Verse:Mwail/Bjeheond

Rostherian /rɒʃˈtɛriən/ (erhbaerostherim 'The Rostherian language') is a Talmic language spoken in Northeastern Cuadhlabh, inspired partly by Welsh. It is head-initial and polysynthetic; verbs use bipersonal conjugation, applicative constructions and noun incorporation.

Todo

• cannu 'wife'
• ôłus /oːˈɬus/ 'wave'
• rondh /rɔɳɖ/ = man (male) (*rondwom?)
• breit /brɛɪt/ (irregularly from bondi- + teit 'child') = woman
• bo- = profession
  • bopenicili-, bopenicili /bopɛnikiˈli/ = penicillin player
• nysh-, henysh /hɛˈnəʂ/ = water, liquid
  • nysnhoq = sauce (noqa-, noq = 'top')
  • nyshołhi = fruit juice
• vîp = eye
  • nyshvîp = tears
• qeqeqeqeqe... = (laughter or snickering)
• hołhi, hôłhi = fruit
• qârhan = laugh

Numbers

TODO: Combining forms, ordinals, distributives

• 1: pêm
• 2: tiłu
• 3: narhg
• 4: lôb
• 5: selił
• 6: thiam
• 7: ruad
• 8: lored
• 9: barh
• 10: ghîr
• 11: hunaes
• 12: naes

Phonology

Among Talmic languages, Rostherian is notable for having retroflex consonants, uvular consonants and multiple liquids.

Consonants

		Labial	Dental/Alveolar		Retroflex		Velar	Uvular	Glottal
			central	lateral	central	lateral
Nasal		m /m/	n /n̪/		nh /ɳ/		[ŋ]	[ɴ]
Stop	voiceless	p /p/	t /t̪/		th /ʈ/		c /k/	q /q/
	voiced	b /b/	d /d̪/		dh /ɖ/		g /g/
Continuant	voiceless		s /s/	ł /ɬ/	sh /ʂ/	łh /ɬʵ/			h /h/
	voiced	v /v/	r /r/	l /l/	rh /ʐ~ɻ~ɭ/			gh /ʁ/

Northeastern dialects also distinguish lh /ɭ/ from rh /ɻ/.

Vowels

ɪ i: ʊ u: ɛ e: ə ə: ɔ o: a a: aɪ ɛɪ iə ɛʊ uə ɔɪ ɪʊ

⟨i î u û e ê y ŷ o ô a â ae ei ia eu ua oe iu⟩

Stress

There is no phonemic stress; however, all words are pronounced with weak word-final stress.

Phonotactics

Rostherian allows relatively few clusters compared to e.g. Thensarian, but more clusters than Nurian.

Allowed clusters:

• Not allowed initially: mp, mb, nt, nd, nth, ndh, nc, ng, nq, ngh, lp, lt, lc, lq, lb, ld, lg, lgh, rp, rt, rhth, rc, rq, rb, rd, rg, rgh, st, sth, sv-, rhb, rhdh, rhg?
• Allowed initially: pl, pr, tr, thr, ts, tł, tłh, cl, cr

Sandhi

Initial Consonant	Final Consonant
	f	p	b	k	x	g	t	d	s	š	z	l	r	m	n	h	w	y
f	ff	pp	pp	fk	fx	fk	ft	ft	fs	ff	fs	fl	fr	fm	fn	ff	fw	fy
p	pp	pp	pp	pk	xp	pk	pt	pt	ps	ħp	ps	pl	pr	pm	pn	ħp	pw	py
b	pp	pp	bb	pk	xp	mg	pt	mb	ps	ħp	ps	bl	br	mb	mb	ħp	bw	by
k	kf	kp	kp	kk	kk	kk	kt	kt	ks	ħk	ks	kl	kr	km	kn	ħk	kw	ky
x	xf	xp	xp	kk	xx	gg	xt	xt	ss	šš	ss	xl	xr	xm	xn	xx	xw	xy
g	kf	kp	gb	kk	kk	gg	kt	gd	ks	ħk	zg	lg	gr	gm	gn	ħk	gw	gy
t	ft	pt	pt	kt	xt	kt	tt	tt	st	št	st	tt	rt	mt	nt	ħt	wt	šš
d	ft	pt	bb	kt	xt	gd	tt	dd	st	ħt	zd	ld	rd	mb	nd	ħt	dw	dy
s	sp	sp	sp	sk	xs	sk	st	st	ss	šš	ss	sl	ss	sm	sn	ħs	sw	šš
š	šf	šp	šp	šk	šš	šk	št	št	ss	šš	ss	šl	šš	šm	šn	ħš	šw	šš
z	sp	sp	zb	sk	ss	zg	st	zd	ss	šš	zz	zl	zz	zm	zn	ħs	zw	zy
l	lf	pp	lb	kk	xl	lg	tt	ld	sl	šl	zl	ll	rr	lm mm	nn	ħl	lw	yy
r	rf	rp	rb	rk	rx	rg	rt	rd dd	rs ss	rš šš	zz	ll	rn nn	rm mm	nn	rħ ħr	rw	ry
m	mf	mp	mb	nk	xn	mg	mt	md	ns	šm	nz	lm ml	mr	mm	nn	mh	ww	my
n	mf	mp	mb	nk	xn	mg ng	nt	nd	sn [ns] ss	šn [nš] šš	nz	ll	rr	mm	nn	nh	nw	ny yy
h	ff	ħp	ħp	ħk	xx	ħk	ħt	ħt	ħs	ħš	ħs	ħl	ħr	ħm	ħn	ħħ	ħw	ħy

Sound changes

The most significant changes characterizing Rostherian are coalescing and altering of consonant clusters.

• *ā > ia (*nā > nia 'I'); *ō > ua; *au > ô; *ou > û; *ū > î
• *qʷ > /χʷ/ > /ɧ/ > sh; *ʁʷ > /ζ/ > rh
  • ʁʷelinə ("6 parts [of 12]") > rhelin 'half'
• *nw, tw, dw, sw, łw, lw, rw > nh, th, dh, sh, łh, rh, rh /ɳ, ʈ, ɖ, ʂ, ɬ̠, ʐ~ɻ~ɭ, ʐ~ɻ~ɭ/
  • gʷałwā > bałhi 'neck, throat' ~ Thn. gaθuā 'throat (also language)'
• *sl-, sm-, sn- > rh-, m-, nh-
• *sɸ-, sr-, sw- > sh-, rh-, sh-
• *st, sk, skʷ > t-/st, th-/sth-, v-/sv-
  • stas- > tetsil 'gathering' (~ Thn. Stasnyssōs)
  • skəttā > thytti 'body' ~ Thn. scyttā
  • *bastom > bast 'king' ~ Thn. bastom 'head'
• *sb, sd, sg > rhb, rhdh, rhg
  • *nasg- > narhg '3'
• *φn, tn, φl, tl > /ːn, ts, ːɬ, tɬ/
  • łnāgin > tłiagin 'I believe' ~ Thn. θnāginis
  • oφlutsus > ôłus 'wave'
• *kt, qt > /jt, :ʈ/
  • *tektə > teit /teit/ 'child'
  • *neqtə > nêth /neːʈ/ 'cloud'
• *kn, gn, qn, ql, qr > /jn, jn, :ɳ, :ɻ, :ɻ/ (with **/uj/ > /uː/ )
  • sφugnus > shûn 'root' ~ Thn. sφugnus
  • leqnos > lênh 'river' ~ Thn. leānos?
  • qrīdis > rhîd 'knife' ~ Thn. ȝrīdis 'edge'
• *φj, tj, kj, qj > pt ss ts gh
• *φ-, j-, s- > h-
• *skj, stj > th-/sth, s-/ss
• final short vowels lost; final -m, -r, -s, -t lost; final long vowels shorten (ia, ua > i, u)
• i-affection: The following changes affect V1 in sequences of the form V1 + consonant cluster + (*i/*ī/*j) unless the consonant cluster after V1 contains a retroflex consonant.
  • a > e
• Stress shifts to final
• Some combining forms and combined forms are altered due to the stress shift

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns are marked with a singular-plural distinction, and may also take possessive suffixes. However, the lemma form of a noun is typically its combining form, which is the incorporated form of a noun and is also used to form possessed forms and compounds. Unlike in Thensarian and its descendants, the Proto-Talmic grammatical gender was lost; pronouns and gender verb affixes no longer mark grammatical gender, but natural gender (as in Naquian).

Nouns may end in a consonant, i, e or u.

The plural form is inherited from the Proto-Talmic reduplicated collective; some irregularities may be present due to the retention of the original single consonant in the reduplicant, as opposed to the stem-initial cluster where the consonants interacted to produce new consonants and clusters.

veiny- 'brother'

Combining	Singular	Plural
veiny-	vein	vevein

Possessed forms

Number→ Possessor↓	Singular	Plural
my	veinyn	veveinyn
thy	veinys	veveinys
his/her	veinyti	veveinyti
its	veinyt	veveinyt
our (exc)	veinym	veveinym
our (inc)	veinysh	veveinysh
your (pl)	veinyc	veveinyc
their	veinytu	veveinytu

loero- 'bird'

Combining	Singular	Plural
loero-	loer	leloer

Possessed forms

Number→ Possessor↓	Singular	Plural
my	loeron	leloeron
thy	loeros	leloeros
his/her	loeroti	leloeroti
its	loerot	leloerot
our (exc)	loerom	leloerom
our (inc)	loerosh	leloerosh
your (pl)	loeroc	leloeroc
their	loerotu	leloerotu

rhîdi- 'knife'

Combining	Singular	Plural
rhîdi-	rhîd	qerhîd

Possessed forms

Number→ Possessor↓	Singular	Plural
my	rhîdin	qerhîdin
thy	rhîdis	qerhîdis
his/her	rhîditi	qerhîditi
its	rhîdit	qerhîdit
our (exc)	rhîdim	qerhîdim
our (inc)	rhîdish	qerhîdish
your (pl)	rhîdic	qerhîdic
their	rhîditu	qerhîditu

qutri- 'blood'

Combining	Singular	Plural
qutri-	qutri	qequtri

et sim.

bondi- 'person'

Combining	Singular	Plural
bondi-	bondi	bebondi

Verbs

Object incorporation

hôłhâsyn 'eat fruit' < hôłhi 'fruit' + câsyn 'eat'

Object affixes

Object affixes

	Singular	Plural
1	ni-	mi-
1 + 2	-	łi-
2	ti-	hi-
3	bi-	ne-

Subject+TAM affixes

Progressive tense

Person	Affix	ghaeman 'I fly'	tłiagin "I believe"
1SG	-n	ghaeman	tłiagin
2SG	-r	ghaemar	tłiagir
3SG.M	-m	ghaemam	tłiagim
3SG.F	-s	ghaemas	tłiagis
3SG.N	-0	ghaema	tłiagi
1EX	-me	ghaemame	tłiagime
1IN	-nt	ghaemant	tłiagint
2PL	-v	ghaemav	tłiagiv
3PL	-t	ghaemat	tłiagit

Habitual tense

Person	Affix	ghaeman 'I fly'	tłiagin "I believe"
1SG	RDP--n	gheghaeman	tetłiagin
2SG	RDP--r	gheghaemar	tetłiagir
3SG.M	RDP--m	gheghaemam	tetłiagim
3SG.F	RDP--s	gheghaemas	tetłiagis
3SG.N	RDP--0	gheghaema	tetłiagi
1EX	RDP--me	gheghaemame	tetłiagime
1IN	RDP--nt	gheghaemant	tetłiagint
2PL	RDP--v	gheghaemav	tetłiagiv
3PL	RDP--t	gheghaemat	tetłiagit

Perfective tense

Person	ghaeman "I fly"	câsyn "I eat"
1SG	ghaemân	cêsŷn
2SG	ghaemâr	cêsŷr
3SG.M	ghaemâm	cêsŷm
3SG.F	ghaemâs	cêsŷs
3SG.N	ghaemâ	cêsŷ
1EX	ghaemamer	cêsymer
1IN	ghaemanter	cêsynter
2PL	ghaemaver	cêsyver
3PL	ghaemater	cêsyter

Voice affixes

• -ron = passive suffix
• -stan = causative suffix