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Carnian grammar: Difference between revisions

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Created page with "'''Carnian''' morphology is very similar to that of other Slavic languages. Its unique traits include: * Reduction of grammatical cases to four * Uninflected predicative form in adjectives and participles * The past tense formation continues Slavic perfect with L-participles with the auxiliary verb in preposition * Reduction in the -ovati conjugation class (*''milovati'' > ''milat''; ''milujem'' > ''miliem'') * Mix of Western and Southern forms == Articles == Carni..."
 
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* Uninflected predicative form in adjectives and participles
* Uninflected predicative form in adjectives and participles
* The past tense formation continues Slavic perfect with L-participles with the auxiliary verb in preposition
* The past tense formation continues Slavic perfect with L-participles with the auxiliary verb in preposition
* Reduction in the -ovati conjugation class (*''milovati'' > ''milat''; ''milujem'' > ''miliem'')
* Reduction in the -ovati conjugation class (*''milovati'' > ''milat''; ''milujem'' > ''milem'')
* Mix of Western and Southern forms
* Mix of Western and Southern forms


Line 9: Line 9:


Carnian is not the only Slavic language with articles (others are Bulgarian, Macedonian, and to some extent Sorbian languages), but is the only one with both definite and indefinite articles in preposition. They are inflected by case, gender, and number (except for the indefinite, which is absent in plural). The definite article is consistently used, while the indefinite is in practice often omitted.
Carnian is not the only Slavic language with articles (others are Bulgarian, Macedonian, and to some extent Sorbian languages), but is the only one with both definite and indefinite articles in preposition. They are inflected by case, gender, and number (except for the indefinite, which is absent in plural). The definite article is consistently used, while the indefinite is in practice often omitted.
Both articles undergo shortening in certain contexts, i.e. the feminine and neuter definite ''ta'' and ''to'' become ''t' '' before words starting with ''a''- and ''o''-, respectively (''t'ant'' instead of ''ta [[Contionary:ant#Carnian|ant]]'' 'the duck'; ''t'oco'' instead of ''to oco'' 'the eye'). Indefinite article preceded by ''je'' (third person singular ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' 'to be') merges with it into one form (e.g., ''To je jen [[Contionary:pies#Carnian|pies]]'' becomes ''To jen pies'', 'It's a dog'), although this is restricted to informal speech and is never used in official writings.


'''Indefinite ''jen'' inflection'''
'''Indefinite ''jen'' inflection'''
Line 76: Line 78:
| te
| te
| tega
| tega
|colspan=3| tech
|colspan=3| te
|-
|-
! colspan=2| Dative
! colspan=2| Dative
Line 91: Line 93:
=== Masculine Declension ===
=== Masculine Declension ===


Masculine nouns are declined according to hard, soft, or a-stem patterns. The majority of masculine nouns follow the hard or soft declension, whereas the a-stem declension is reserved for a small category of words and is identical to the feminine a-stem declension. While Carnian preserves the hard-soft stem distinction, these two declension patterns have merged to some extent, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages.
Masculine nouns are declined according to hard, soft, or a-stem patterns. The majority of masculine nouns follow the hard or soft declension, whereas the a-stem declension is reserved for a small category of words and is identical to the feminine a-stem declension. Nouns belonging to the hard-stem declension typically have stems ending in a consonant, although a group of nouns which used to have a stem ending in /h/ now end in a vowel. While Carnian preserves the hard-soft stem distinction, these two declension patterns have merged to some extent, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages.


Masculine nouns are further divided between animate and inanimate nouns:
Masculine nouns are further divided between animate and inanimate nouns:
* For inanimate nouns, the accusative singular is identical to the nominative singular
* For inanimate nouns, the accusative singular is identical to the nominative singular
* For animate nouns, the accusative singular is identical to the genitive singular
* For animate nouns, the accusative singular is identical to the genitive singular
* In plural, the distinction is significant for hard stems ending in velar consonant /k, g, x/, which are palatalized to /s/ (for /k, x/) and /z/ (for /g/) in animate nouns and remain unchanged in inanimate nouns. This is not true for a great part of Carniolan dialects, which always preserve the hard velar consonant (as in Slovene)
* In plural, the distinction is significant for hard stems ending in velar consonant /k, g/ (which are palatalized to /s/ and /z/, respectively) in animate nouns and remain unchanged in inanimate nouns. This is not true for a great part of Carniolan dialects, which always preserve the hard velar consonant (as in Slovene)
* a-stems are not differentiated by animacy
* a-stems are not differentiated by animacy


Line 147: Line 149:
=== Feminine Declension ===
=== Feminine Declension ===


Feminine nouns are declined according to four patterns. Majority of them belong to the a-stem declension, which is further divided into hard and soft. Carnian differs from Slovene and Serbo-Croatian in preserving this distinction although the differences between have been leveled, just as in masculine nouns.
Feminine nouns are declined according to four patterns. Majority of them belong to the a-stem declension, which is further divided into hard and soft. Carnian differs from Slovene and Serbo-Croatian in preserving this distinction although the differences have been leveled, just as in masculine nouns.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
!colspan=2|
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| Hard
!colspan=2| Hard
!colspan=2| Soft
!colspan=2| Soft
Line 201: Line 203:
'''Note''': *e is used when preceded by /j/
'''Note''': *e is used when preceded by /j/


The consonant-stem declension (covering r- and v-stems) does not usually append any suffixes in nominative singular (''creu'' 'blood'), however r-stems allow additional shortened form with -i (both ''mater'' and ''mati'' are used 'mother').
The consonant-stem declension (covering r- and v-stems) does not usually append any suffixes in nominative singular (''creu'' 'blood'; however, r-stems allow additional shortened form with -i (both ''mater'' and ''mati'' are used for 'mother').


=== Neuter Declension ===
=== Neuter Declension ===
The vast majority of neuter nouns follow the first neuter declension. Their nominative singular ending is -o (following hard o-stem declension), -e (following soft o-stem declension), or a null ending (following n- or nt-stem declensions). The s-stem declension is no longer present in Carnian, having merged with the first declension. In all neuter declensions, nominative and accusative forms are the same.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| Hard
!colspan=2| Soft
!colspan=2| n-stem
!colspan=2| nt-stem
|-
! {{small|singular}}
! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}}
! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}}
! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}}
! {{small|plural}}
|-
!Nominative
|rowspan=2| o
|rowspan=2| a
|rowspan=2| e
|rowspan=2| a
|rowspan=2| è
|rowspan=2| ena
|rowspan=2| è
|rowspan=2| enta
|-
!Accusative
|-
! Genitive
| a
| -
| a
| -
| ena
| en
| enta
| ent
|-
! Dative
| o
| om
| o
| em
| eno
| enom
| ento
| entom
|}


=== Dialectal variation ===
=== Dialectal variation ===
Some Carniolan dialects experience '''masculinization''' of neuter nouns to varying extents, especially in the singular. A small subgroup of eastern Carinthian dialects experiences '''feminization''' of neuter nouns.
Littoral and some Kvarner dialects, on the other hand, tend to merge neuter and masculine genders into one, which is most prominent in the presence of the neuter -o or -e ending in the singular nominative of masculine nouns (cf. ''leabo'' 'bread', ''jegie'' 'hedgehog' vs. standard ''leab'', ''jeġ'') and entirely masculine endings in plural. This phenomenon is most common in areas with the strongest influence of Romance languages, which usually finish their nouns with a vowel.


== Adjectives ==
== Adjectives ==


=== Declension ===
=== Declension ===
Modern Carnian preserves only definite adjectival declension, differing from Slovene and Serbo-Croatian, which distinguish between definite and indefinite. The loss of the indefinite declension was gradual, being used only in the predicative by the end of the Old Carnian period. It then evolved into a special, uninflected '''predicative adjective''', which basically follows the old indefinite masculine nominative form but is used for all genders, cases, and numbers. This form is treated as the base form of all adjectives (similarly to German). The same is true for adjectival participles. The majority of predicative adjectives receives ultimate accent, so the stressed syllable agrees with the non-predicative form (compare ''zelen'' [zɛlɛ̌n] vs. ''zeleny'' [zɛlɛ̌nɛɪ̯]). The exception are adjectives with spurious vowels in their final syllables which are lost in the inflection (compare ''pozen'' [pɔ̂ːzɛn] vs. ''pozny'' [pɔ̂znɛɪ̯] 'late').
Adjectives in expressions other than predicative are placed before the nouns and agree with them in case, number, and gender. In contrast to nouns, the hard-soft distinction was lost in adjectives, with soft declension taking over the hard one. Thus all adjectives follow the standard declension pattern, which is the same for adjectival nouns.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|
!colspan=3| Singular
!colspan=3| Plural
|-
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
|-
!colspan=2| Predicative
|colspan=6| -
|-
!colspan=2| Nominative
|rowspan=2| y
| a
|rowspan=3| e
| i
|rowspan=3| e
|rowspan=3| a
|-
!rowspan=2| Accusative
! {{small|inanimate}}
|rowspan=2| à
|rowspan=2| e
|-
! {{small|animate}}
| rowspan=2| ega
|-
! colspan=2| Genitive
| e
| ega
|colspan=3| i
|-
! colspan=2| Dative
| emo
| i
| emo
|colspan=3| im
|}
Examples:
* ''Ta trava je '''zelen''''' - The grass is green (predicative expression)
* ''Vidim ta '''zelenà''' travà'' - I see the green grass (attributive expression)


=== Comparison ===
=== Comparison ===
Comparative and superlative formations follow analytical construction with the use of adverbs ''[[Contionary:vent#Carnian|vent]]'' 'more' and ''[[Contionary:nai#Carnian|nai]]'' (rarely also ''naivent'') 'most', respectively, followed by the adjective in positive form. A few irregular adjectives, especially old and basic ones, have fossilized the old affix formation, such as ''[[Contionary:miens#Carnian|miens]]'' 'smaller', ''[[Contionary:ventz#Carnian|ventz]]'' 'bigger', ''[[Contionary:gors#Carnian|gors]]'' 'worse', and ''[[Contionary:bols#Carnian|bols]]'' 'better'. These irregular adjectives use the comparative forms to form the superlative.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
|-
! {{small|''fast''}}
! {{small|''faster''}}
! {{small|''fastest''}}
|-
!rowspan=4| Regular
! Predicative
| [[Contionary:barz#Carnian|barz]]
| vent barz
| nai barz
|-
! Masculine
| barzy
| vent barzy
| nai barzy
|-
! Feminine
| barza
| vent barza
| nai barza
|-
! Neuter
| barze
| vent barze
| nai barze
|-
!colspan=2|
! {{small|''good''}}
! {{small|''better''}}
! {{small|''best''}}
|-
!rowspan=4| Iregular
! Predicative
| dober
| bols
| nai bols
|-
! Masculine
| dobry
| bolsy
| nai bolsy
|-
! Feminine
| dobra
| bolsa
| nai bolsa
|-
! Neuter
| dobre
| bolse
| nai bolse
|-
|}
== Adverbs ==
Adverbs in Carnian are usually formed from adjectives with the -o suffix, thus continuing old hard neuter adjectival declension. Comparative is formed with the -ei suffix, while the superlative with the adverb nai in preposition. Similarly to adjectives, the superlative form is based on the positive, except for the irregular adverbs, which are based on the comparative.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2|
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
|-
! {{small|''fast''}}
! {{small|''faster''}}
! {{small|''fastest''}}
|-
! Regular
| barzo
| barzei
| nai barzo
|-
!
! {{small|''well''}}
! {{small|''better''}}
! {{small|''best''}}
|-
! Iregular
| dobro
| bolsei
| nai bolsei
|-
|}


== Verbs ==
== Verbs ==
=== Grammatical categories ===
Carnian verbs distinguish:
* Two grammatical numbers: singular and plural
* Three persons
* Four tenses: present, past, pluperfect, and future
* Three moods: indicative, imperative, and conditional
* Two aspects: perfective and imperfective
=== Aspect ===
As in other Slavic languages, Carnian inherited a verbal system based on the opposition between perfective and imperfective aspect. Perfective verbs present an event as a bounded whole, while imperfective verbs are used for ongoing, incomplete, habitual, or otherwise unbounded situations (e.g. ''pisat'' 'to be writing' vs. ''napisat'' 'to write'). The present indicative of imperfective verbs expresses present time reference, whereas the present indicative of perfective verbs typically has future reference. Past participles of both imperfective and perfective verbs are used in analytic past and future constructions; the interpretation of these forms depends on the aspectual properties of the lexical verb and, where applicable, on aspectual particles.
==== Formation of Aspectual Pairs ====
Aspectual pairs are traditionally formed in several ways:
* by adding the imperfectivizing suffix ''[[Contionary:-at#Carnian|-at]]'' to perfective verbs
* by adding the perfectivizing suffix ''[[Contionary:-nant#Carnian|-nant]]'' to imperfective verbs
* by adding perfectivizing prefixes (most commonly ''na''- and ''po''-) to imperfective verbs
In contrast to most Slavic languages, the inherited aspect-forming suffixes remained productive in Carnian for a considerably longer period and historically constituted the primary means of deriving aspectual counterparts. In the modern language, however, these traditional (im)perfectivizing suffixes are no longer productive. While Carnian still employs a range of verbal prefixes, these are now used primarily for lexical derivation and semantic modification rather than for purely aspectual opposition; prefixes that serve only to mark perfectivity are increasingly marginal.
==== Biaspectual verbs ====
A relatively large and growing group of verbs in Carnian are biaspectual, that is, they can function with either perfective or imperfective interpretation. This group consists mainly of loanwords, newer verb formations, and older inherited verbs whose original aspectual counterpart has been lost. Biaspectual verbs may be accompanied by the perfectivizing particle ''[[Contionary:œr#Carnian|œr]]'' or the imperfectivizing particle ''[[Contionary:sien#Carnian|sien]]'', both of which are highly productive in the modern language and serve exclusively as aspectual markers.
Unmarked biaspectual forms tend to be interpreted as imperfective in most contexts; consequently, the perfectivizing particle ''œr'' is more frequently used to explicitly mark event completion. The particle ''sien'' is employed either to reinforce imperfective interpretation or to imperfectivize verbs with an inherently perfective or resultative reading, effectively replacing the older imperfectivizing suffix -''ivat'', which is no longer productive.
Examples:
* ''Jem œr to deau'' – I did it (''[[Contionary:deat#Carnian|deat]]'' 'to do', biaspectual)
* ''Jes œr ċitau ta kengà?'' – Did you read the book? (''[[Contionary:ċitat#Carnian|ċitat]]'' 'to read'; historically imperfective, now biaspectual; cf. Serbo-Croatian imperfective ''čitati'' vs. perfective ''pročitati'')
* ''Jem sien perpisau to due ori'' – I was copying it for two hours (example usage of ''sien'' with a perfective verb ''perpisat'' 'to copy')
The number of biaspectual verbs in Carnian continues to increase, as newly introduced verbs generally do not develop distinct aspectual counterparts. As a result, biaspectuality is expected to become characteristic of an increasing proportion of the verbal lexicon. This development is especially advanced in the ''Fyn'' dialect, where analytic particle constructions frequently replace the older inherited aspectual distinctions.
=== Conjugation ===
==== Infinitive ====
Standard Carnian preserves only the short infinitive with the -''t'' suffix, preceded by a thematic vowel, if there is any. It thus differs from South Slavic languages, whose standard infinitive ends in -''ti''. The change -''ti'' > -''t'', that is the loss of the final vowel, is a relatively recent phenomenon which took place after the rise of penultimate accent; thus all infinitives are stressed on the final syllable. Some dialects, in particular the Lower and Kvarner, preserve the long infinitive -''ti'' and contrastive supine in -''t''. In addition, western coastal dialects experience rhotacization of the infinitive suffix, which then becomes variably -''r'', -''ri'', or -''re'', depending on the region (cf. Western Istrian ''ċitare'' vs. standard ''ċitat'' 'to read').
==== Present indicative ====
In the present indicative, verbs have mostly the same endings across all declensions. The extra -e- is added to the endings when the verb stem ends in a consonant.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=3| Singular
!colspan=3| Plural
|-
! {{small|1st}}
! {{small|2nd}}
! {{small|3rd}}
! {{small|1st}}
! {{small|2nd}}
! {{small|3rd}}
|-
! -a-
| -a-m
| -a-ṡ
| -a
| -a-me
| -a-te
| -a-jan
|-
! -i-
| -i-m
| -i-ṡ
| -i
| -i-me
| -i-te
| -i-jan
|-
! -e-
| -e-m
| -e-ṡ
| -e
| -e-me
| -e-te
| -e-jan / -an*
|-
! -je-
| -je-m
| -je-ṡ
| -je
| -je-me
| -je-te
| -ø-jan
|-
! -ø-
| -ø-m
| -ø-ṡ
| -ø
| -ø-me
| -ø-te
| -ø-jan
|-
|}
'''Note''': *The -e-jan ending occurs in verbs with infinitive in -''et'' (cf. ''vuemet'' 'to know how', ''vuemejan''), while the -an occurs in verbs with infinitive in -''t'' (cf. ''nest'' 'to carry', ''nesan'')
==== Imperative ====
The imperative mood is used to give commands and can be formed for the second person singular and plural, and for the first person plural. It is formed by extending the verb stem with -i, which forms a diphthong if preceded by a vowel. Present stems ending with vowels other than -a- drop their final vowel.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2|
!Singular
!colspan=3| Plural
|-
! {{small|2nd}}
! {{small|1st}}
! {{small|2nd}}
|-
! -a-
| -a-i
| -a-i-me
| -a-t-te
|-
! -i-
| -i
| -i-me
| -i-te
|-
! -e-
| -i
| -i-me
| -i-te
|-
! -je-
| -i
| -i-me
| -i-te
|-
! -ø-
| -i
| -i-me
| -i-te
|-
|}
For other persons, the analytical form is used with the particle ''hai'' (dialectally ''nai'') 'let', followed by the indicative. For example, ''Hai bande bolsei'' 'Let it be better'.
==== Active participle ====
Active participle indicates ongoing or current action, corresponding to the English participle -ing. It is formed by extending the verb stem with -''ant'' or -''jant'', depending on the thematic vowel. Verbs with present stems in -i- and -e- which have -''jant'' suffix may dialectally have -''ent'' suffix, which is a remnant of the archaic form. Adjectival active participles decline like regular adjectives.
Although predicative adjectival and adverbial forms are the same, they differ in accentuation, i.e., predicative adjectival receives ultimate accent, while adverbial receives the standard, penultimate accent. In this case, the ultimate accent is marked in spelling, cf. ''ċitajant'' (adverbial meaning) vs. ''ċitajànt'' (adjectival meaning).
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2| Predicative / Adverb
!colspan=3| Singlar nominative
|-
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
|-
! -a-
| -a-jant
| -a-jant-y
| -a-jant-a
| -a-jant-e
|-
! -i-
| -jant
| -jant-y
| -jant-a
| -jant-e
|-
! -e-
| -jant / -ant*
| -(j)ant-y
| -(j)ant-a
| -(j)ant-e
|-
! -je-
|rowspan=2| -j-ant
|rowspan=2| -j-ant-y
|rowspan=2| -j-ant-a
|rowspan=2| -j-ant-e
|-
! -ø-
|}
'''Note''': *For verb stems in -e-, -jant suffix occurs for verbs with infinitives in -et
==== Passive participle ====
The passive participle is an adjective that indicates a state of having undergone an action, corresponding to the English participle in -ed or -en. It is formed with two possible suffixes, -''n'' or -''t'', with the choice of suffix depending on the stem.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Infinitive
! Predicative
|-
! -a-t
| -a-n
|-
! -i-t
| -je-n/t
|-
! -e-t
| -e-n/t
|-
! -o-t / -u-t
| -o/u-t
|-
! C-t
| -e-n
|-
|}
==== Past participle ====
The past participle is used mainly to form the past and future tense and is formed by extending the infinitive stem with -''u̯'' (when stem ends in a vowel) or with -ø (when stem ends in a consonant); compare ''davau'' [dɐʋǎʊ̯], ''rec'' [rɛ̌k].
It appears in analytical forms and therefore exists primarily in predicative (although some fossilized forms of non-predicative use exist, for example in ''dobrosli'' 'welcome') and must be preceded by an auxiliary verb. Like other predicative expressions, it receives ultimate accent.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Infinitive
! Predicative
|-
! -a-t
| -au
|-
! -i-t
|rowspan=2| -eu
|-
! -e-t
|-
! -o-t / -u-t
| -ou
|-
! C-t
|rowspan=2| -ø
|-
! -ø-it
|-
|}
There is an additional, '''ṡ-participle''', rarely used in modern language. It corresponds to the English construct with ''having'' + past participle and is formed by extending the infinitive stem with -''u̯ṡi'' (or -''ṡi'' if the stem ends in a consonant).
==== Gerund ====
Gerund is formed by adding an ending -''ie'' to the past passive participle, meaning that all gerunds end in either -''nie'' or -''tie''. It declines according to the o-stem soft neuter declension.
=== Analytical forms ===
==== Past indicative ====
The past indicative is used to indicate events that occurred in the past. It is formed with the auxiliary verb ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' ('to be') in the present tense, followed by the predicative past participle of the verb, for example ''jem videu'' 'I saw'.
==== Pluperfect indicative ====
The pluperfect indicative is used to indicate an action that occurred before some other past action, although it is rarely used in modern language, being replaced by the past tense. It is formed with the auxiliary verb ''bœt'' ('to be') in the present tense, followed by the past participle of ''bœt'', and then followed by the past participle of the verb, for example ''jem bœu videu'' 'I had seen'.
==== Future indicative ====
The future tense of perfective verbs consists simply of their present tense, since perfective verbs cannot be expressed in the present indicative. The future tense of imperfective verbs, however, is formed analytically with the auxiliary verb ''bœt'' in its special auxiliary form with the stem ''ba''-, followed by the past participle of the verb. For example, ''bam videu'' 'I will see'.
'''Conjugation of the auxiliary verb''':
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1st
| bam
| bame
|-
! 2nd
| baṡ
| baste
|-
! 3rd
| ba
| badan
|}
==== Conditional mood ====
The conditional mood is formed similarly to the analytical future indicative, but the auxiliary verb is the conditional form of ''bœt'' with the stem ''bi''-, for example: ''bim videu'' 'I would see'.
'''Conjugation of the auxiliary verb''':
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1st
| bim
| bime
|-
! 2nd
| biṡ
| biste
|-
! 3rd
|colspan=2| bi
|}
=== Negative forms ===
Negation is simply formed by adding the negation particle ''ne'' before the verb, for example ''ne vidim'' 'I don't see'. However, three verbs, namely ''bœt'' 'to be', ''meat'' 'to have', and ''teat'' 'to want', have special negative forms in present indicative:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2| Infinitive
!colspan=3| Singular
!colspan=3| Plural
|-
! {{small|1st}}
! {{small|2nd}}
! {{small|3rd}}
! {{small|1st}}
! {{small|2nd}}
! {{small|3rd}}
|-
! bœt
| niem
| nies
| nie
| nieme
| nieste
| nesan
|-
! meat
| nimam
| nimaṡ
| nima
| nimame
| nimate
| nimajan
|-
! teat
| notzem
| notzeṡ
| notze
| notzeme
| notzete
| notzan
|}
=== Full conjugation examples ===
==== Regular verbs ====
Conjugation of the verb ''sengat'' 'to reach for' (consonant-stem, thematic vowel -a-):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Infinitive
| colspan=6| sengat
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Participles
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Past
| colspan=6| sengau
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Active
| colspan=6| sengajant
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Passive
| colspan=6| sengan
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Gerund
| colspan=6| senganie
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" |
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Singular
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Plural
|-
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Indicative
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Present
| sengam
| sengaṡ
| senga
| sengame
| sengate
| sengajan
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Past
| jem sengau
| jes sengau
| je sengau
| jesme sengau
| jeste sengau
| san sengau
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Future
| bam sengau
| baṡ sengau
| ba sengau
| bame sengau
| baste sengau
| badan sengau
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFDAB9;" | Imperative
| -
| sengai
| ''(hai senga)''
| sengaime
| sengaite
| ''(hai sengajan)''
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#A8D5A8;" | Conditional
| bim sengau
| biṡ sengau
| bi sengau
| bime sengau
| biste sengau
| bi sengau
|-
|}
Conjugation of the verb ''bit'' 'to beat' (vowel-stem, thematic vowel -je-):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Infinitive
| colspan=6| bit
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Participles
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Past
| colspan=6| beu
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Active
| colspan=6| bijant
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Passive
| colspan=6| bit
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Gerund
| colspan=6| bitie
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" |
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Singular
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Plural
|-
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Indicative
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Present
| bijem
| bijeṡ
| bije
| bijeme
| bijete
| bijan
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Past
| jem beu
| jes beu
| je beu
| jesme beu
| jeste beu
| san beu
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Future
| bam beu
| baṡ beu
| ba beu
| bame beu
| baste beu
| badan beu
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFDAB9;" | Imperative
| -
| by
| ''(hai bije)''
| byme
| byte
| ''(hai bijan)''
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#A8D5A8;" | Conditional
| bim beu
| biṡ beu
| bi beu
| bime beu
| biste beu
| bi beu
|-
|}
Conjugation of the verb ''peit'' 'to bake' (consonant-stem (velar), thematic vowel -ø-):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Infinitive
| colspan=6| peit
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Participles
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Past
| colspan=6| peckeu
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Active
| colspan=6| pecant
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Passive
| colspan=6| pecien
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Gerund
| colspan=6| pecienie
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" |
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Singular
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Plural
|-
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Indicative
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Present
| peckem
| pecieṡ
| pecie
| pecieme
| peciete
| pecan
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Past
| jem peckeu
| jes peckeu
| je peckeu
| jesme peckeu
| jeste peckeu
| san peckeu
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Future
| bam peckeu
| baṡ peckeu
| ba peckeu
| bame peckeu
| baste peckeu
| badan peckeu
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFDAB9;" | Imperative
| -
| peci
| ''(hai pecie)''
| pecime
| pecite
| ''(hai pecan)''
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#A8D5A8;" | Conditional
| bim peckeu
| biṡ peckeu
| bi peckeu
| bime peckeu
| biste peckeu
| bi peckeu
|-
|}
==== Irregular verbs ====
Conjugation of the verb ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' 'to be':
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Infinitive
| colspan=6| bœt
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Participles
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Past
| colspan=6| bœu
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Active
| colspan=6| bandant
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Passive
| colspan=6| -
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Gerund
| colspan=6| bœtie
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" |
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Singular
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Plural
|-
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
|-
! rowspan=4 style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Indicative
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Present
| jem
| jes
| je
| jesme
| jeste
| san
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Negative
| niem
| nies
| nie
| niesme
| nieste
| nesan
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Past
| jem bœu
| jes bœu
| je bœu
| jesme bœu
| jeste bœu
| san bœu
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Future <br /> {{small|''auxiliary''}}
| bandem <br /> ''bam''
| bandeṡ <br /> ''baṡ''
| bande <br /> ''ba''
| bandeme <br /> ''bame''
| bandete <br /> ''baste''
| bandan <br /> ''badan''
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFDAB9;" | Imperative
| -
| bandi
| ''(hai bande)''
| bandime
| bandite
| ''(hai bandan)''
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#A8D5A8;" | Conditional
| bim bœu
| biṡ bœu
| bi bœu
| bime bœu
| biste bœu
| bi bœu
|-
|}
Conjugation of the verb ''meat'' 'to have':
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Infinitive
| colspan=6| meat
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Participles
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Past
| colspan=6| meau
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Active
| colspan=6| majant
|-
! style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Passive
| colspan=6| mean
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFFACD;" | Gerund
| colspan=6| meanie
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" |
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Singular
! colspan=3 style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | Plural
|-
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|1st}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|2nd}}
! style="background-color:#D3D3D3;" | {{small|3rd}}
|-
! rowspan=4 style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Indicative
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Present
| mam
| maṡ
| ma
| mame
| mate
| majan
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Negative
| nimam
| nimaṡ
| nima
| nimame
| nimate
| nimajan
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Past
| jem meau
| jes meau
| je meau
| jesme meau
| jeste meau
| san meau
|-
! style="background-color:#B3D9FF;" | Future
| bam meau
| baṡ meau
| ba meau
| bame meau
| baste meau
| badan meau
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#FFDAB9;" | Imperative
| -
| meai
| ''(hai ma)''
| meaime
| meaite
| ''(hai majan)''
|-
! colspan=2 style="background-color:#A8D5A8;" | Conditional
| bim meau
| biṡ meau
| bi meau
| bime meau
| biste meau
| bi meau
|-
|}


== Pronouns ==
== Pronouns ==
=== Personal pronouns ===
Carnian personal pronouns are characterized by retaining only short forms in oblique forms as well as the unique formal pronoun ''vy'', which combines forms of ''ty'' with the consonant ''v''- from plural (which was formerly used in formal expressions). In addition, accusative and genitive forms are identical.
Carnian, just like all other Slavic languages, has a single reflexive pronoun se, used with verbs.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan=3|
! colspan=6| Singular
! colspan=5| Plural
! rowspan=3| Reflexive
|-
! rowspan=2| 1st
! colspan=2| 2nd
! colspan=3| 3rd
! rowspan=2| 1st
! rowspan=2| 2nd
! colspan=3| 3rd
|-
! {{small|Standard}}
! {{small|Formal}}
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
|-
! Nominative
| [[Contionary:ja#Carnian|ja, jaz]]
| [[Contionary:ty#Carnian|ty]]
| [[Contionary:vy#Carnian|vy]]
| [[Contionary:on#Carnian|on]]
| [[Contionary:ona#Carnian|ona]]
| [[Contionary:ono#Carnian|ono]]
| [[Contionary:mœ#Carnian|mœ]]
| [[Contionary:vœ#Carnian|vœ]]
| oni
| one
| ona
| -
|-
! Accusative
| rowspan=2 | me
| rowspan=2 | te
| rowspan=2 | ve
| rowspan=2 | ga
| rowspan=2 | ja
| rowspan=2 | ga
| rowspan=2 | nas
| rowspan=2 | vas
| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | i
| rowspan=2 | se
|-
! Genitive
|-
! Dative
| mi
| ti
| vi
| mo
| je
| mo
| nam
| vam
| colspan=3| im
| si
|-
! Possesive
| moi
| toi
| voi
| niega
| nie
| niega
| naṡ
| vaṡ
| colspan=3| ni
| soi
|-
|}
=== Demonstrative pronouns ===
Demonstrative pronouns are '''tien''' 'this' (itself being the result of clipping of ''ten'' and ''jen'', literally 'this one') and '''ou''' 'that'. They are declined as follows:
'''Declension of ''tien'''''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|
! colspan=3| Singular
! colspan=3| Plural
|-
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
|-
! colspan=2| Nominative
| rowspan=2| tien
| tiena
| tieno
| tieni
| rowspan=3| tiene
| rowspan=3| tiena
|-
! rowspan=2| Accusative
! {{small|inanimate}}
| rowspan=2| tienà
| rowspan=3| tienga
| rowspan=2| tiene
|-
! {{small|animate}}
| rowspan=2| tienga
|-
! colspan=2| Genitive
| tiene
| colspan=3| tiene
|-
! colspan=2| Dative
| tiemo
| tieni
| tiemo
| colspan=3| tienem
|}
'''Declension of ''ou'''''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|
! colspan=3| Singular
! colspan=3| Plural
|-
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
! {{small|Masculine}}
! {{small|Feminine}}
! {{small|Neuter}}
|-
! colspan=2| Nominative
| rowspan=2| ou
| ova
| ovo
| ovi
| rowspan=3| ove
| rowspan=3| ova
|-
! rowspan=2| Accusative
! {{small|inanimate}}
| rowspan=2| ovà
| rowspan=3| ouga
| rowspan=2| ove
|-
! {{small|animate}}
| rowspan=2| ouga
|-
! colspan=2| Genitive
| ove
| colspan=3| ove
|-
! colspan=2| Dative
| oumo
| ovi
| oumo
| colspan=3| ovem
|}
=== Interrogative pronouns ===
The interrogative pronouns introduce direct and indirect questions. There are two nominative forms: ''co'' 'who' and ''[[Contionary:kei#Carnian|kei]]'' 'what'.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! who
! what
|-
! Nominative
| co
| rowspan=2| kei
|-
! Accusative
| rowspan=2| coga
|-
! Genitive
| ciesa
|-
! Dative
| como
| ciemo
|}
Their negative forms are ''nico'' and ''niṡ'', respectively, and decline like interrogative (''nicoga'', ''niciesa'', etc.).


== Numerals ==
== Numerals ==


Numerals in Carnian are similar to those in other Slavic languages. The main difference is the loss of -''t'' in numerous cardinal numbers, which became the characteristic of their ordinal counterparts. The ordinals between 1 and 4 are irregular; from 5 on (with the exception of 7 and 8), the formation is regular. All numerals decline by case, but only 1-4 are additionally declined by gender.
Numerals experienced considerable contraction, for example *''pęt na desęte'' > ''pennais'' 'fifty'. A similar phenomenon is found in Slovene, although generally to a smaller extent.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! Cardinal
! Ordinal
!
! Cardinal
! Ordinal
!
! Cardinal
! Ordinal
|-
! 1
| jen
| perv
! 11
| jenais
| jenaist
! 30
| trysen
| trysent
|-
! 2
| dua
| drug
! 12
| duanais
| duanaist
! 40
| stœrsen
| stœrsent
|-
! 3
| try
| tret
! 13
| trinais
| trinaist
! 50
| pensen
| pensent
|-
! 4
| stœri
| suart
! 14
| stœrnais
| stœrnaist
! 60
| siessen
| siessent
|-
! 5
| pen
| pent
! 15
| pennais
| pennaist
! 70
| semsen
| semsent
|-
! 6
| sies
| siest
! 16
| siesnais
| siesnaist
! 80
| osemsen
| osemsent
|-
! 7
| colspan=2| semm*
! 17
| sennais
| sennaist
! 90
| devensen
| devensent
|-
! 8
| colspan=2| osem*
! 18
| osennais
| osennaist
! 100
| sto
| stot
|-
! 9
| deven
| devent
! 19
| devennais
| devennaist
! 200
| duesto
| duestot
|-
! 10
| desen
| desent
! 20
| duaisen
| duaisent
! 1000
| tisan
| tisant
|-
|}
'''Note''': *''semm'' and ''osem'' are identical only when predicative (base) forms of ordinals are considered. When declined by gender, their forms are, for example, ''semmy'', ''osmy''.


[[Category:Carnian]]
[[Category:Carnian]]
Retrieved from "https://duo.linguifex.com/wiki/Carnian_grammar"