Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Labial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
| Plosive
|
p
|
t
|
|
k
|
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
n
|
|
ŋ
|
|
| Fricative
|
Spirant
|
β
|
ɸ
|
ð
|
θ
|
|
ɣ
|
h
|
| Silibant
|
|
s
|
|
|
|
| Liquid
|
Flap
|
|
ɾ
|
|
|
|
| Approx.
|
|
l
|
|
|
|
| Glide
|
Approx.
|
|
|
j
|
w
|
|
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Back
|
| Unrounded
|
Rounded
|
| Close
|
i
|
u
|
| Mid
|
e
|
o
|
| Open
|
a
|
ɒ
|
Diphthongs
Phonotactics
| Syllable (σ)
|
| Onset (ω)
|
Rime (ρ)
|
| Initial (ι)
|
Medial (μ)
|
Nucleus (ν)
|
Coda (κ)
|
|
|
- Semivowel
- Liquid
- Plosive
- /s/
|
|
- Nasal
- Liquid
- Fricative
- Liquid + fricative
- Liquid + nasal
|
Initial (ι)
- Initials are optional word-initially and mandatory elsewhere
- Can’t have the same manner of articulation as a preceding coda
Medial (μ)
- Medials re optional
- Liquids are only allowed after stops or fricatives
- /s/ Is only allowed after nasals or liquids
- /s/ is forbidden on a first syllable or after a syllable with coda
Nucleus (ν)
- Nuclei are mandatory
- Diphthongs are not allowed after a semivowel
Coda (κ)
- Codas are optional
- Nasals must have the same place of articulation as the following obstruent
- Liquid + fricative are only allowed word-finally
Stress
Stress is often placed on the first syllable, sometimes on the second.
Allophony
- [β ð ɣ] undergo fortition [b d g] when adjacent to a stop or nasal
- Unvoiced stops and their voiced counterparts, when adjacent [pb bp td dt kg gk], become voiced and geminated [b: d: g:]
- [ð] undergoes fortition [d] before [l]
- [l] becomes a lateral release [◌ˡ] after alveolar stops [t d]
- [n ŋ] become palatal nasals [ɲ] before [j]
- [h] becomes [ɧ] before [j]
- vowels followed by [h] [ah eh] become voiceless vowels [ḁ e̥] before a sonorant
- [j] undergoes fortition [ʝ] word-initially
- [ɣ g] become labialized [ɣʷ gʷ] before [w]
- [w] becomes [ʋ] word initially
- [hw] becomes [ʍ]
Word Classes
Nouns
Dependency Structure
| Determiner
|
Quantifier
|
Noun
|
Case
|
Adjective
|
Genitive
|
| Root
|
Number
|
Number
| Number
|
Suffix
|
Example
|
Use
|
| Singular
|
|
|
Single instance of a count and mass nouns (pen, water)
|
| Singulative
|
|
|
Single unit from a mass noun (a drop of water)
|
| Plurative
|
|
|
Multiple instances of count and mass nouns (pens, waters)
|
Case
| Case
|
Particle
|
Example
|
Use
|
| Nominative
|
|
|
Agent of transitive verbs and active subject of intransitive verbs
|
| Absolutive
|
|
|
Object of transitive verbs and passive subject of intransitive verbs
|
| Dative
|
|
|
Indirect object of a verb
|
| Genitive
|
|
|
Indicates rossession, relation or reference
|
| Locative
|
|
|
Place or time of the action
|
| Instrumental
|
|
|
Indicates a tool or associate with which the action is performed
|
Verbs
Dependency Structure
| Adverb of manner
|
Verbal phrase
|
Adverb of time
|
| Derivative preposition
|
Aspectual preposition
|
Verb
|
Aspects
| Internal aspects
|
| Aspect
|
Preposition
|
Use
|
English equivalent
|
| Perfective
|
|
Action without temporal structure
|
He eats
|
| Progressive
|
|
Action described as ongoing
|
He is eating
|
| Ingressive
|
|
Beginning of an action
|
He started his meal
|
| Egressive
|
|
End of an action
|
He finished his meal
|
| Pausative
|
|
Pausing or stopping of an action
|
He stopped eating
|
| Resumptive
|
|
Continuation of an unfinished action
|
He continued eating
|
| Protractive
|
|
Repetition of the internal action
|
He eats on and on
|
| Iterative
|
|
Repetition of a whole action
|
He eats again and again
|
| Completive
|
|
Performing an action completely
|
He ate his entire meal
|
| Incompletive
|
|
Performing and action incompletely
|
He barely touched his meal
|
| External aspects
|
| Aspect
|
Adverb
|
Use
|
English equivalent
|
| Retrospective
|
|
Action before the time of reference
|
He has eaten
|
| Prospective
|
|
Action after the time of reference
|
He is going to eat
|
Muna Versions
Current version is v2.7, other versions hosted on Linguifex are below