		*sgāt-i-mōn	ṛgātimat		ṛgātimān
Ablative	*sgāt-i-m-ux		*sgāt-j-ajnits	ṛgātimų		ṛgātienīs
Translative	*sgāt-i-m-on	*sgāt-j-ix	*sgāt-i-nt	ṛgātiman	ṛgātį	ṛgātīt
Dative	*sgāt-i-m-awm		*sgāt-i-m-sām	ṛgātimom		ṛgātiṃsām
Essive	*sgāt-i-m-x	*sgāt-i-nne	*sgāt-i-gem	ṛgātį	ṛgātinne	ṛgātiem
Locative	*sgāt-i-m-n(j)aj		*sgāt-i-ʕīm	ṛgātiṃrye		ṛgātilīm

*-ōj declension

A class of nouns which ended in *-ōj in their direct case forms had a particular declension, with forms mostly taken from the first and the second declension but varying between the two. The essive and the locative singular are from the third.
Chlouvānem, Yełeshian and Shershan Lawo, and Šlokhowdeš all have many remnants from this class (and in Chl. and Šlk. it is still productive), while other languages may keep the odd irregular noun (as the root used in the example, *gjun-ōj, meaning "foot").

	Proto-Lahob			Chlouvānem			Yeł. Lawo		Šlokhowdeš
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Direct and Vocative	*gjun-ōj	*gjun-ōj-wā	*gjun-ōj-aj	junai	junaivā	junāye
Accusative	*gjun-ōj-u	*gjun-ōj-es	*gjun-ōj-ajir	junāyu	junāyes	junāyaih
Ergative	*gjun-ōj-ej	*gjun-ōj-ēn	*gjun-ōj-ūn	junǣ	junāyėn	junāyūn
Genitive	*gjun-ōj-i	*gjun-ōj-wo	*gjun-ōj-ān	junāyi	junaiva	junāyān
Instrumental	*gjun-ōj-p	*gjun-ōj-bʱan	*gjun-ōj-nīko	junaip	junaibhan	junainīka
Exessive	*gjun-ōj-t		*gjun-ōj-mōn	junait		junaimān
Ablative	*gjun-ōj-ux		*gjun-ōj-ajnits	junāyų		junǣnīs
Translative	*gjun-ōj-n	*gjun-ōj-ix	*gjun-ōj-ent	junain	junāyį	junāyėt
Dative	*gjun-ōj-awm		*gjun-ōj-sām	junāyom		junaisām
Essive	*gjun-ōj-xəs	*gjun-ōj-nne	*gjun-ōj-gem	junąis	junainne	junaigem
Locative	*gjun-ōj-aj		*gjun-ōj-ʕīm	junāye		junailīm

Pronouns

Only the first- and second-person pronouns are reliably reconstructible in Proto-Lahob; it probably did not have common third person pronouns nor those differing in formality (which are found in Chlouvānem and, in a different way, in Coastal Tlengast) - the pronoun declension was apparently marginally productive and terms which were used as pronouns were sometimes analogically added to it — first of all, the development of Chlouvānem's 2SG formal equal pronoun ravi starting from the Lällshag borrowing rawe can be seen in texts from the early centuries of the Second Era; also using nouns instead of pronouns is not uncommon among Lahob languages, as do, without a change in declension, contemporary Chlouvānem, most of its descendants, as well as some Pwaɬasd-Ngos languages.

Like most modern Lahob languages - Chlouvānem is, this time, the exception - the Proto-Lahob second person pronouns distinguished natural gender both in the singular and in the plural; while both plural second person pronouns have vanished from Chlouvānem (though the feminine one's direct and genitive cases only are attested in Archaic Chlouvānem), the feminine singular is reflected as the formal superior and the masculine singular as the formal inferior.
The dual forms may not be reliably reconstructed (as anywhere in Proto-Lahob morphology) because Chlouvānem is the only attested Lahob language with a dual form (excluding a few of its daughter languages).

Proto-Lahob	Chlouvānem	Central Lahobic				Pwaɬasd-Ngos
		Łaȟoḇeyšer	Łokow	Yełeshian Lawo	Shershan Lawo	Tundra Pwaɬasd	Ngos
*ʕiŋi, *ʕ- "I"	lili	ên	eng	yeng	êŋ	ěni	ɤni
*kūri, *k- "you (masculine sg)"	kūri	kor	kör	kož	kory	guy	kuy
*noni, *nəj- "you (feminine sg)"	nani	non	nön	no	non	noni	nay
*majin, *m-/*maj- "we"	main	mên	men	meyn	meyn	men	min
*korin, *kro-/*koj- "you (masculine pl)"	—	kožin	kören	kožin	koron	guyr	keyr
*nogin, *(ə)ŋg- "you (feminine pl)"	nagin	noyn	nöken	nong	noŋ	nuyn	nokin

Basic cognates

Numbers 1-12

All Lahob languages have a duodecimal numeral system. Here are the numbers from 1 to 12 (10₁₂) in some of them. Note that there is no common word for "zero" (most of them use the word for "nothing"; Chlouvānem has the Ancient Kūṣṛmāṭhi borrowing ajrā). Also note that the word for six in Chlouvānem is a borrowing of unknown origin; there's no cognate left for *weɬen.

Proto-Lahob	Chlouvānem	Central Lahobic				Pwaɬasd-Ngos
		Łaȟoḇeyšer	Łokow	Yełeshian Lawo	Shershan Lawo	Tundra Pwaɬasd	Ngos
*lejeʕa "one"	leila	łêḇ	łö	łew	ła	le	li
*doni "two"	dani	don	tun	don	don	don	tan
*pāmwi "three"	pāmvi	pon	pong	pwang	pôŋ	bumb	puhm
*nexɬəte "four"	nęlte	nitł	nitł	neyłit	nitłiw	nakhɬě	newtɬɤ
*sjuŋko "five"	šulka	sunk	sungk	sung	suŋ	ɬuhn	ɬuhn
*weɬen "six"	(tulūɂa)	witłi	witłi	leył	litłe	waɬěn	weɬɤn
*cʰīko "seven"	chīka	šik	shik	šik	šik	kik	khik
*tītijo "eight"	tītya	tič	shich	tsəš	siš	dide	tyete
*mawɟo "nine"	moja	maḇuž	moch	mož	maš	mag	mok
*tofaʕdo "ten"	tålda	tof	tofuz	tos	tofs	toft	taf
*wewʕeden "eleven"	vælden	vaḇi	woshi	loḏi	lade	waděn	wotɤn
*māmōwə "twelve"	māmei	momuḇ	momü	mwamu	mômo	mumo	momo