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:[[Roshterian/Swadesh list]]
:[[Roshterian/Swadesh list]]
:[[Roshterian/Lexicon]]
:[[Roshterian/Lexicon]]
:[[Roshterian/Oṟbiros̱ṯerim|Funcuma dit oṟbiros̱ṯerim]]
:[[Roshterian/Giatiroxṯer|Funcumi di giatiroxṯer (This page in Roshterian)]]
{{Infobox language
'''Roshterian''' (from rāSTra) is an Indian language isolate of the Lõis timeline.
|image =
|imagesize =
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|nativename = ''oṟbiros̱ṯerim''
|pronunciation=  /ɔɻbɪɾɔʂʈɛˈɾɪm/
|region = Northeast Etalocin
|speakers = 5.1 million (about as much as Finnish)
|date = fT 11E0<sub>dd</sub>
|familycolor=PfK
|fam1= [[Proto-Quihum|Quihum]]
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]]
|iso3=qrh
|notice=IPA
|nation=Roshteria
|script=Clofabic script
}}
 
 
'''Roshterian''' /rɒʃˈtɛriən/ (native name: ''oṟbiros̱ṯerim'' /ɔɻbɪɾɔʂʈɛˈɾɪm/ 'The Roshterian language') is a [[Talmic languages|Talmic language]] inspired by P-Celtic (particularly Welsh). It is an official language of Roshteria (''Qaaros̱ṯerim'') and is the native language of 5.1 million people, most of which live in Roshteria. Among Etalocians, it is famous for its grammar: it is a head-initial, polysynthetic language in which verbs use polypersonal agreement, evidentials, applicative constructions and noun incorporation.
 
==History==
:''See also: [[Old Roshterian]]
{{quote box
|width=25%
|quote=The Roshterian tongue is surely among the most bountiful of troves for the student of languages. No Talman can but marvel at this language's great depth and uncanny familiarity to him ... While its words and forms display some affinity to our own language [&zwnj;[[Eevo]]], they are even more akin to the ancient [[Thensarian]] language, indeed to such a degree that its Talmic provenance cannot be doubted ... Curiously, the Roshterian speech in particular is pronounced with consonants with strong tongue-curling not unlike those of the [[Maytyarri|Maisári]] ... it has a proclivity towards using lengthy words for single utterances where a succession of smaller words and prefixes combine in a quite volatile manner, reminding one of the language of [[old Eevo]] texts ... I think it proper to further study this curious language, wherein is sure to lie solutions to great mysteries surrounding the common forebear of Talmic languages.
|source=Alað Bolltind, from the preface of ''Talasah lly þivrút a jawþ Rosderim'' (An introduction to the grammar of the Roshterian tongue)
}}
 
The ancestors of modern-day Roshterians are hypothesized to have been an autochthonous people who gradually adopted a Talmic superstrate language. Until relatively recent times little was known of the language to outsiders (save for a handful of legends of a race of "backwards-talking" people with bodies of reversed chirality).
 
The first written example of a complete Roshterian sentence is found in a Clofabian travel journal dating to ca. fT 830dd (in Clofabic script):
 
:'''''olbiroaxterem taicaxan habo metuperen'''''
:''I would like to speak Roshterian; alas, I cannot.''
 
(In modern Roshterian orthography: ''Bys oṟbiros̱ṯerimytaicyn, boorimituperen.'' 'gladly-language-Roshterian-speak-1SG but-EVID.DIR-NEG-do-can-1SG')
 
This sentence was likely written by a non-native speaker of Roshterian, seeing by the fact that he/she omitted evidentials, which would be required in the second clause.
 
The significance of Roshterian for Talmic linguistics was first noted by the Eevo linguist Bolltind. He proposed that it reflected all four dorsal series of Proto-Talmic differently, unlike the (in Talma) hitherto known Thensaric languages:
 
*{{recon|''k, g''}} > Roshterian ''c, g''; Thensarian ''c, g''
*{{recon|''kʷ, gʷ''}} > Rosh. ''p, b''; Thn. ''c, g''
*{{recon|''q, ʁ''}} > Rosh. ''q, ḡ''; Thn. ''ȝ, ħ''
*{{recon|''qʷ, ʁʷ''}} > Rosh. ''s̱, ṟ''; Thn. ''c, g''
 
==Todo==
Affix fusion rules!!!
*How do I say "cozy"?
*''Siis̱i'' = a female name
*In prefixes, ni- > i- (important!)
 
==Numbers==
==Numbers==
TODO: Combining forms, ordinals, distributives
TODO: Combining forms, ordinals, distributives
*1: ''peem, peemy-''
*1: ''peem, peemy-''
*2: ''ṯitu, ṯitu-''
*2: ''ṯitu, ṯitu-''
*3: ''naṟg, naṟ-''
*3: ''naaṟ, naṟ-''
*4: ''loob, loo-''
*4: ''loob, loo-''
*5: ''helit'', ''lit-''
*5: ''helit'', ''lit-''
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*9: ''baṟ''
*9: ''baṟ''
*10: ''ḡiṟ''
*10: ''ḡiṟ''
*11: ''huprai''
*11: ''huplai''
*12: ''prai''
*12: ''plai''


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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! colspan="2" |Dental/Alveolar
! colspan="2" |Dental/Alveolar
! colspan="2" |Retroflex
! colspan="2" |Retroflex
! rowspan="2" |Palatal
! rowspan="2" |Velar
! rowspan="2" |Velar
! rowspan="2" |Uvular
! rowspan="2" |Uvular
Line 95: Line 40:
|  
|  
| '''ṉ''' /ɳ/
| '''ṉ''' /ɳ/
|
|  
|  
| [ŋ]
| [ŋ]
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|  
|  
| '''ṯ''' /ʈ/
| '''ṯ''' /ʈ/
|
|  
|  
| '''c''' /k/
| '''c''' /k/
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|  
|  
| '''ḏ''' /ɖ/
| '''ḏ''' /ɖ/
|
|  
|  
| '''g''' /g/
| '''g''' /g/
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| '''s''' /s̪/
| '''s''' /s̪/
|  
|  
| '''s̱''' /ʂ/
| '''x''' /ʂ/
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
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| '''l''' /l̪/
| '''l''' /l̪/
| '''ṟ''' /ɻ/ || '''ḻ''' /ɭ/
| '''ṟ''' /ɻ/ || '''ḻ''' /ɭ/
|
|  
|  
| '''ḡ''' /ʁ/
| '''ḡ''' /ʁ/
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|}
|}


'''j z''' /j z/ are used in loanwords.
Palatals and aspirated stops are used in loanwords from Indic.


;Notes
;Notes
*The voiceless stops /p t̪ ʈ k q/ are normally aspirated as much as Japanese voiceless stops; however, they are unaspirated after fricatives.  
*The voiceless stops /p t̪ ʈ k q/ are unaspirated.
*/n̪ t̪ d̪ l̪/ are dental; /s̪/ is dentalized alveolar (transcribed /n t d s l/ for sake of convenience).
*/n̪ t̪ d̪ l̪/ are dental; /s̪/ is dentalized alveolar (transcribed /n t d s l/ for sake of convenience).
*[ŋ] and [ɴ] are allophones of /n̪/ before velar and uvular consonants, respectively.
*[ŋ] and [ɴ] are allophones of /n̪/ before velar and uvular consonants, respectively.
*/r/ can be an alveolar flap [ɾ], an apical retroflex flap [ɽ], or trilled [r].
*/r/ can be an alveolar flap [ɾ], an apical retroflex flap [ɽ], or trilled [r].
*/ɳ ʈ ɖ ɭ/ can be realized as apical-postalveolar (like Hindi retroflexes) or subapical-palatal (like Tamil retroflexes). The apical realization dominates in casual speech, while the subapical realization occurs more in careful speech. After /ʂ/, /ʈ/ is always apical.
*/ɳ ʈ ɖ ɭ/ can be realized as apical-postalveolar (like Hindi retroflexes) or subapical-palatal (like Tamil retroflexes). The apical realization dominates in casual speech, while the subapical realization occurs in careful or formal speech. After /ʂ/, /ʈ/ is always apical.
**Colloquial Roshterian often merges /ɖ/ and /ɭ/.
*/ʂ/ is laminal post-alveolar [s̠] or sometimes [ɧ].
*/ʂ/ is laminal post-alveolar [s̠] or sometimes [ɧ].
*/ɻ/ can be post-alveolar [ɹ̠] or truly retroflex [ɻ].
*/ɻ/ can be post-alveolar [ɹ̠] or truly retroflex [ɻ].
*/ʁ/ is a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] or a trill [ʀ].
*/ʁ/ is a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] or a trill [ʀ].
*/w/ may be [v] in some dialects.
*/w/ is [v] in some dialects.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Roshterian allows fewer clusters than [[Proto-Talmic]].
Roshterian allows fewer clusters than [[Talmic|Proto-Talmic]]. Only two-consonant clusters are permitted, obstruent + nasal and fricative + sonorant clusters are prohibited. However, final clusters are allowed.
 
Allowed clusters:


*Not allowed initially: ''mp, mb, nt, nd, ṉṯ, ṉḏ, nc, ng, nq, nḡ, ns, nx, ns̱, nx̱, lp, lt, lc, ḻq, lb, ld, lg, ḻḡ, rp, rt, ṟṯ, rc, rq, rb, rd, rg, rḡ, rm, rn, st, s̱ṯ, sc, s̱q, ṟb, ṟḏ, ṟg, ts, tx, ṟm, ṟḏ, ṟḻ ''
Here are the allowed clusters:
*Allowed initially: ''pl, pr, bl, br, fl, fr, tr, dr, ṯr, ḏr, cl, cr''
*Not allowed finally: /pl bl pr br tr dr ʈr ɖr kl kr/ {{angbr|''pl bl pr br tr dr ṯr ḏr cl cr''}}
**Some dialects may have '''ṯṟ, ḏṟ''' for ''ṯr, ḏr''
**Some dialects may have /ʈɻ ɖɻ/ for /ʈr ɖr/.
**Some dialects always use Cḻ or Cṟ for Cr
**Some dialects always use [Cɭ] or [Cɻ] for /Cr/.
*Not allowed initially: /mp nt ɳʈ ŋk ɴq mb nd ɳɖ ŋg ɴʁ ns ɳʂ lp lt ɭʈ lk ɭq lb ld ɭɖ lg ɭʁ rp rt ɻʈ rk rq rb rd ɻɖ rg rʁ rm rn ɻb ɻg ɻm ɻɳ sp st ʂʈ sk ʂq/ {{angbr|''mp nt ṉṯ nc nq mb nd ṉḏ ng nḡ ns ṉx lp lt ḻṯ lc ḻq lb ld ḻḏ lg ḻḡ rp rt ṟṯ rc rq rb rd ṟḏ rg rḡ rm rn ṟb ṟg ṟm ṟṉ sp st xṯ sc xq''}}
In addition, ''s'' and ''ṟ'' are not allowed initially.
====Sandhi====
====Sandhi====
==Sound changes==
The most significant change characterizing Roshterian is the coalescing and altering of consonant clusters, often creating retroflex consonants.
*kw, gw > p, b
*gl-, gr- > l, r
*{{recon|ā}} > ''ia'' ({{recon|nā}} > ''nia'' 'I'); {{recon|ō}} > ''ua''; {{recon|au}} > ''oo''; {{recon|ou}} > ''uu''; {{recon|ū}} > ''ii''
*{{recon|qʷ}} > /χʷ/ > /ɧ/ > ''s̱''; {{recon|ʁʷ}} > /ζ/ > ''ṟ''
**''ʁʷelinə'' ("6 parts [of 12]") > ''ṟelin'' 'half'
**''gʷaθwā'' > ''bati'' 'neck, throat' ~ Thn. ''gaθvā'' 'throat (also language)'
*{{recon|sl-, sm-, sn-}} > ''ḻ-, m-, ṉ-''
*{{recon|sɸ-, sr-, sw-}} > ''s̱-, ṟ-, s̱-''
*{{recon|st, sk, skʷ, sq}} > ''t-/st, ṯ-/s̱ṯ-, f, q-/s̱q''
**''stas-'' > ''tetsil'' 'gathering' (~ Thn. ''Stasnyssōs'' > Tíogall ''Stánsa'', Clofabosin ''stannsin'' 'a holiday')
**''skəttā'' > ''ṯyyti'' 'body' ~ Thn. ''scyttā''
**{{recon|bastom}} > ''bast'' 'king' ~ Thn. ''bastom'' 'head'
*{{recon|sb, sd, sg}} > ''ṟb, ṟḏ, ṟg''
**{{recon|nasg-}} > ''naṟg'' '3'
*{{recon|φn, tn, φl, tl/dl}} > /ːn, s-/ts, ːɬ, ɖ/
**''łnāgin'' > ''xiagin'' 'I believe' ~ Thn. ''θnāginis''
**''oφlutsus'' > ''ooxus'' 'wave'
*{{recon|kt, qt}} > /jt, ːʈ/
**{{recon|tektə}} > ''teit'' /teit/ 'child'
**{{recon|neqtə}} > ''neeṯ'' /neːʈ/ 'cloud'
*{{recon|ks, qs}} > /js, ːʂ/
*{{recon|kn, gn, kʷn, gʷn, qn, ql, qr}} > /jn, jn, m, m, :ɳ, :ɻ, :ɻ/ (with **/uj/ > /uː/ )
**''sφugnus'' > ''s̱uun''  'root' ~ Thn. ''sφugnus''
**''leqnos'' > ''leeṉ'' 'river' ~ Thn. ''leānos''?
**''qrīdis'' > ''ṟiid'' 'knife' ~ Thn. ''ȝrīdis'' 'edge'
*Word-initially, kn, gn, kʷn, gʷn > /kr, gr, pr, br/
**''gʷnūnum'' > ''briin'' 'scar' ~ Thn. ''gnūnum'' 'scar', Tíogall ''gnúinte'' 'scar'
*{{recon|φj, tj, kj, qj}} > ''pt s s-/ts ḡ''
*{{recon|j-, s-}} > ''h-''
*{{recon|φ-}} > ''∅-''
*Initial short vowels drop
*{{recon|skj, stj}} > ''ṯ-/s̱ṯ, s-/ːs''
*final short vowels lost; final ''-m, -r, -s, -t'' lost; final long vowels shorten (''ia, ua'' > ''i, u'')
*''i''-affection: The following changes affect V1 in sequences of the form V1 + consonant cluster + ultimate (*i/*ī/*j) unless the consonant cluster after V1 contains a retroflex consonant.
**''a'' > ''e''
**''e'' > ''i''
*Stress shifts to final
*Some combining forms and combined forms are altered due to the stress shift - conjunct forms for verbs arise when there is an antepenultimate syllable


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
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Each verb has 3 principal parts: the progressive stem, the habitual stem and the preterite stem.
Each verb has 3 principal parts: the progressive stem, the habitual stem and the preterite stem.
====Object incorporation====
====Object incorporation====
Verb stems have a ''combining form'', also called the ''incorporating form'', which is used with object markers, negation or incorporated objects. Any noun stem can be incorporated, including proper nouns.
All verb stems have a ''combining form'', also called the ''incorporating form'', which is used in the presence of an object marker, negative prefix or an ''incorporandum'' (incorporated object). Any noun stem can be incorporated, including proper nouns.


''hoox̱iis̱yn'' 'eat fruit' < ''hoox̱i'' 'fruit' + ''caasyn'' 'eat'
''hootiixyn'' 'eat fruit' < ''hooti'' 'fruit' + ''caasyn'' 'eat'


====Verb template====
====Verb template====
The Roshterian verb has 9 slots which mark a variety of grammatical information. Slots that must be filled are in bold.
The Roshterian verb has 8-9 slots which mark a variety of grammatical information. Slots that must obligatorily be filled are in bold.


*(discourse)
*discourse - considered clitics by some
*evidentiality
*evidentiality/interrogative
*negation/focus
*negation
*causative person marker
*causative person marker
*object person marker/passive marker
*object person marker/passive marker
*incorporated noun
*STEM:
*applicative
**incorporandum
*'''ROOT'''
**applicative
*auxiliary
**'''ROOT'''
*one or more auxiliaries
*'''subject+aspect'''
*'''subject+aspect'''


=====Discourse markers=====
=====Discourse markers=====
Discourse markers are often connecting words for clauses, or particles that display the speaker's emotional reaction to an event.
Discourse markers are often connecting words for clauses, or particles that display the speaker's emotional reaction to an event or state.


*''bys-'' = 'gladly'
*''bys-'' = 'gladly', 'great!'
*''boo-'' = 'but'
*''boo-'' = 'alas'
*''yṟ/ṟy-'' = (softening marker)
*''yṟ/ṟy-'' = (softening marker)


Line 294: Line 195:
*''i-'' (before C), ''r-'' (before V) = I witnessed or otherwise directly experienced this
*''i-'' (before C), ''r-'' (before V) = I witnessed or otherwise directly experienced this
*''pyn-'' = information I obtained from hearsay or am quoting
*''pyn-'' = information I obtained from hearsay or am quoting
*''dre-'' = a third-party source I consider credible
*''nar-'' = a third-party source I consider credible
*''me-'' = my own inference, assumption or subjective opinion
*''me-'' = my own inference, assumption or subjective opinion
*''hy-'' (< PTal ''*səni stə...'' 'tell me if...') = interrogative (used for both wh-questions and yes-no questions)
*''hy-'' (< PTal ''*səni φī...'' 'tell me if...') = interrogative (used for both wh-questions and yes-no questions)
*''eb-'' = if
*''eb-'' = if
*''ṯus-'' = (optative)


=====Negative/focus affixes=====
=====Negative/focus affixes=====
Negation is marked with the negative affix ''mis-'' (before V), or ''mi-''/''N-'' (before C), which may alter the verb stem to its incorporating form.
Negation is marked with the negative affix ''mis-'' (before V), or ''mi-''/''N-'' (before C), which may alter the verb stem to its incorporating form.
There's also focused affirmative ("yes, X is true") and focused negative ("no, X isn't true") affixes, used e.g. when answering questions.


*Negative: ''mis-'', ''mi-'', ''N-''
*Negative: ''mis-'', ''mi-'', ''N-''
*Focused affirmative: ''fe-''
*Focused negative: ''tir-''


=====Causative person markers=====
=====Causative person markers=====
The causative prefixes are used in causative verbs to index the agent causing the action of the object-ROOT-subject complex. The causative person marker comes from forms of the verb ''oona'' 'to do/make' (''*oonan sy'' 'I make it that' > ''oony-'' > ''ony-'').
The causative prefixes are used in causative verbs to index the agent causing the action of the object-ROOT-subject complex. The causative person marker comes from forms of the verb ''ooni'' 'to do/make' (''*oonin sy'' 'I make it that' > ''oony-'' > ''ony-'').


For example:  
For example:  


:'''''Ronypicaasym.'''''  
:'''''Ronipicaasym.'''''  
:/ronəpikaːˈsəm/
:/ronipikaːˈsəm/
:r-ony-pi-caasy-m
:r-ony-pi-caasy-m
:DIR-CAUS.1SG-OBJ.4-eat-PROG.SUBJ.3SG.M
:DIR-CAUS.1SG-OBJ.4-eat-PROG.SUBJ.3SG.M
Line 372: Line 270:
!|1 + 2
!|1 + 2
|''-''
|''-''
|''xee-''
|''bee-''
|-
|-
!|2
!|2
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*''di-'' = at, in, by
*''di-'' = at, in, by
*''hee-'' = about
*''hee-'' = about
*''hu-'' = benefactive
*''lengy-'' = malefactive


=====Subject+TAM markers=====
=====Subject+TAM markers=====
Roshterian tenses: present, perfect, imperfect, future
{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable"
{| class="bluetable"
|+ Progressive indicative
|+ Present indicative
|-
|-
! Person !! Affix !! ''-ḡaimian'' 'I fly' !! ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
! Person !! Affix !! ''-ḡaimian'' 'I fly' !! ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
Line 406: Line 308:
| 1SG || ''-n'' || ''-ḡaimian'' || ''-caasyn''
| 1SG || ''-n'' || ''-ḡaimian'' || ''-caasyn''
|-
|-
| 2SG || ''-:'' || ''-ḡaimia'' || ''-caasyy''
| 2SG || ''-r'' || ''-ḡaimiar'' || ''-caasyr''
|-
|-
| 3SG.M || ''-m'' || ''-ḡaimiam'' || ''-caasym''
| 3SG.M || ''-m'' || ''-ḡaimiam'' || ''-caasym''
Line 420: Line 322:
| 2PL || ''-f'' || ''-ḡaimiaf'' || ''-caasyf''
| 2PL || ''-f'' || ''-ḡaimiaf'' || ''-caasyf''
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-tu'' || ''-ḡaimiatu'' || ''-caasytu''
| 3PL || ''-tu'' || ''-ḡaimiaw'' || ''-caasyw''
|-
|-
| 4 || ''-p'' || ''-ḡaimip'' || ''-caasyp''
| 4 || ''-p'' || ''-ḡaimip'' || ''-caasyp''
Line 434: Line 336:
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="bluetable"
{| class="bluetable"
|+ Perfective indicative
|+ Past indicative
|-
|-
! Person  !! ''-ḡaimian'' "I fly" || ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
! Person  !! ''-ḡaimian'' "I fly" || ''-caasyn'' "I eat"
|-
|-
| 1SG || ''-ḡaimiane'' || ''-ceesyne''
| 1SG || ''-ḡaimidi'' || ''-ceesti''
|-
|-
| 2SG || ''-ḡaimiavi''  || ''-ceesyvi''
| 2SG || ''-ḡaimivi''  || ''-ceesyvi''
|-
|-
| 3SG.M || ''-ḡaimiami'' || ''-ceesymi''
| 3SG.M || ''-ḡaimimi'' || ''-ceesymi''
|-
|-
| 3SG.F || ''-ḡaimiast'' || ''-ceesyst''
| 3SG.F || ''-ḡaimiast'' || ''-ceesyst''
Line 448: Line 350:
| 3SG.N || ''-ḡaimias'' || ''-ceesys''
| 3SG.N || ''-ḡaimias'' || ''-ceesys''
|-
|-
| 1EX || ''-ḡaimiamer'' || ''-ceesymer''
| 1EX || ''-ḡaimimer'' || ''-ceesymer''
|-
|-
| 1IN || ''-ḡaimianter'' || ''-ceesynter''
| 1IN || ''-ḡaiminter'' || ''-ceesynter''
|-
|-
| 2PL || ''-ḡaimiafer'' || ''-ceesyfer''
| 2PL || ''-ḡaimifer'' || ''-ceesyfer''
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-ḡaimiater'' || ''-ceesyter''
| 3PL || ''-ḡaimiaw'' || ''-ceesyw''
|-
|-
| 4  || ''-ḡaimiap'' || ''-ceesyyp''
| 4  || ''-ḡaimiap'' || ''-ceesyyp''
Line 466: Line 368:
=====Voice affixes=====
=====Voice affixes=====
*''ṯy-'' = mediopassive (< "body, self")
*''ṯy-'' = mediopassive (< "body, self")
*''rab/raa-'' = reciprocal
*''ab/aa-'' = reciprocal


=====Auxiliaries=====
=====Auxiliaries=====
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*''-peren'': 'I can/I'm able to'
*''-peren'': 'I can/I'm able to'
*''-ṯysin'': 'I may/I have permission to' (negated: 'I must not')
*''-ṯysin'': 'I may/I have permission to' (negated: 'I must not')
*''-s̱an'': 'I want to/intend to'
*''-xan'': 'I will' (future tense)
*''-dawan'': 'I want to' (future tense)


====Copula====
====Copula====
To express "is a [NOUN]" or "is [ADJ]", the copula ''-(l)uan'' is suffixed to the bare stem of X; X plus the copula then goes to the normal stem slot for purposes of verb inflection. The noun itself doesn't go into the plural even when the subject is plural.
To express "is a [NOUN]" or "is [ADJ]", the copula ''-(l)uan'' is suffixed to the bare stem of X; X plus the copula then goes to the normal stem slot for purposes of verb inflection. The noun itself doesn't go into the plural even when the subject is plural.


:'''''Lameteitutu.'''''
:'''''Lamebaaṯuu.'''''
:la-me-teit-utu
:la-me-baaṯ-uu
:merely-INFERRED-child-COP.PRES.3PL
:merely-INFERRED-child-COP.PRES.3PL
:''In my opinion, they are mere children.''
:''In my opinion, they are mere children.''


:'''''Hyroṉḏuar, hybreituar?'''''
:'''''Hyroṉḏuar, hyteituar?'''''
:Hy-roṉḏ-uar, hy-breit-uar
:hy-roṉḏ-uar, hy-teit-uar
:Q-man-COP.2SG, Q-woman-COP.PRES.2SG
:Q-man-COP.2SG, Q-child-COP.PRES.2SG
:''Are you a man or a woman?''
:''Are you a man or a boy?''


When the copula is added on nouns without an evidential, it emphasizes the noun or simply indicates the tense of an action (either past or non-past).
When the copula is added on nouns without an evidential, it emphasizes the noun or simply indicates the tense of an action (either past or non-past).
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| 2PL || ''-(l)uaf''  
| 2PL || ''-(l)uaf''  
|-
|-
| 3PL || ''-(l)utu''  
| 3PL || ''-(l)uu''  
|-
|-
| 4 || ''-(l)uap''  
| 4 || ''-(l)uap''  
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===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Nouns are marked with a singular-plural distinction, and may also take possessive suffixes. However, the lemma form of a noun is typically its combining form, which is the incorporated form of a noun and is also used to form possessed forms and compounds. Unlike [[Thensarian]], Roshterian lost the [[Proto-Talmic]] grammatical gender; gendered pronouns and verb affixes no longer mark grammatical gender, but natural gender (as in [[Naquian]]). There is no definite or indefinite article.
Nouns are marked with a singular-plural distinction, and may also take possessive suffixes. However, the lemma form of a noun is typically its combining form, which is the incorporated form of a noun and is also used to form possessed forms and compounds. Unlike [[Thensarian]], Roshterian lost the Proto-[[Talmic]] grammatical gender; gendered pronouns and verb affixes no longer mark grammatical gender, but natural gender (as in [[Naquian]]). There is no definite or indefinite article.


The plural form is inherited from the Proto-Talmic reduplicated collective, and is often formed by reduplication. Example: ''breit'' /bɾɛit/ 'woman', ''bebreit'' /bɛˈbɾɛit/ 'women'. Some irregularities may be present due to the retention of the original single consonant in the reduplicant, as opposed to the stem-initial cluster where the consonants interacted to produce new consonants and clusters.
The plural form is inherited from the Proto-Talmic reduplicated collective, and is often formed by reduplication. Example: ''bleit'' /blɛit/ 'woman', ''bebleit'' /bɛˈblɛit/ 'women'. Some irregularities may be present due to the retention of the original single consonant in the reduplicant, as opposed to the stem-initial cluster where the consonants interacted to produce new consonants and clusters.


{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
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!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
|-
| ''weiny-'' || ''wein'' || ''wewein''
| ''weiny-'' || ''wein'' || ''uwein''
|}
|}


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|-
|-
!|my
!|my
|''weinyn''||''weweinyn''
|''weinyn''||''uweinyn''
|-
|-
!|thy
!|thy
|''weinys''||''weweinys''
|''weinys''||''uweinys''
|-
!|his (3)
|''weinyty''||''uweinyty''
|-
|-
!|his/her (3)
!|her (3)
|''weinyti''||''weweinyti''
|''weinytii''||''uweinytii''
|-
|-
!|its (3)
!|its (3)
|''weinyt''||''weweinyt''
|''weinyt''||''uweinyt''
|-
|-
!|our (exc)
!|our (exc)
|''weinym''||''weweinym''
|''weinym''||''uweinym''
|-
|-
!|our (inc)
!|our (inc)
|''weinys̱''||''weweinys̱''
|''weinyx''||''uweinyx''
|-
|-
!|your (pl)
!|your (pl)
|''weinyc''||''weweinyc''
|''weinyc''||''uweinyc''
|-
|-
!|their (3)
!|their (3)
|''weinytu''||''weweinytu''
|''weinytu''||''uweinytu''
|-
|-
!|(4)
!|(4)
|''weinypi''||''weweinypi''
|''weinypi''||''uweinypi''
|}
|}


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|''doiros''||''ledoiros''
|''doiros''||''ledoiros''
|-
|-
!|his/her
!|his
|''doiroti''||''ledoiroti''
|''doiroty''||''ledoiroty''
|-
!|her
|''doirotii''||''ledoirotii''
|-
|-
!|its
!|its
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|-
|-
!|our (inc)
!|our (inc)
|''doiros̱''||''ledoiros̱''
|''doirox''||''ledoirox''
|-
|-
!|your (pl)
!|your (pl)
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|''ṟiidis''||''qeṟiidis''
|''ṟiidis''||''qeṟiidis''
|-
|-
!|his/her
!|his
|''ṟiiditi''||''qeṟiiditi''
|''ṟiidity''||''qeṟiidity''
|-
!|her
|''ṟiiditii''||''qeṟiiditii''
|-
|-
!|its
!|its
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|-
|-
!|our (inc)
!|our (inc)
|''ṟiidis̱''||''qeṟiidis̱''
|''ṟiidix''||''qeṟiidix''
|-
|-
!|your (pl)
!|your (pl)
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*that: ''-pa''
*that: ''-pa''


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===  
Predicative adjectives work the same way as predicative nouns in that they must take the copula. The class of adjectives is actually a small, closed subclass of nouns, usually relating to shape, color, size, texture, and other concrete properties of objects.
The class of adjectives is actually a small, closed subclass of nouns, usually relating to concrete properties of objects such as shape, color, size, and texture, and relatively permanent characteristics of people. Note that most English adjectives, like "cozy", "active", "incendiary", ..., are expressed in Roshterian by other means such as inflected verbs or verb phrases.
 
Predicative adjectives work the same way as predicative nouns in that they must take the copula.  


Attributive adjectives are compounded after the noun.
Attributive adjectives are compounded after the noun.
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*''bryn'' 'red': ''Ibrynua hoget.'' 'The apple is red.'; ''hootibryn'' or ''hootit bryn'' 'red apple'
*''bryn'' 'red': ''Ibrynua hoget.'' 'The apple is red.'; ''hootibryn'' or ''hootit bryn'' 'red apple'
*''pant'' 'big': ''Ipantua huaryn.'' 'My house is big.'; ''huarypant'' or ''huaryt pant'' 'big house'
*''pant'' 'big': ''Ipantua huaryn.'' 'My house is big.'; ''huarypant'' or ''huaryt pant'' 'big house'
*''ros̱ṯerim'' 'Roshterian': ''Iros̱ṯerimutu.'' 'They're Roshterian.'; ''Qaaros̱ṯerim'' 'Roshteria' (lit. 'Roshterian country')


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Prepositions are inflected for person similarly to nouns; when a preposition is followed by a noun, the preposition ''must'' take the corresponding 3rd or 4th person suffix.
Prepositions are inflected for person similarly to nouns. [Should they be cliticized? Probably]


*''di-'' = 'in'
*''di-'' = 'in'
*''bel-'' = 'from'
*''bel-'' = 'from'
*''en'' = for
*''bar'' = towards
*''nai'' = with (instrumental)


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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!|1 + 2
!|1 + 2
|
|
|''pyd''
|''pynd''
|-
|-
!|2
!|2
|''weer''
|''weer''
|''cyvi''
|''typi''
|-
|-
!|3 (masculine)
!|3 (masculine)
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*''bo-'' = associated person
*''bo-'' = associated person
**''bopenicili-, bopenicili'' /bɔpɛnɪkɪˈlɪ/ = ''penicillin'' player
**''bopenicili-, bopenicili'' /bɔpɛnɪkɪˈlɪ/ = ''penicillin'' player
**''brei-'' = -ess, feminine counterpart to ''bo-'' (not common in modern Roshterian)
**''blei-'' = -ess, feminine counterpart to ''bo-'' (not common in modern Roshterian)
*''-ait'' (not productive) = forms adjectives
*''-ait'' (not productive) = forms adjectives
*''[NOUN]-ṯobyn'' = to resemble a NOUN (the noun is incorporated)
*''[NOUN]-ṯobyn'' = to resemble a NOUN (the noun is incorporated)


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Roshterian is a verb-initial, head-marking polysynthetic language. Verbs take both subject and object affixes, and complex morphophonemic alternations are common. Where Roshterian deviates from typical Etalocian (or even typical Talmic) typology are features such as obviation, noun incorporation and evidential marking, making Roshterian resemble Native American languages such as Blackfoot or Ojibwe.
Roshterian is a verb-initial, head-marking polysynthetic language. Verbs take both subject and object affixes, and features complex morphophonemic alternations [much of which is inherited from [[Old Roshterian]]]. Where Roshterian deviates from typical Talman typology are features such as obviation, noun incorporation and evidential marking, making Roshterian resemble Native American languages such as Blackfoot or Ojibwe.


:'''''Itiraḏan.'''''
:'''''Itiraḏan.'''''
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===Possession===
===Possession===
"X of Y" = X-3SG Y or X-Y (e.g. ''weinyti boclofabim'' 'the Clofabian's brother' or ''xafut huar'' = 'the color of the house')
"X of Y" = X-3SG Y or X-Y (e.g. ''weinyti boclofabim'' 'the Clofabian's brother' or ''ganut huar'' = 'the color of the house')
 
===Obviation===
===Obviation===


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Sometimes not using applicatives is preferred, sometimes vice versa:
Sometimes not using applicatives is preferred, sometimes vice versa:


:''Idis̱oorin Qaaros̱ṯerim.''
:''Ixoorin di Qaaroxṯerim.''
:'I live in Roshteria.' (lit. I inhabit Roshteria)
:'I live in Roshteria.' (lit. I live in Roshteria)
 
:''Idixoorin ḡeeliaṉ.''
:'I live in a city.' (lit. I inhabit a city)


:''Is̱oorin dit ḡeeliaṉ.''
:'I live in a city.'


Applicatives are not only useful for emphasizing or topicalizing the oblique argument but in fact are necessary for certain syntactic constructions (and for just sounding natural). When an applicative is used, the original direct object (when used) takes the instrumental preposition ''nai''.
Applicatives are not only useful for emphasizing or topicalizing the oblique argument but in fact are necessary for certain syntactic constructions (and for just sounding natural). When an applicative is used, the original direct object (when used) takes the instrumental preposition ''nai''.
For example:
:'''''Ṯimylt impubri pergofaaṟidi nai maaqex?'''''
:''Where is the shelf where I put the spices?'' [lit. that I beput with the spices]
:'''''Apacua rymbi peteehoḏidi nai ṯas.'''''
:/apaˈkuə rəmˈbi pɛteːhoɖɪˈdɪ nai ˈʈas/
:apac-ua rymbi ped-hee-hoḏia-di nai ṯas
:that-COP.3SG.N forest NMLZ-APPL.about-draw-1SG.PERF INS picture
:''That is the forest I drew a picture of.'' [lit. the forest that I bedrew with a picture]


===Clause types===
===Clause types===
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The relative clause is marked by a nominalizing affix ''ped-''.
The relative clause is marked by a nominalizing affix ''ped-''.


:'''''Meiḻicort ḡeeliaṉ pedidis̱oorin.'''''
:'''''Meiḻicort ḡeeliaṉ pedidixoorin.'''''
:me-eiḻi-cort-0 ḡeeliaṉ ped-i-di-s̱oor-in
:me-eiḻi-cort-0 ḡeeliaṉ ped-i-di-xoor-in
:EVID_SUBJ-heart-embrace-3SG.N city NMLZ-EV.DIR-APP.LOC-live-PRES.1SG
:EVID_SUBJ-heart-embrace-3SG.N city NMLZ-EV.DIR-APP.LOC-live-PRES.1SG
:''The city that I live in is cozy.'' (lit. The city that I inhabit embraces the heart.)
:''The city that I live in is cozy.'' (lit. The city that I inhabit embraces the heart.)
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==Sample texts==
==Sample texts==
"I don't want to move on from/grow out of simple pleasures."
===Tower of Babel===
===Tower of Babel===
===Snake Lemma===
===Snake Lemma===
:''Professor Kate Gunzinger proves the Snake Lemma in the film ''It's My Turn'' (1980). I'm skipping the proof, which is less linguistically uninteresting.''
:''Professor Kate Gunzinger proves the Snake Lemma in the film ''It's My Turn'' (1980). I'll omit the proof, which is less linguistically interesting. [Most Roshterians prefer to use [[Eevo]] terms when discussing higher mathematics anyway.]''


:'''''Yṟonypinoofer has̱upimyṯrut pedipainywelip s, biṉṯylaḡilcama peeṯypryṉifiaqalip, ḻe?'''''
:'''''Haxupimyṯrut yṟonypinoofer ''binróþ'' s, beṉṯylaḡilcoma peeṯypryṉifiaqolip, ḻe?'''''
:Yṟ-ony-pi-noo-fer has̱u-pi-myṯru-t ped-ipai-weli-p s bin-ṯy-laḡ-ilcam-a ped-ṯy-pryṉi-fia-qali-p ḻe
:haxu-pi-myṯru-t yṟ-ony-pi-noo-fer binróþ s ben-ṯy-laḡ-ilcom-a pee-ṯypr-yṉif-iaqoli-ip ḻe
:DISC_SOFTEN-CAUS.1SG-4-see-2PL.SUBJ.PERF way-4-build-CONST NOMZ-object-to_name-4 s, DISC_SHOULD_BE_OBVIOUS-PASS-APPL_TELIC-sow-3SG.N NOMZ-PASS-examine-show-at_first-4 TAG
:way-4-build-CONST DISC_SOFTEN-CAUS.1SG-4-see-2PL.SUBJ.PERF mathematical_function s, DISC_"should be obvious"-PASS-APPL_TELIC-sow-3SG.N NOMZ-PASS-examine-show-at_first-4 TAG
:''Let me just show you how to construct the map s, which is the fun of the lemma anyhow, okay?''
:''Let me just show you how to *construct* the map s, which is the fun of the lemma anyhow, okay?''
[[Category:Talmic languages]]
[[Category:Talmic languages]]
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