Lahob languages: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox language family | {{Infobox language family | ||
| name = Lahob | | name = Lahob | ||
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| child6 = [[Chlouvānem]] | | child6 = [[Chlouvānem]] | ||
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The '''Lahob languages''' (also '''Lahobic'''; | The '''Lahob languages''' (also '''Lahobic'''; [...] Chl. ''lahūvumi dældai'') are a large [[Verse:Calémere|Calémerian]] language family, most widely spoken on the continent of Márusúturon. | ||
<!-- ; its Urheimat is in the far northern part of Evandor, where the greatest diversity among them is still found; the most spoken language of the family is however [[Chlouvānem]], spoken (along with its daughter languages) across large areas of Greater Evandor (in the continent of ''Márusúturon'' or ''Mārsūtram''), with [[Verse:Chlouvānem Inquisition|its own heartland]] more than 10,000 km away.<br/> | |||
The family takes its name from ''Łaȟoḇeyšer'', language of the ''Łaȟoḇ'' people, the largest and first studied in the Lahob heartlands. | The family takes its name from ''Łaȟoḇeyšer'', language of the ''Łaȟoḇ'' people, the largest and first studied in the Lahob heartlands. | ||
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===Numeral system=== | ===Numeral system=== | ||
All Lahob languages have a purely duodecimal number system, and it is one of only a few human language families on Calémere to use that. It has been hypothesized that the duodecimal system was an influence from the Orcs, as Orcs in both hemispheres all have duodecimal number systems and all human language families with non-borrowed duodecimal systems have a current or proto-homeland near Orcish populations.<br/> | All Lahob languages have a purely duodecimal number system, and it is one of only a few human language families on Calémere to use that. It has been hypothesized that the duodecimal system was an influence from the Orcs, as Orcs in both hemispheres all have duodecimal number systems and all human language families with non-borrowed duodecimal systems have a current or proto-homeland near Orcish populations.<br/> | ||
Lahob languages have also been unique in spreading duodecimal systems: in the West, northern dialects of Gathura have a system of duodecimal numerals (up to 48<sub>10</sub> (40<sub>12</sub>)) coexisting with their native decimal ones, most probably because of early Gathura explorers and settlers of the far northern lands adopting this in order to better trade with indigenous Lahob-speaking tribes. In the East, Brono-Fathanic, and Gorjonur dialects of [[Skyrdagor]], as well as the Bazá dialects spoken in Chlouvānem areas, all have a native decimal system and a duodecimal one borrowed from Chlouvānem. This has gone even further in regional vernaculars of [[Verse:Chlouvānem Inquisition|the Inquisition]], such as Hūnakañumi, which do not use their native (usually decimal or quinary) systems anymore, having substituted them with the duodecimal Chlouvānem system (all of these languages usually count with native numerals up to 5 or 10 and then use the Chlouvānem numerals). In [[Qualdomelic]], the primary system is also duodecimal - with a mixture of borrowed and native roots -, with the native decimal system being also only used in certain specific context, though not as much abandoned as in vernaculars of the Inquisition. | Lahob languages have also been unique in spreading duodecimal systems: in the West, northern dialects of Gathura have a system of duodecimal numerals (up to 48<sub>10</sub> (40<sub>12</sub>)) coexisting with their native decimal ones, most probably because of early Gathura explorers and settlers of the far northern lands adopting this in order to better trade with indigenous Lahob-speaking tribes. In the East, Brono-Fathanic, and Gorjonur dialects of [[Skyrdagor]], as well as the Bazá dialects spoken in Chlouvānem areas, all have a native decimal system and a duodecimal one borrowed from Chlouvānem. This has gone even further in regional vernaculars of [[Verse:Chlouvānem Inquisition|the Inquisition]], such as Hūnakañumi, which do not use their native (usually decimal or quinary) systems anymore, having substituted them with the duodecimal Chlouvānem system (all of these languages usually count with native numerals up to 5 or 10 and then use the Chlouvānem numerals). In [[Qualdomelic]], the primary system is also duodecimal - with a mixture of borrowed and native roots -, with the native decimal system being also only used in certain specific context, though not as much abandoned as in vernaculars of the Inquisition. --> | ||
==Proto-Lahob== | ==Proto-Lahob== | ||
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====Gender system==== | <!-- ====Gender system==== | ||
'''(NOT UP TO DATE)''' | '''(NOT UP TO DATE)''' | ||
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* The Central Lahobic languages, as well as Šlokhowdeš, do not distinguish gender anymore, but there are many plurals that show traces of this system (even though the original m-class ending, *-je, became generalized as the main plural ending in all of these languages, e.g. Łaȟ. ''von'', ''voni'' “hand, hands” < Proto-Central-Lahobic *ðɔn, *ðɔn-ye, but in PLB it was *dʱān-o, *dʱān-o-e — c.f. Chlouvānem ''dhāna'', ''dhānai'' and Tundra Pwaɬasd ''tuněr'', ''tunuy'' (< Proto-Pwaɬasd-Ngos *tʰoon-ʀ, *tʰoon-oj)), like Łaȟ. ''žonk'', ''žonke'' “man, men” (c.f. Tundra Pw. ''děɬkěr'', ''děɬkuy'' — note that Chl. changed this to an m-class noun for unknown reasons so it has ''dralkam'', ''dralkye'' instead of the expected *dralkė, *dralkai). | * The Central Lahobic languages, as well as Šlokhowdeš, do not distinguish gender anymore, but there are many plurals that show traces of this system (even though the original m-class ending, *-je, became generalized as the main plural ending in all of these languages, e.g. Łaȟ. ''von'', ''voni'' “hand, hands” < Proto-Central-Lahobic *ðɔn, *ðɔn-ye, but in PLB it was *dʱān-o, *dʱān-o-e — c.f. Chlouvānem ''dhāna'', ''dhānai'' and Tundra Pwaɬasd ''tuněr'', ''tunuy'' (< Proto-Pwaɬasd-Ngos *tʰoon-ʀ, *tʰoon-oj)), like Łaȟ. ''žonk'', ''žonke'' “man, men” (c.f. Tundra Pw. ''děɬkěr'', ''děɬkuy'' — note that Chl. changed this to an m-class noun for unknown reasons so it has ''dralkam'', ''dralkye'' instead of the expected *dralkė, *dralkai). | ||
* The Tlengastic languages distinguish an n-class which continues the PLB m-class, while the other three have been merged in a single class (with most words being consonant-final). | * The Tlengastic languages distinguish an n-class which continues the PLB m-class, while the other three have been merged in a single class (with most words being consonant-final). | ||
* The Woŋom-Baan languages have the same n-class derived from the PLB m-class as the Tlengastic languages, but the other one was split between vowel-final words (mostly continuing the vowel-final nouns of the PLB r-class) and consonant-final words; inflections for the consonant-final class continue the PLB s-class, those of the vowel-final class the PLB r-class. | * The Woŋom-Baan languages have the same n-class derived from the PLB m-class as the Tlengastic languages, but the other one was split between vowel-final words (mostly continuing the vowel-final nouns of the PLB r-class) and consonant-final words; inflections for the consonant-final class continue the PLB s-class, those of the vowel-final class the PLB r-class. --> | ||
====Pronouns==== | ====Pronouns==== | ||
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====Verbs==== | <!-- ====Verbs==== | ||
Proto-Lahob had a verbal conjugation which was very similar to Classical Chlouvānem (with the reflexive *-ir- and the causative *-iʕd- affixes that are analyzed as "stem modifiers" instead of different types of endings - cf. Chlouvānem interior and causative forms). Most modern Lahob languages have retained only a small amount of verbs, often using them as light verbs by extending them with other nouns or else - cf. Łaȟoḇeyšer ''darek'' (to do<ref>Łaȟoḇeyšer, like most Lahob languages, has no infinitive - this form is actually 2SG and 3SG.</ref>), ''wašišan darek'' (to pay (< Gathura ''waxishan'' "money"), ''pov darek'' (to hunt (''pov'' "hunt" < PLB *podʱo)). Also, most Lahob languages have inverted the voices and the older *te affix for agent-trigger conjugation now marks the antipassive in the ergative/absolutive system of most Lahob languages (apart from Pwaɬasd-Ngos, Central Lahobic, and Chlouvānem). | Proto-Lahob had a verbal conjugation which was very similar to Classical Chlouvānem (with the reflexive *-ir- and the causative *-iʕd- affixes that are analyzed as "stem modifiers" instead of different types of endings - cf. Chlouvānem interior and causative forms). Most modern Lahob languages have retained only a small amount of verbs, often using them as light verbs by extending them with other nouns or else - cf. Łaȟoḇeyšer ''darek'' (to do<ref>Łaȟoḇeyšer, like most Lahob languages, has no infinitive - this form is actually 2SG and 3SG.</ref>), ''wašišan darek'' (to pay (< Gathura ''waxishan'' "money"), ''pov darek'' (to hunt (''pov'' "hunt" < PLB *podʱo)). Also, most Lahob languages have inverted the voices and the older *te affix for agent-trigger conjugation now marks the antipassive in the ergative/absolutive system of most Lahob languages (apart from Pwaɬasd-Ngos, Central Lahobic, and Chlouvānem). | ||
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* *ri- is used for the Pwaɬasd-Ngos past forms, the present (except 3SG) and the subjunctive mood in Lahobic languages, and the perfect in Chlouvānem (as well as Yełeshian and Shershan Lawo). | * *ri- is used for the Pwaɬasd-Ngos past forms, the present (except 3SG) and the subjunctive mood in Lahobic languages, and the perfect in Chlouvānem (as well as Yełeshian and Shershan Lawo). | ||
* *yek- forms the past in Lahobic, Tlengastic, and Woŋom-Baan languages as well as Šlokhowdeš and Chlouvānem. Its original present inflections are used as a future paradigm in Chlouvānem, though less used than the (completely synonymous) one based on *jaʕʕ-. | * *yek- forms the past in Lahobic, Tlengastic, and Woŋom-Baan languages as well as Šlokhowdeš and Chlouvānem. Its original present inflections are used as a future paradigm in Chlouvānem, though less used than the (completely synonymous) one based on *jaʕʕ-. | ||
* *gəna- is used for the subjunctive mood in Chlouvānem and the Tlengastic and Woŋom-Baan languages. | * *gəna- is used for the subjunctive mood in Chlouvānem and the Tlengastic and Woŋom-Baan languages. --> | ||
==Basic cognates== | ==Basic cognates== | ||
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===Miscellaneous words=== | <!-- ===Miscellaneous words=== | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
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! *√tɬewkj-o- <small>"to grow (intr.)"</small> | ! *√tɬewkj-o- <small>"to grow (intr.)"</small> | ||
| √chlæc-a- <small>"to grow (trans.), cultivate"</small> || *tɬewtɬ <small>(< **tɬewtʃ</small>) || tłeḇt <small>"field, plot"</small> || tłötł <small>"field, plot"</small> || *tɬootʃ-ʀ || tɬućěr || tɬočor <small>"seed"</small> | | √chlæc-a- <small>"to grow (trans.), cultivate"</small> || *tɬewtɬ <small>(< **tɬewtʃ</small>) || tłeḇt <small>"field, plot"</small> || tłötł <small>"field, plot"</small> || *tɬootʃ-ʀ || tɬućěr || tɬočor <small>"seed"</small> | ||
|} | |} --> | ||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
Revision as of 10:40, 19 February 2018
 | This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
| Lahob | |
|---|---|
| Lahobic | |
| Created by | – |
| Geographic distribution | northern Evandor and most of Márusúturon |
| Linguistic classification | One of the world's primary language families
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Lahob |
| Subdivisions |
|
The Lahob languages (also Lahobic; [...] Chl. lahūvumi dældai) are a large Calémerian language family, most widely spoken on the continent of Márusúturon.
Proto-Lahob
Phonology
Consonants
Proto-Lahob's reconstructed phonemic inventory is almost universally agreed on by Calemerian linguists (apart from the phonemicity of *ŋʷ), with only some doubts about the realizations of certain phonemes. Its consonant inventory was the following:
| → PoA ↓ Manner |
Labials | Dentals | Palatals | Velars | Labiovelars | Laryngeals | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasals | m | n | ŋ | (ŋʷ) | ɴ | ||
| Stops | Unvoiced | p pʰ | t̪ t̪ʰ | c cʰ | k kʰ | kʷ kʷʰ | |
| Voiced | b bʱ | d̪ d̪ʱ | ɟ ɟʱ | g gʱ | gʷ gʷʱ | ||
| Fricatives | f v | s ɬ | š | x ɣ | h ʕ | ||
| Approximants | r l | j | w | ||||
The exact quality of the reconstructed phonemes *š and *ʕ is unclear. For *š, the various theories are about substantially close phones such as [ʃ ʂ ɕ] or even [ç]. *ʕ is much more problematic. In most Lahob languages, this phoneme is only shown by its effect on neighboring vowels, which is different depending on the language but it always backs the vowel, lowers it, or does both. Chlouvānem is the exception as it directly reflects it, without any change in vowel quality, as its infamous /ɴ̆/ phoneme, whose extremely high occurrence is due to Proto-Lahob *ʕ, *l, (often) *ɬ, and *ŋ having all merged into it. As, however, other Lahob languages have a backed or lowered vowel, but never a nasalized one in the contexts where *ʕ is reconstructed, Calemerian linguists think that the Chlouvānem phoneme being nasal is a post-Proto-Lahob development.
An easy example word is the first person pronoun *ʕiŋi, which is reflected as:
- Chlouvānem lili
- Proto-Central-Lahobic *ɛŋi > Łaȟoḇeyšer ên /ɛn/, Łokow eng /eŋ/, Yełeshian Lawo yeng /jeŋ/, Shershan Lawo êŋ /ɛŋ/
- Proto-Pwaɬasd-Ngos *ɤŋi > Tundra Pwaɬasd ěni /ɤni/, Ngos ɤni /ɤni/
Vowels
Proto-Lahob's vowel inventory, on the other hand, is fairly simple, with five pairs of long and short vowels - /a aː e eː o oː i iː u uː/ - plus the two vowels /ɨ ə/. The non-high vowels could also form diphthongs with /ɨ̯ ɪ̯ ʊ̯/, while /i iː/ only could with /ʊ̯/ and /u uː/ only with /ɪ̯/. Diphthongs centered on schwa, once controversial among Lahob linguists, have now become accepted by most linguists because of *əj being so far the only reasonable explanation for palatalized consonants in Chlouvānem - as with e.g. *nodəjn-ə- "to hit, strike" > nadьn- "to trip into, to hit" - much like the *əjV sequence explains the distinction between CʲV and CjV (as with *ʕiŋjō > liliā "my, mine" (*CjV > CʲV) and *ērəjo > yarya "beer" (*CəjV > CjV)).
Morphology
First declension
First declension nouns are those also known as *-s nouns, and distinguished four types of stems: o-stems, u-stems, i-stems, and *n-stems (cf. Chlouvānem s-nouns in -as, -us, -is, -oe). Here follows the declension of first declension nouns with a comparison in Chlouvānem and Woŋom, for the only two branches that did not merge this class with another (there are no attested n-stems in Woŋom-Baan languages anyway).
| Proto-Lahob | Chlouvānem | Woŋom | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| o-stems | |||||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Direct[1] | *frāt-os | *frāt-ant | *frāt-aj | prātas | prātāt | prāte | wot | woti | |
| Vocative | *frāt-āw | prātau | |||||||
| Accusative | *frāt-u | *frāt-asuj | *frāt-ajir | prātu | prātāṣa | prātaih | |||
| Ergative | *frāt-ej | *frāt-ōjo | *frāt-ōn | prātei | prātāya | prātān | wosi | woto | |
| Genitive | *frāt-i | *frāt-ajwo | *frāt-umi | prāti | prāteva | prātumi | wotum | ||
| Instrumental | *frāt-op | *frāt-ōbʱan | *frāt-ajnīko | prātap | prātābhan | prātenīka | |||
| Exessive | *frāt-ot | *frāt-ōmōn | prātat | prātāmān | |||||
| Ablative | *frāt-ux | *frāt-ajnits | prātų | prātenīs | |||||
| Translative | *frāt-on | *frāt-oguš | *frāt-ijawr | prātan | prātaus | prātyoh | |||
| Dative | *frāt-awm | *frāt-osām | prātom | prātasām | woto | wotso | |||
| Essive | *frāt-ox | *frāt-iŋgin | *frāt-egem | prātą | prātigin | prātėm | |||
| Locative | *frāt-e | *frāt-iʕīm | prāte | prātilīm | |||||
| u-stems | |||||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Direct | *kewʕəd-u-s | *kewʕəd-u-nt | *kewʕəd-āw-s | kældus | kældūt | kældaus | |||
| Vocative | *kewʕəd-u | kældu | |||||||
| Accusative | *kewʕəd-aw-u | *kewʕəd-u-suj | *kewʕəd-aw-ir | kældavu | kældūṣa | kældavih | |||
| Ergative | *kewʕəd-aw-e(j) | *kewʕəd-ū-jo | *kewʕəd-ū-n | kældave | kældūya | kældūn | |||
| Genitive | *kewʕəd-aw-i | *kewʕəd-owwo | *kewʕəd-owmi | kældavi | kældagva | kældǣmi | |||
| Instrumental | *kewʕəd-u-p | *kewʕəd-aw-bʱan | *kewʕəd-u-nīko | kældup | kældobhan | kældunīka | |||
| Exessive | *kewʕəd-u-t | *kewʕəd-aw-mōn | kældut | kældomān | |||||
| Ablative | *kewʕəd-u-ux | *kewʕəd-u-nits | kældų | kældunīs | |||||
| Translative | *kewʕəd-u-n | *kewʕəd-u-guš | *kewʕəd-u-jawr | kældun | kældugus | kælduyoh | |||
| Dative | *kewʕəd-aw-awm | *kewʕəd-u-sām | kældavom | kældusām | |||||
| Essive | *kewʕəd-aw-x | *kewʕəd-u-ŋgin | *kewʕəd-aw-egem | kældą | kældugin | kældavėm | |||
| Locative | *kewʕəd-aw-e | *kewʕəd-u-ʕīm | kældave | kældulīm | |||||
| i-stems | |||||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Direct | *əskutr-i-s | *əskutr-i-nt | *əskutr-āj-s | skuṭis | skuṭīt | skuṭais | |||
| Vocative | *əskutr-i | skuṭi | |||||||
| Accusative | *əskutr-aj-u | *əskutr-i-suj | *əskutr-aj-ir | skuṭayu | skuṭīṣa | skuṭaih | |||
| Ergative | *əskutr-aj-e(j) | *əskutr-ī-jo | *əskutr-ī-n | skuṭaye | skuṭīya | skuṭīn | |||
| Genitive | *əskutr-aj-i | *əskutr-ojjo | *əskutr-j-umi | skuṭayi | skuṭajña | skuṭyumi | |||
| Instrumental | *əskutr-i-p | *əskutr-aj-bʱan | *əskutr-i-nīko | skuṭip | skuṭebhan | skuṭinīka | |||
| Exessive | *əskutr-i-t | *əskutr-aj-mōn | skuṭit | skuṭemān | |||||
| Ablative | *əskutr-j-ux | *əskutr-i-nits | skuṭyų | skuṭinīs | |||||
| Translative | *əskutr-i-n | *əskutr-i-guš | *əskutr-i-jawr | skuṭin | skuṭigus | skuṭyoh | |||
| Dative | *əskutr-aj-awm | *əskutr-i-sām | skuṭayom | skuṭisām | |||||
| Essive | *əskutr-aj-x | *əskutr-i-ŋgin | *əskutr-aj-egem | skuṭę | skuṭigin | skuṭayėm | |||
| Locative | *əskutr-aj-e | *əskutr-i-ʕīm | skuṭaye | skuṭilīm | |||||
| n-stems | |||||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Direct | *hoʕ-õ | *hoʕ-en-ant | *hoʕ-en-ī | haloe | halenāt | halenī | |||
| Vocative | |||||||||
| Accusative | *hoʕ-en-u | *hoʕ-en-asuj | *hoʕ-en-ajir | halenu | halenāṣa | halenaih | |||
| Ergative | *hoʕ-en-ej | *hoʕ-en-ōjo | *hoʕ-en-ōn | halenei | halenāya | halenān | |||
| Genitive | *hoʕ-en-jes | *hoʕ-en-wo | *hoʕ-õ-mi | halenies | halemva | haloemi | |||
| Instrumental | *hoʕ-en-op | *hoʕ-õ-bʱan | *hoʕ-õ-nīko | halenap | haloebhan | haloenīka | |||
| Exessive | *hoʕ-en-ot | *hoʕ-õ-mōn | halenat | haloemān | |||||
| Ablative | *hoʕ-en-ux | *hoʕ-õ-nits | halenų | haloenīs | |||||
| Translative | *hoʕ-en-on | *hoʕ-en-oguš | *hoʕ-en-ijawr | halenan | halenaus | halenyoh | |||
| Dative | *hoʕ-en-awm | *hoʕ-õ-sām | halenom | haloesām | |||||
| Essive | *hoʕ-en-î(x) | *hoʕ-õ-gin | *hoʕ-õ-gem | halen | haloegin | haloem | |||
| Locative | *hoʕ-en-je | *hoʕ-en-iʕīm | halenie | halenilīm | |||||
Second declension
Second declension nouns are those that end in -m (except for -āj nouns), and also have three different possible stems: o-stems, u-stems, and i-stems. Here follows the declension of first declension nouns with a comparison in Chlouvānem, Yełeshian Lawo, and Tundra Pwaɬasd.
| Proto-Lahob | Chlouvānem | Yeł. Lawo | Tundra Pw. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| o-stems | |||||||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Direct | *juɟ-om | *juɟ-iwā | *juɟ-oms | yujam | yujivā | yujās | |||||
| Vocative | *juɟ-e | yuje | |||||||||
| Accusative | *juɟ-om-u | *juɟ-m-es | *juɟ-m-ajir | yujamu | yujmes | yujmaih | |||||
| Ergative | *juɟ-m-ego | *juɟ-m-ēn | *juɟ-ōm-ūn | yujmæ | yujmian | yujāmūn | |||||
| Genitive | *juɟ-om-i | *juɟ-m-ajwo | *juɟ-om-nān | yujami | yujmeva | yujaṃrān | |||||
| Instrumental | *juɟ-om-op | *juɟ-o-bʱan | *juɟ-om-nīko | yujamap | yujabhan | yujaṃrīka | |||||
| Exessive | *juɟ-om-ot | *juɟ-o-mōn | yujamat | yujamān | |||||||
| Ablative | *juɟ-om-ux | *juɟ-m-ajnits | yujamų | yujmenīs | |||||||
| Translative | *juɟ-om-on | *juɟ-m-ix | *juɟ-m-ent | yujaman | yujmį | yujmėt | |||||
| Dative | *juɟ-om-awm | *juɟ-om-sām | yujamom | yujaṃsām | |||||||
| Essive | *juɟ-om-x | *juɟ-m-enne | *juɟ-m-egem | yujmą | yujmenne | yujmėm | |||||
| Locative | *juɟ-om-n(j)aj | *juɟ-m-iʕīm | yujaṃrye | yujmilīm | |||||||
| u-stems | |||||||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Direct | *tūl-u-m | *tūl-w-iwā | *tūl-u-ms | tūlum | tūlvivā | tūlūs | |||||
| Vocative | *tūl-w-e | tūlve | |||||||||
| Accusative | *tūl-u-m-u | *tūl-w-es | *tūl-u-jir | tūlumu | tūlves | tūluyih | |||||
| Ergative | *tūl-u-go | *tūl-w-ēn | *tūl-u-m-ūn | tūluga | tūlvyan | tūlumūn | |||||
| Genitive | *tūl-u-m-i | *tūl-w-ajwo | *tūl-u-m-nān | tūlumi | tūlveva | tūluṃrān | |||||
| Instrumental | *tūl-u-m-op | *tūl-u-bʱan | *tūl-um-nīko | tūlumap | tūlubhan | tūluṃrīka | |||||
| Exessive | *tūl-u-m-ot | *tūl-u-mōn | tūlumat | tūlumān | |||||||
| Ablative | *tūl-u-m-ux | *tūl-w-ajnits | tūlumų | tūlvenīs | |||||||
| Translative | *tūl-u-m-on | *tūl-w-ix | *tūl-u-nt | tūluman | tūlvį | tūlūt | |||||
| Dative | *tūl-u-m-awm | *tūl-u-m-sām | tūlumom | tūluṃsām | |||||||
| Essive | *tūl-u-m-x | *tūl-u-nne | *tūl-u-gem | tūlų | tūlunne | tūlugem | |||||
| Locative | *tūl-u-m-n(j)aj | *tūl-u-ʕīm | tūluṃrye | tūlulīm | |||||||
| i-stems | |||||||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Direct | *sgāt-i-m | *sgāt-i-iwā | *sgāt-i-ms | ṛgātim | ṛgātīvā | ṛgātīs | |||||
| Vocative | *sgāt-j-e | ṛgātie | |||||||||
| Accusative | *sgāt-i-m-u | *sgāt-j-es | *sgāt-i-jir | ṛgātimu | ṛgāties | ṛgātīh | |||||
| Ergative | *sgāt-i-go | *sgāt-j-ēn | *sgāt-i-m-ūn | ṛgātya | ṛgātiyan | ṛgātimūn | |||||
| Genitive | *sgāt-i-m-i | *sgāt-j-ajwo | *sgāt-i-m-nān | ṛgātimi | ṛgātieva | ṛgātiṃrān | |||||
| Instrumental | *sgāt-i-m-op | *sgāt-i-bʱan | *sgāt-im-nīko | ṛgātimap | ṛgātibhan | ṛgātiṃrīka | |||||
| Exessive | *sgāt-i-m-ot | *sgāt-i-mōn | ṛgātimat | ṛgātimān | |||||||
| Ablative | *sgāt-i-m-ux | *sgāt-j-ajnits | ṛgātimų | ṛgātienīs | |||||||
| Translative | *sgāt-i-m-on | *sgāt-j-ix | *sgāt-i-nt | ṛgātiman | ṛgātį | ṛgātīt | |||||
| Dative | *sgāt-i-m-awm | *sgāt-i-m-sām | ṛgātimom | ṛgātiṃsām | |||||||
| Essive | *sgāt-i-m-x | *sgāt-i-nne | *sgāt-i-gem | ṛgātį | ṛgātinne | ṛgātiem | |||||
| Locative | *sgāt-i-m-n(j)aj | *sgāt-i-ʕīm | ṛgātiṃrye | ṛgātilīm | |||||||
*-ōj declension
A class of nouns which ended in *-ōj in their direct case forms had a particular declension, with forms mostly taken from the first and the second declension but varying between the two. The essive and the locative singular are from the third.
Chlouvānem, Yełeshian and Shershan Lawo, and Šlokhowdeš all have many remnants from this class (and in Chl. and Šlk. it is still productive), while other languages may keep the odd irregular noun (as the root used in the example, *gjun-ōj, meaning "foot").
| Proto-Lahob | Chlouvānem | Yeł. Lawo | Šlokhowdeš | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Direct and Vocative | *gjun-ōj | *gjun-ōj-wā | *gjun-ōj-aj | junai | junaivā | junāye | ||||
| Accusative | *gjun-ōj-u | *gjun-ōj-es | *gjun-ōj-ajir | junāyu | junāyes | junāyaih | ||||
| Ergative | *gjun-ōj-ej | *gjun-ōj-ēn | *gjun-ōj-ūn | junǣ | junāyėn | junāyūn | ||||
| Genitive | *gjun-ōj-i | *gjun-ōj-wo | *gjun-ōj-ān | junāyi | junaiva | junāyān | ||||
| Instrumental | *gjun-ōj-p | *gjun-ōj-bʱan | *gjun-ōj-nīko | junaip | junaibhan | junainīka | ||||
| Exessive | *gjun-ōj-t | *gjun-ōj-mōn | junait | junaimān | ||||||
| Ablative | *gjun-ōj-ux | *gjun-ōj-ajnits | junāyų | junǣnīs | ||||||
| Translative | *gjun-ōj-n | *gjun-ōj-ix | *gjun-ōj-ent | junain | junāyį | junāyėt | ||||
| Dative | *gjun-ōj-awm | *gjun-ōj-sām | junāyom | junaisām | ||||||
| Essive | *gjun-ōj-xəs | *gjun-ōj-nne | *gjun-ōj-gem | junąis | junainne | junaigem | ||||
| Locative | *gjun-ōj-aj | *gjun-ōj-ʕīm | junāye | junailīm | ||||||
Pronouns
Only the first- and second-person pronouns are reliably reconstructible in Proto-Lahob; it probably did not have common third person pronouns nor those differing in formality (which are found in Chlouvānem and, in a different way, in Coastal Tlengast) - the pronoun declension was apparently marginally productive and terms which were used as pronouns were sometimes analogically added to it — first of all, the development of Chlouvānem's 2SG formal equal pronoun ravi starting from the Lällshag borrowing rawe can be seen in texts from the early centuries of the Second Era; also using nouns instead of pronouns is not uncommon among Lahob languages, as do, without a change in declension, contemporary Chlouvānem, most of its descendants, as well as some Pwaɬasd-Ngos languages.
Like most modern Lahob languages - Chlouvānem is, this time, the exception - the Proto-Lahob second person pronouns distinguished natural gender both in the singular and in the plural; while both plural second person pronouns have vanished from Chlouvānem (though the feminine one's direct and genitive cases only are attested in Archaic Chlouvānem), the feminine singular is reflected as the formal superior and the masculine singular as the formal inferior.
The dual forms may not be reliably reconstructed (as anywhere in Proto-Lahob morphology) because Chlouvānem is the only attested Lahob language with a dual form (excluding a few of its daughter languages).
| Proto-Lahob | Chlouvānem | Central Lahobic | Pwaɬasd-Ngos | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Łaȟoḇeyšer | Łokow | Yełeshian Lawo | Shershan Lawo | Tundra Pwaɬasd | Ngos | ||
| *ʕiŋi, *ʕ- "I" | lili | ên | eng | yeng | êŋ | ěni | ɤni |
| *kūri, *k- "you (masculine sg)" | kūri | kor | kör | kož | kory | guy | kuy |
| *noni, *nəj- "you (feminine sg)" | nani | non | nön | no | non | noni | nay |
| *majin, *m-/*maj- "we" | main | mên | men | meyn | meyn | men | min |
| *korin, *kro-/*koj- "you (masculine pl)" | — | kožin | kören | kožin | koron | guyr | keyr |
| *nogin, *(ə)ŋg- "you (feminine pl)" | nagin | noyn | nöken | nong | noŋ | nuyn | nokin |
Basic cognates
Numbers 1-12
All Lahob languages have a duodecimal numeral system. Here are the numbers from 1 to 12 (1012) in some of them. Note that there is no common word for "zero" (most of them use the word for "nothing"; Chlouvānem has the Ancient Kūṣṛmāṭhi borrowing ajrā). Also note that the word for six in Chlouvānem is a borrowing of unknown origin; there's no cognate left for *weɬen.
| Proto-Lahob | Chlouvānem | Central Lahobic | Pwaɬasd-Ngos | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Łaȟoḇeyšer | Łokow | Yełeshian Lawo | Shershan Lawo | Tundra Pwaɬasd | Ngos | ||
| *lejeʕa "one" | leila | łêḇ | łö | łew | ła | le | li |
| *doni "two" | dani | don | tun | don | don | don | tan |
| *pāmwi "three" | pāmvi | pon | pong | pwang | pôŋ | bumb | puhm |
| *nexɬəte "four" | nęlte | nitł | nitł | neyłit | nitłiw | nakhɬě | newtɬɤ |
| *sjuŋko "five" | šulka | sunk | sungk | sung | suŋ | ɬuhn | ɬuhn |
| *weɬen "six" | (tulūɂa) | witłi | witłi | leył | litłe | waɬěn | weɬɤn |
| *cʰīko "seven" | chīka | šik | shik | šik | šik | kik | khik |
| *tītijo "eight" | tītya | tič | shich | tsəš | siš | dide | tyete |
| *mawɟo "nine" | moja | maḇuž | moch | mož | maš | mag | mok |
| *tofaʕdo "ten" | tålda | tof | tofuz | tos | tofs | toft | taf |
| *wewʕeden "eleven" | vælden | vaḇi | woshi | loḏi | lade | waděn | wotɤn |
| *māmōwə "twelve" | māmei | momuḇ | momü | mwamu | mômo | mumo | momo |
Notes
- ^ Absolutive in Woŋom.