Sekhulla: Difference between revisions

(15 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)

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|-

! [[w:Close vowel|High]]

| [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] || iː || [[w:Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] || || rowspan="2" | [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]] || rowspan="2" | uː

| [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] || iː || [[w:Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] || ɨː || rowspan="2" | [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]] || rowspan="2" | uː

|-

! [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]

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|}

*/ɨ/ only occurs postvocalically.

*/u(ː)/ is in free variation with [o(ː)]

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==Morphology==

====Alignment====

Sekhulla has ~~nominative-accusative~~ morphosyntactic alignment.

Sekhulla has fluid active–stative morphosyntactic alignment.

===Nouns and pronouns===

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|+ Noun particles

|-

! !! {{gcl|ACC}} !! {{gcl|~~POSS|possessive~~}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|LOC}}

! !! {{gcl|ACC}}/{{gcl|ERG}} !! {{gcl|POSS|possessive}} !! {{gcl|LOC}}

|-

! {{gcl|1}}

| rowspan="4" | a || ən ~~|| rowspan="7" | əzːə~~ || aə

| rowspan="4" | a || ən || aə

|-

! {{gcl|2}}

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====Pronouns====

Pronouns do not exist independently (except see [[Sekhulla#Possession|Possession]]); the person and class of dropped nouns are instead only shown through verb agreement.

~~The demonstrative ''haːl'' can also be used as a pronoun.~~

====Possession====

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|+ Verb agreement prefixes

|-

! !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|CL1}} !! >{{gcl|CL2}} !! >{{gcl|CL3}} ~~!! >~~{{gcl|CL4}} !! >{{gcl|CL5}}

! !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|CL1}} !! >{{gcl|CL2}} !! >{{gcl|CL3}}/{{gcl|CL4}} !! >{{gcl|CL5}}

|-

! {{gcl|1}}

| sək- || səkʷ- || səkju- || səp- || sətna~~- || saŋːi~~- || su-

| sək- || səkʷ- || səkju- || səp- || sətna- || su-

|-

! {{gcl|2}}

| kʷər- || kʷəzə- || kʷərju- || kʷəp- || kʷəriɬ~~- || kʷəran~~- || kʷu-

| kʷər- || kʷəzə- || kʷərju- || kʷəp- || kʷəriɬ- || kʷu-

|-

! {{gcl|CL1}}

| jːuːsə- || jːuːɣʷə- || ajːu- || jːuːp- || jːuːwin~~- || jːuːwan~~- || jːuːuː-

| jːuːsə- || jːuːɣʷə- || ajːu- || jːuːp- || jːuːwin- || jːuːuː-

|-

! {{gcl|CL2}}

| parə- || paɣʷ- || pazajːu- || pah- || parin~~- || paŋːi~~- || pu-

| parə- || paɣʷ- || pazajːu- || pah- || parin- || pu-

|-

! {{gcl|CL3}}

| ina- || naɣʷ- || iɬjːuː- || nalː~~- || naɬ~~- || inɮə- || nu-

| ina- || naɣʷ- || iɬjːuː- || nalː- || inɮə- || nu-

|-

! {{gcl|CL4}}

| ansə- || ŋʷːə- || ŋːajːu- || ŋːip- || aŋːi~~- || ŋːin~~- || rowspan="2" | u-

| ansə- || ŋʷːə- || ŋːajːu- || ŋːip- || aŋːi- || rowspan="2" | u-

|-

! {{gcl|CL5}}

| us- || uɣʷ- || uwajːu- || ba- || uwiɬ~~- || uwaŋːi~~-

| us- || uɣʷ- || uwajːu- || ba- || uwiɬ-

|}

*Intransitive verbs are marked with patient agreement of the agent's class, and impersonal verbs are unmarked.

**In western Sekhulla, ''pah-'' may be omitted; in eastern Sekhulla, ''u-'' may be omitted.

**In western Sekhulla, ''pah-'' may be omitted; in eastern Sekhulla, ''u-'' may be omitted with class-5 patients.

====Copula====

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|+ Copulae

|-

! !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|CL1}} !! >{{gcl|CL2}} !! >{{gcl|CL3}} ~~!! >~~{{gcl|CL4}} !! >{{gcl|CL5}}

! !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|CL1}} !! >{{gcl|CL2}} !! >{{gcl|CL3}}/{{gcl|CL4}} !! >{{gcl|CL5}}

|-

! {{gcl|1}}

| səɣən || səɣʷəːn || səɣajːuːən || səpaən || sətnaɮən ~~|| saŋːiən~~ || suən

| səɣən || səɣʷəːn || səɣajːuːən || səpaən || sətnaɮən || suən

|-

! {{gcl|2}}

| kʷərən || kʷəzən || kʷərajːuːən || kʷəbaən || kʷəriɮən ~~|| kʷəranən~~ || kʷuən

| kʷərən || kʷəzən || kʷərajːuːən || kʷəbaən || kʷəriɮən || kʷuən

|-

! {{gcl|CL1}}

| jːuːsəɣən || jːuːɣʷəzən || ajːuːən || jːuːbaən || jːuːwinən ~~|| jːuːwanən~~ || jːuːuːən

| jːuːsəɣən || jːuːɣʷəzən || ajːuːən || jːuːbaən || jːuːwinən || jːuːuːən

|-

! {{gcl|CL2}}

| parəɣən || paɣʷəːn || pazajːuːən || pazən || parinən ~~|| paŋːiən~~ || puən

| parəɣən || paɣʷəːn || pazajːuːən || pazən || parinən || puən

|-

! {{gcl|CL3}}

| nasən || naɣʷəːn || naɮjːuːən || naplaən || naɮən ~~|| naɮanən~~ || nuən

| nasən || naɣʷəːn || naɮjːuːən || naplaən || naɮən || nuən

|-

! {{gcl|CL4}}

| ansəɣən || ŋʷːəːn || ŋːajːuːən || ŋːibaən ~~|| aŋːinən~~ || ŋːiən || rowspan="2" | uən

| ansəɣən || ŋʷːəːn || ŋːajːuːən || ŋːibaən || ŋːiən || rowspan="2" | uən

|-

! {{gcl|CL5}}

| səːn || ɣʷəːn || wajːuːən || baən || winaɮən ~~|| uwaŋːiən~~

| səːn || ɣʷəːn || wajːuːən || baən || winaɮən

|}

===Adjectives and adverbs===

===~~Adpositions~~===

===Prepositions===

===Numerals===

Sekhulla uses base-12 numerals which agree in class with their head noun.

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Nouns are not marked for number when using numerals.

====Questions====

Questions are marked by dipping intonation.

===Derivational morphology===

====Part-of-speech modifiers====

====-aʃ====

====aʃ====

The causative ~~suffix~~ ''-aʃ'' can be used productively on any verb, as well as being used nonproductively on some verbs deriving verbs of new meanings.

The causative enclitic ''aʃ'' can be used productively on any verb, as well as being used nonproductively on some verbs deriving verbs of new meanings.

====-suʃ====

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==Syntax==

===Constituent order===

SVO ~~or VSO~~ order is most common, but word order is flexible.

SVO order is most common, but word order is flexible and VSO is also common in western Sekhulla.

===Noun and verb phrases===

All modifiers follow their head noun or verb, except aspect-mood particles precede verbs ~~and the demonstrative ''haːl'' precedes nouns~~. Generally numerators follow adjectives and possessors follow all other modifiers, but otherwise modifier order is flexible.

All modifiers follow their head noun or verb, except aspect-mood particles precede verbs. Generally numerators follow adjectives and possessors follow all other modifiers, but otherwise modifier order is flexible.

===Dependent clauses===

@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 |-
 ! [[w:Close vowel|High]]
-| [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] || iː || [[w:Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] || || rowspan="2" | [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]] || rowspan="2" | uː
+| [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] || iː || [[w:Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] || ɨː || rowspan="2" | [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]] || rowspan="2" | uː
 |-
 ! [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]
@@ Line 58: / Line 58: @@
 |}
-*/ɨ/ only occurs postvocalically.
 */u(ː)/ is in free variation with [o(ː)]
@@ Line 69: / Line 68: @@
 ==Morphology==
 ====Alignment====
-Sekhulla has nominative-accusative morphosyntactic alignment.
+Sekhulla has fluid active–stative morphosyntactic alignment.
 ===Nouns and pronouns===
@@ Line 77: / Line 76: @@
 |+ Noun particles
 |-
-! !! {{gcl|ACC}} !! {{gcl|POSS|possessive}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|LOC}}
+! !! {{gcl|ACC}}/{{gcl|ERG}} !! {{gcl|POSS|possessive}} !! {{gcl|LOC}}
 |-
 ! {{gcl|1}}
-| rowspan="4" | a || ən || rowspan="7" | əzːə || aə
+| rowspan="4" | a || ən || aə
 |-
 ! {{gcl|2}}
@@ Line 105: / Line 104: @@
 ====Pronouns====
 Pronouns do not exist independently (except see [[Sekhulla#Possession|Possession]]); the person and class of dropped nouns are instead only shown through verb agreement.
-The demonstrative ''haːl'' can also be used as a pronoun.
 ====Possession====
@@ Line 118: / Line 115: @@
 |+ Verb agreement prefixes
 |-
-! !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|CL1}} !! >{{gcl|CL2}} !! >{{gcl|CL3}} !! >{{gcl|CL4}} !! >{{gcl|CL5}}
+! !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|CL1}} !! >{{gcl|CL2}} !! >{{gcl|CL3}}/{{gcl|CL4}} !! >{{gcl|CL5}}
 |-
 ! {{gcl|1}}
-| sək- || səkʷ- || səkju- || səp- || sətna- || saŋːi- || su-
+| sək- || səkʷ- || səkju- || səp- || sətna- || su-
 |-
 ! {{gcl|2}}
-| kʷər- || kʷəzə- || kʷərju- || kʷəp- || kʷəriɬ- || kʷəran- || kʷu-
+| kʷər- || kʷəzə- || kʷərju- || kʷəp- || kʷəriɬ- || kʷu-
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL1}}
-| jːuːsə- || jːuːɣʷə- || ajːu- || jːuːp- || jːuːwin- || jːuːwan- || jːuːuː-
+| jːuːsə- || jːuːɣʷə- || ajːu- || jːuːp- || jːuːwin- || jːuːuː-
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL2}}
-| parə- || paɣʷ- || pazajːu- || pah- || parin- || paŋːi- || pu-
+| parə- || paɣʷ- || pazajːu- || pah- || parin- || pu-
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL3}}
-| ina- || naɣʷ- || iɬjːuː- || nalː- || naɬ- || inɮə- || nu-
+| ina- || naɣʷ- || iɬjːuː- || nalː- || inɮə- || nu-
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL4}}
-| ansə- || ŋʷːə- || ŋːajːu- || ŋːip- || aŋːi- || ŋːin- || rowspan="2" | u-
+| ansə- || ŋʷːə- || ŋːajːu- || ŋːip- || aŋːi- || rowspan="2" | u-
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL5}}
-| us- || uɣʷ- || uwajːu- || ba- || uwiɬ- || uwaŋːi-
+| us- || uɣʷ- || uwajːu- || ba- || uwiɬ-
 |}
 *Intransitive verbs are marked with patient agreement of the agent's class, and impersonal verbs are unmarked.
-**In western Sekhulla, ''pah-'' may be omitted; in eastern Sekhulla, ''u-'' may be omitted.
+**In western Sekhulla, ''pah-'' may be omitted; in eastern Sekhulla, ''u-'' may be omitted with class-5 patients.
 ====Copula====
@@ Line 151: / Line 148: @@
 |+ Copulae
 |-
-! !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|CL1}} !! >{{gcl|CL2}} !! >{{gcl|CL3}} !! >{{gcl|CL4}} !! >{{gcl|CL5}}
+! !! >{{gcl|1}} !! >{{gcl|2}} !! >{{gcl|CL1}} !! >{{gcl|CL2}} !! >{{gcl|CL3}}/{{gcl|CL4}} !! >{{gcl|CL5}}
 |-
 ! {{gcl|1}}
-| səɣən || səɣʷəːn || səɣajːuːən || səpaən || sətnaɮən || saŋːiən || suən
+| səɣən || səɣʷəːn || səɣajːuːən || səpaən || sətnaɮən || suən
 |-
 ! {{gcl|2}}
-| kʷərən || kʷəzən || kʷərajːuːən || kʷəbaən || kʷəriɮən || kʷəranən || kʷuən
+| kʷərən || kʷəzən || kʷərajːuːən || kʷəbaən || kʷəriɮən || kʷuən
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL1}}
-| jːuːsəɣən || jːuːɣʷəzən || ajːuːən || jːuːbaən || jːuːwinən || jːuːwanən || jːuːuːən
+| jːuːsəɣən || jːuːɣʷəzən || ajːuːən || jːuːbaən || jːuːwinən || jːuːuːən
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL2}}
-| parəɣən || paɣʷəːn || pazajːuːən || pazən || parinən || paŋːiən || puən
+| parəɣən || paɣʷəːn || pazajːuːən || pazən || parinən || puən
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL3}}
-| nasən || naɣʷəːn || naɮjːuːən || naplaən || naɮən || naɮanən || nuən
+| nasən || naɣʷəːn || naɮjːuːən || naplaən || naɮən || nuən
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL4}}
-| ansəɣən || ŋʷːəːn || ŋːajːuːən || ŋːibaən || aŋːinən || ŋːiən || rowspan="2" | uən
+| ansəɣən || ŋʷːəːn || ŋːajːuːən || ŋːibaən || ŋːiən || rowspan="2" | uən
 |-
 ! {{gcl|CL5}}
-| səːn || ɣʷəːn || wajːuːən || baən || winaɮən || uwaŋːiən
+| səːn || ɣʷəːn || wajːuːən || baən || winaɮən
 |}
 ===Adjectives and adverbs===
-===Adpositions===
+===Prepositions===
 ===Numerals===
 Sekhulla uses base-12 numerals which agree in class with their head noun.
@@ Line 291: / Line 289: @@
 Nouns are not marked for number when using numerals.
+====Questions====
+Questions are marked by dipping intonation.
 ===Derivational morphology===
 ====Part-of-speech modifiers====
-====-aʃ====
+====aʃ====
-The causative suffix ''-aʃ'' can be used productively on any verb, as well as being used nonproductively on some verbs deriving verbs of new meanings.
+The causative enclitic ''aʃ'' can be used productively on any verb, as well as being used nonproductively on some verbs deriving verbs of new meanings.
 ====-suʃ====
@@ Line 304: / Line 306: @@
 ==Syntax==
 ===Constituent order===
-SVO or VSO order is most common, but word order is flexible.
+SVO order is most common, but word order is flexible and VSO is also common in western Sekhulla.
 ===Noun and verb phrases===
-All modifiers follow their head noun or verb, except aspect-mood particles precede verbs and the demonstrative ''haːl'' precedes nouns. Generally numerators follow adjectives and possessors follow all other modifiers, but otherwise modifier order is flexible.
+All modifiers follow their head noun or verb, except aspect-mood particles precede verbs. Generally numerators follow adjectives and possessors follow all other modifiers, but otherwise modifier order is flexible.
 ===Dependent clauses===