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'''Qino''' (native: ''Qino afka'' /ɠino afka/, Western Arabic script: <big>ڧں أڢک</big>, Eastern Arabic script: <big>قن أفك</big>, Ge'ez script: ቅኖ አፍከ) is a Cushitic conlang. | '''Qino''' (native: ''Qino afka'' /ɠino afka/, Western Arabic script: <big>ڧں أڢک</big>, Eastern Arabic script: <big>قن أفك</big>, Ge'ez script: ቅኖ አፍከ) is a Cushitic conlang. | ||
==Introduction== | ==Introduction== | ||
Qino is a Lowland East Cushitic language. It is largey based on Somali, Oromo, and Afar, with inspiration taken from various other languages. | Qino is a Lowland East Cushitic language. It is largey based on Somali, Oromo, and Afar, with inspiration taken from various other languages. | ||
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===Morphophonology=== | ===Morphophonology=== | ||
====Sandhi and | ====Sandhi and allophony==== | ||
*Between vowels (may not always occur for all speakers especially before accented vowels): | *Between vowels (may not always occur for all speakers especially before accented vowels): | ||
**/b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β ~ β̞, ð ~ ð̞, ʝ ~ j, ɣ ~ ɣ̞] | **/b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β ~ β̞, ð ~ ð̞, ʝ ~ j, ɣ ~ ɣ̞] | ||
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*''bisheeya'' "water" is always in the plural. A singulative ''bisheeti'' "drop of water" exists, but it is effectively treated as a separate noun, even having its own plural (''bisheetoota''). | *''bisheeya'' "water" is always in the plural. A singulative ''bisheeti'' "drop of water" exists, but it is effectively treated as a separate noun, even having its own plural (''bisheetoota''). | ||
=====Diminutives and | =====Diminutives and augmentatives===== | ||
The diminutive is formed with the suffixes ''-icha'' (m.)/ ''-itti'' (f.). The augmentative is formed with the suffix ''-oowa'' (''m./f.''), with the singulative ''-ooha'' (m.)/ ''-ooti'' (f.). Note that these suffixes can also be used for the singulative and plural respectively. | The diminutive is formed with the suffixes ''-icha'' (m.)/ ''-itti'' (f.). The augmentative is formed with the suffix ''-oowa'' (''m./f.''), with the singulative ''-ooha'' (m.)/ ''-ooti'' (f.). Note that these suffixes can also be used for the singulative and plural respectively. | ||
A form identical to the vocative but with the accent shifted the final syllable can be used as a nickname - e.g. ''Maxammadow'' (< ''Maxámmad''); ''bidaarlow'' (< ''bidaarle'' "bald person"). | A form identical to the vocative but with the accent shifted the final syllable can be used as a nickname - e.g. ''Maxammadow'' (< ''Maxámmad''); ''bidaarlow'' (< ''bidaarle'' "bald person"). | ||
=====Derived | =====Derived nouns===== | ||
Some derivation suffixes: | Some derivation suffixes: | ||
*''-iya (f.)'': verbal nouns (from class 1 & 2 verbs) - e.g. ''ardiya'' "running" | *''-iya (f.)'': verbal nouns (from class 1 & 2 verbs) - e.g. ''ardiya'' "running" | ||
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====Pronouns==== | ====Pronouns==== | ||
=====Personal | =====Personal pronouns===== | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
|+ Qino independent personal pronouns | |+ Qino independent personal pronouns | ||
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|} | |} | ||
=====Indefinite | =====Indefinite pronouns===== | ||
The indefinite pronoun ''mitta'' is used to refer to something that is indefinite. It can be translated as "one". It is equivalent to the numeral one. But unlike numerals, it comes after a noun it modifies (with the noun placed in the genitive) - e.g. ''case mitta'' "a red one"; ''nami mitta'' "one person" | The indefinite pronoun ''mitta'' is used to refer to something that is indefinite. It can be translated as "one". It is equivalent to the numeral one. But unlike numerals, it comes after a noun it modifies (with the noun placed in the genitive) - e.g. ''case mitta'' "a red one"; ''nami mitta'' "one person" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
=====Adverbial | =====Adverbial pronouns===== | ||
Adverbial pronouns indicate how an action is performed or in what state something is. They are also used to refer to abstract things (discourse deixis). | Adverbial pronouns indicate how an action is performed or in what state something is. They are also used to refer to abstract things (discourse deixis). | ||
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::''Ma baxtaa? <b>Soona</b> qabá.'' "Are you leaving?" "I have to (do '''that''')." (lit.: "I must '''like that'''.) | ::''Ma baxtaa? <b>Soona</b> qabá.'' "Are you leaving?" "I have to (do '''that''')." (lit.: "I must '''like that'''.) | ||
=====Interrogative | =====Interrogative pronouns===== | ||
All of these decline regularly unless otherwise indicated (or unless they contain an irregular component such as ''mitta''). Some particularly important case forms are specified. | All of these decline regularly unless otherwise indicated (or unless they contain an irregular component such as ''mitta''). Some particularly important case forms are specified. | ||
*''maxa (< ma + waxa'' "thing"): what - e.g. ''<b>Maxa</b> tarkaa?'' "'''What''' do you see?" | *''maxa (< ma + waxa'' "thing"): what - e.g. ''<b>Maxa</b> tarkaa?'' "'''What''' do you see?" | ||
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====Numbers==== | ====Numbers==== | ||
=====Cardinal | =====Cardinal numbers===== | ||
When used with a noun, the dependent forms are used. When used as a pronoun, the independent forms are used. All numbers are grammatically feminine except for "one", which can be either gender. The masculine form of "one" (i.e. ''mitta'') is used for counting. | When used with a noun, the dependent forms are used. When used as a pronoun, the independent forms are used. All numbers are grammatically feminine except for "one", which can be either gender. The masculine form of "one" (i.e. ''mitta'') is used for counting. | ||
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|} | |} | ||
=====Ordinal | =====Ordinal numbers===== | ||
=====Distributive | =====Distributive numbers===== | ||
Formed by full reduplication, with accent on the second iteration - e.g. ''lamma lámma'' "two by two; two each"; ''afara afára'' "four by four; four each" | Formed by full reduplication, with accent on the second iteration - e.g. ''lamma lámma'' "two by two; two each"; ''afara afára'' "four by four; four each" | ||
=====Multiplicative | =====Multiplicative numbers===== | ||
Formed with the suffix ''-láaba'' "-fold" (from the noun ''laaba (f.)'' "fold") attached to the unaccented dependent form of the numeral - e.g. ''lammalaaba'' "two-fold" | Formed with the suffix ''-láaba'' "-fold" (from the noun ''laaba (f.)'' "fold") attached to the unaccented dependent form of the numeral - e.g. ''lammalaaba'' "two-fold" | ||
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--> | --> | ||
====Attributive | ====Attributive verbs==== | ||
Verbs (and there arguments) can occur attributively before a nominal. Verbs used like this always occur in the singular. Class 3 verbs may reduplicate when qualifying plural or collective nominals. | Verbs (and there arguments) can occur attributively before a nominal. Verbs used like this always occur in the singular. Class 3 verbs may reduplicate when qualifying plural or collective nominals. | ||
====True | ====True attributives==== | ||
These are words that cannot occur independently and are not a nominal/verb form. Some are listed below (those that are accented have accent indicated). | These are words that cannot occur independently and are not a nominal/verb form. Some are listed below (those that are accented have accent indicated). | ||
*''kále'': other | *''kále'': other | ||
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*''kúlli'': all; every | *''kúlli'': all; every | ||
*''gíddi'': all of; the entire | *''gíddi'': all of; the entire | ||
*''má/ma-'': what (see [[Qino# | *''má/ma-'': what (see [[Qino#Interrogative_particles|Interrogative particles]]) | ||
===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
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Eventive verbs refer to an event, which may be an action (e.g. ''cabbi'' "to drink") or the entering of a state (inchoative - e.g. ''raagi'' "to become late/old"). Most class 1 & 2 verbs fall into this category. Inchoative verbs in the past tense may be used for a present state - e.g. ''fahmé'' "I came to understand" = "I understand". | Eventive verbs refer to an event, which may be an action (e.g. ''cabbi'' "to drink") or the entering of a state (inchoative - e.g. ''raagi'' "to become late/old"). Most class 1 & 2 verbs fall into this category. Inchoative verbs in the past tense may be used for a present state - e.g. ''fahmé'' "I came to understand" = "I understand". | ||
====Class 1: Non-adjectival | ====Class 1: Non-adjectival root verbs==== | ||
Non-adjectival root verbs may follow either suffix or prefix conjugations, depending on whether the stem begins in a vowel or a consonant. | Non-adjectival root verbs may follow either suffix or prefix conjugations, depending on whether the stem begins in a vowel or a consonant. | ||
=====Class 1a: Suffix | =====Class 1a: Suffix conjugation===== | ||
Consonant-initial root verbs that do not conjugate as adjectives fall into this category. Example: ''sheeni'' "to give". | Consonant-initial root verbs that do not conjugate as adjectives fall into this category. Example: ''sheeni'' "to give". | ||
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<small><sup>3</sup></small> Separate imperative forms only exist in the second person. | <small><sup>3</sup></small> Separate imperative forms only exist in the second person. | ||
=====Class 1b: Prefix | =====Class 1b: Prefix conjugation===== | ||
Vowel-initial non-adjectival root verbs. Example verb: ''arki'' "to see". Inchoative verbs formed by adding an initial vowel to the corresponding adjectival verb also fall under this class - e.g. ''adheeri'' "to become tall" (< ''dheere'' "to be tall"). | Vowel-initial non-adjectival root verbs. Example verb: ''arki'' "to see". Inchoative verbs formed by adding an initial vowel to the corresponding adjectival verb also fall under this class - e.g. ''adheeri'' "to become tall" (< ''dheere'' "to be tall"). | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
====Class 2: Suffix-derived | ====Class 2: Suffix-derived verbs==== | ||
Suffix-derived verbs always dynamic and follow the suffix conjugation. When multiple derivational suffixes co-occur, the order is inchoative-causative-middle-passive. | Suffix-derived verbs always dynamic and follow the suffix conjugation. When multiple derivational suffixes co-occur, the order is inchoative-causative-middle-passive. | ||
=====Class 2a: ''-am-'' | =====Class 2a: ''-am-'' passive===== | ||
Formed with the suffix ''-am-''. Indicates passive meaning. For intransitive stative verbs, indicates inceptive/inchoative. Follows suffix conjugation. Example: ''sheenami'' "to be given" (< ''sheeni'' "to give"); ''kuslami'' "to become fat" (< ''kusli'' "to be fat"). | Formed with the suffix ''-am-''. Indicates passive meaning. For intransitive stative verbs, indicates inceptive/inchoative. Follows suffix conjugation. Example: ''sheenami'' "to be given" (< ''sheeni'' "to give"); ''kuslami'' "to become fat" (< ''kusli'' "to be fat"). | ||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
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The passive can be used (in the 3SM) as a pseudopassive - e.g. ''Ardamé'' "(Someone) ran" (literally: "It was run"). | The passive can be used (in the 3SM) as a pseudopassive - e.g. ''Ardamé'' "(Someone) ran" (literally: "It was run"). | ||
=====Class 2b: ''-s-'' | =====Class 2b: ''-s-'' causative===== | ||
Formed with the suffix ''-(i)s-'' (single causative) or ''-(i)siis-'' (double causative). Follows suffix conjugation. | Formed with the suffix ''-(i)s-'' (single causative) or ''-(i)siis-'' (double causative). Follows suffix conjugation. | ||
It is used for the causative. The double causative is often used with transitive verbs, forming a causative that can take two direct objects - e.g. ''cabbi'' "to drink" → '' | It is used for the causative. The double causative is often used with transitive verbs, forming a causative that can take two direct objects - e.g. ''cabbi'' "to drink" → ''cabbisi'' "to give (someone/something) a drink" (can only take one accusative object) vs ''cabbisiisi'' "to give (someone) (something) to drink" (can take two accusative objects) | ||
=====Class 2c: ''-at-'' | =====Class 2c: ''-at-'' middle/autobenefactive===== | ||
Formed with the suffix ''-at-''. Follows suffix conjugation with some irregularities: | Formed with the suffix ''-at-''. Follows suffix conjugation with some irregularities: | ||
*The ''-t-'' becomes ''-dh-'' in the first person singular and in the 2S imperative - e.g. ''jacalaadhé'' "I came to love" vs ''jacalaaté'' "he came to love". | *The ''-t-'' becomes ''-dh-'' in the first person singular and in the 2S imperative - e.g. ''jacalaadhé'' "I came to love" vs ''jacalaaté'' "he came to love". | ||
*The verbal noun is formed with the suffix ''-ashu'' (''f.'') (instead of expected ''-atiya''). | *The verbal noun is formed with the suffix ''-ashu'' (''f.'') (instead of expected ''-atiya''). | ||
Verbs derived with this suffix may have various meanings, sometimes unpredictable. It often indicates that an action affects the subject (middle or reciprocal) or is done for the subject's benefit. Often, the same verb has multiple possible meanings. | Verbs derived with this suffix may have various meanings, sometimes unpredictable. It often indicates that an action affects the subject (middle or reciprocal) or is done for the subject's benefit (autobenefactive). Often, the same verb has multiple possible meanings. The most productive meanings are the autobenefactive (which can be derived from almost any verb) and the middle (especially when derived from causatives). | ||
:e.g. ''daqi'' "to wash" + ''-at-'' → ''daqati'' "to wash oneself; to wash for one's benefit" | :e.g. ''daqi'' "to wash" + ''-at-'' → ''daqati'' "to wash oneself; to wash for one's benefit" | ||
::''kulussi'' "to make fat" → ''kulussati'' "to make oneself fat; to become fat (intentionally); to make (something) fat for one's benefit" | ::''kulussi'' "to make fat" → ''kulussati'' "to make oneself fat; to become fat (intentionally); to make (something) fat for one's benefit" | ||
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This suffix may be derive verbs from nouns and inchoatives from statives. | This suffix may be derive verbs from nouns and inchoatives from statives. | ||
=====Class 2d: ''-oow-'' | =====Class 2d: ''-oow-'' inchoative===== | ||
Formed with the suffix ''-oow-''. Mostly formed from adjectives and nouns. Follows suffix conjugation with the expected irregularities (i.e. loss of ''-w-'' in certain situations). | Formed with the suffix ''-oow-''. Mostly formed from adjectives and nouns. Follows suffix conjugation with the expected irregularities (i.e. loss of ''-w-'' in certain situations). | ||
====Class 3: Adjectival | ====Class 3: Adjectival conjugation==== | ||
This is used for adjectives and some stative verbs. The citation form is the 3S imperfect attributive form. They each have a Class 1 or Class 2 counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: ''case'' "to be red" (inchoative: ''casoowi'' "to become red"). For the verbal infinitive, passive, and imperatives/jussives, use the inchoative counterpart. | This is used for adjectives and some stative verbs. The citation form is the 3S imperfect attributive form. They each have a Class 1 or Class 2 counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: ''case'' "to be red" (inchoative: ''casoowi'' "to become red"). For the verbal infinitive, passive, and imperatives/jussives, use the inchoative counterpart. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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<sup><small>1</small></sup> Reduplication can be used for plurals or intensive - e.g. ''cascase shimmira'' "red birds" or "very red bird(s)"; ''dheedheere nama'' "tall people" or "very tall person/people" | <sup><small>1</small></sup> Reduplication can be used for plurals or intensive - e.g. ''cascase shimmira'' "red birds" or "very red bird(s)"; ''dheedheere nama'' "tall people" or "very tall person/people" | ||
====Tense, | ====Tense, aspect, mood==== | ||
'''Notes:''' | '''Notes:''' | ||
*The Class 1 forms ending in an accented vowel lose the accent when <!--non-final or -->unfocused or used descriptively and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. ''Cali arká'' "I see Ali"; ''Cáli arka'' "I see ''Ali''"; ''yarka nama'' "person who sees"; ''Cali tarkaa?'' "Do you see Ali?" | *The Class 1 forms ending in an accented vowel lose the accent when <!--non-final or -->unfocused or used descriptively and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. ''Cali arká'' "I see Ali"; ''Cáli arka'' "I see ''Ali''"; ''yarka nama'' "person who sees"; ''Cali tarkaa?'' "Do you see Ali?" | ||
*Verbs can be used descriptively before a noun. The verb is always in the singular. Adjectives can pluralize by reduplication - e.g. ''dheere nama'' "tall person" vs ''dheedheere nama'' "tall people" | *Verbs can be used descriptively before a noun. The verb is always in the singular. Adjectives can pluralize by reduplication - e.g. ''dheere nama'' "tall person" vs ''dheedheere nama'' "tall people" | ||
<!--The indicative is used if the noun is the only argument of the verb. Otherwise, subordinate forms are used (along with the relative particle ''kan'') - e.g. ''ka yarka nama'' "the person who sees", ''kan ku yarko nama'' "the person who sees you", ''kan ka arko nama'' "the person I see".--> | <!--The indicative is used if the noun is the only argument of the verb. Otherwise, subordinate forms are used (along with the relative particle ''kan'') - e.g. ''ka yarka nama'' "the person who sees", ''kan ku yarko nama'' "the person who sees you", ''kan ka arko nama'' "the person I see".--> | ||
=====Simple | =====Simple tenses===== | ||
======Simple | ======Simple present====== | ||
*Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous). | *Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous). | ||
*Main clause: | *Main clause: | ||
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**Negative: ''ma'' + "Imperfect subordinate negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinonoo'' "so that he does not see" (or can use compound tense - see below) | **Negative: ''ma'' + "Imperfect subordinate negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinonoo'' "so that he does not see" (or can use compound tense - see below) | ||
======Simple | ======Simple past====== | ||
*Used for an action in the past. | *Used for an action in the past. | ||
*Main clause: | *Main clause: | ||
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*Negative: ''ma'' + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinú'' "let him not see!" | *Negative: ''ma'' + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinú'' "let him not see!" | ||
=====Compound | =====Compound tenses===== | ||
=====Converbs===== | =====Converbs===== | ||
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====Derivation==== | ====Derivation==== | ||
=====Verb derivation affixes===== | =====Verb derivation affixes===== | ||
All derivation suffixes cause the verb to follow the suffix conjugation pattern. For more information, see [[Qino#Class 2: Suffix-derived | All derivation suffixes cause the verb to follow the suffix conjugation pattern. For more information, see [[Qino#Class 2: Suffix-derived verbs|Suffix-derived verbs]]. When formed from a noun or adjective, a suffix (often ''-aa-'') may be added before the suffix. | ||
*Causative: ''-(i)s-''; ''-(i)siis-'' <!--(Denominal: ''-aas-'') -->- e.g. ''casaasi'' "to make red", ''sheensiisi'' "to make (someone) give" | *Causative: ''-(i)s-''; ''-(i)siis-'' <!--(Denominal: ''-aas-'') -->- e.g. ''casaasi'' "to make red", ''sheensiisi'' "to make (someone) give" | ||
*Passive: ''-am-'' - e.g. ''sheenami'' "to be given" | *Passive: ''-am-'' - e.g. ''sheenami'' "to be given" | ||
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====Postpositions==== | ====Postpositions==== | ||
*''kale'' (+ ablative): apart from; except | *''kale'' (+ ablative): apart from; except | ||
====Adverbial | ====Adverbial particles==== | ||
Occur immediately before verb. | Occur immediately before verb. | ||
*''soo'': towards speaker or reference point | *''soo'': towards speaker or reference point | ||
*''sii'': away from speaker or reference point; further | *''sii'': away from speaker or reference point; further | ||
====Focus | ====Focus particles==== | ||
====Interrogative | ====Interrogative particles==== | ||
For interrogative pronouns, see [[Qino# | For interrogative pronouns, see [[Qino#Interrogative_pronouns|Interrogative pronouns]]. | ||
*''má/ma-'' = question particle | *''má/ma-'' = question particle | ||
**Can be accented or unaccented. Attaches to following word when unaccented. | **Can be accented or unaccented. Attaches to following word when unaccented. | ||