TolsianR: Difference between revisions

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====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural ~~will be treated as if it belongs~~ to the stem, ~~with regard to~~ the genitive ~~case~~ suffix.

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.

<!-- aspirated plosives lose their aspiration ; voiceless obstruents become voiced ; the palatal nasal gets partially assimilated and turns into ''n'' ; prenasalised occlusives get totally nasalised ; the bilabial fricative becomes a labio-velar approximant [w] ; and there's gemination with the dental occlusives : [dd]. Those changes are usually reflected in the orthography.

Line 718:

Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.

Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.

</poem>

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.

In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.

Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Example

|-

! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective

|-

! 1SG

| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis

|-

! 2SG

| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis

|-

! 3SG.masc

| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)

| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis

|-

! 3SG.fem

| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima

|-

! 1PL

| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis

|-

! 2PL

| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis

|-

! 3PL.masc

| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)

|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose

|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi

|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos

|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis

|-

! 3PL.fem

| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos

|-

! 3PL.neut

| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi

|-

! 2FORMAL

| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis

|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====

<poem>

who ? ƿ / wi

what ? kea

whose ? ƿdo / wido

when ? pune / püne

where ? don (dôn)

why ?

</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====

<poem>

who, whom -

that -

whose - dœte / dote

when -

where -

why -

</poem>

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Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.

Absolute : gnomic

</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Line 1,178:

Line 1,249:

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well. Adjectives derived from nouns often take on the suffix -''el(c)'', -''al(c)'', ''-ilc'' (/el/, /al/, /il/ ; masculine (masculine plural), feminine (feminine plural) and neuter plural, respectively) if the noun stem ends in a consonant ; or the suffix ''-le(c)'', -''la(c)'', -''lic'' (/le(s)/, /la(s)/, /lis/) if it ends in a vowel. As for adjectives derived from verbs, they're usually past participle with added suffixes for gender and number : ''-e(c)'', -''a(c)'', ''-i(c)''. The ~~neutral only exist in~~ the ~~plural form nowadays~~ and ~~is used when an adjective qualifies several nouns of diverging gender. Adjectives are almost always placed after~~ the ~~noun they qualify~~.

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :

<poem>

1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.

2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.

3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.

4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.

</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.

<!-- Adjectives derived from nouns often take on the suffix -''el(c)'', -''al(c)'', ''-ilc'' (/el/, /al/, /il/ ; masculine (masculine plural), feminine (feminine plural) and neuter plural, respectively) if the noun stem ends in a consonant ; or the suffix ''-le(c)'', -''la(c)'', -''lic'' (/le(s)/, /la(s)/, /lis/) if it ends in a vowel. As for adjectives derived from verbs, they're usually past participle with added suffixes for gender and number : ''-e(c)'', -''a(c)'', ''-i(c)''.

-->

====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.

The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''liƿn'' or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

Line 1,219:

Line 1,309:

a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb

u- creates an antonym

u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)

ki-, k- diminutive

go-, go͠- aumentative

@@ Line 660: / Line 660: @@
 ====Case====
-TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix :  ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural will be treated as if it belongs to the stem, with regard to the genitive case suffix.
+TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix :  ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.
 <!-- aspirated plosives lose their aspiration ; voiceless obstruents become voiced ; the palatal nasal gets partially assimilated and turns into ''n'' ; prenasalised occlusives get totally nasalised ; the bilabial fricative becomes a labio-velar approximant [w] ; and there's gemination with the dental occlusives : [dd]. Those changes are usually reflected in the orthography.
@@ Line 718: / Line 718: @@
 Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
 Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
+</poem>
+===Pronouns===
+Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
+In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
+Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+ Example
+|-
+!  !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
+|-
+! 1SG
+| æ̊ / ya <p> æ̊bi / yabi <p> œæ̊ / oya || me <p> mebi (mebe) <p> ome || mi <p> mibi <p> omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines <p> mina, minac / minas <p> mini, minic / minis
+|-
+! 2SG
+| tw / tu <p> twbi / tubi <p> œtw / otu || te <p> tebi (tebe) <p> ote || ti <p> tibi (tqibi / tshibi) <p> oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines <p> tina, tinac / tinas <p> tini, tinic / tinis
+|-
+! 3SG.masc
+| æ / ay <p> æbi / aybi <p> æœ / ayo || wm / um <p> wmbi / umbi <p> wmo / umo|| im <p> imbi (bim) <p> imo (oim)
+| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines <p> cina, cinac / sina, sinas <p> cini, cinic / sini, sinis
+|-
+! 3SG.fem
+| mæ / may <p> mæbi / maybi <p> œmæ / omay || am <p> ambi <p> amo|| ima <p> imabi (bima) <p> oima
+|-
+! 1PL
+| cæ̊n / syan <p> bicæ̊n / bisyan <p> œcæ̊n / osyan || ne <p> nebi (nebe) <p> one || ni <p> nibi <p> oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines <p> nina, ninac / ninas <p> nini, ninic / ninis
+|-
+! 2PL
+| vw / vu <p> vwbi / vubi <p> œvw / ovu || ve <p> vebi (vebe) <p> ove || vi <p> vibi <p> ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines <p> vina, vinac / vinas <p> vini, vinic / vinis
+|-
+! 3PL.masc
+| cæ / say <p> bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) <p> œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
+|rowspan=3 | ce / se <p> cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) <p> oce / ose
+|rowspan=3 | ci / si <p> cibi / sibi <p> oci / osi
+|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
+|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines <p> icina, icinac / isina, isinas <p> icini, icinic / isini, isinis
+|-
+! 3PL.fem
+| mæcͪ /mays (may) <p> mæbic / maybis <p> mæœc / mayos
+|-
+! 3PL.neut
+| ci / si <p> cibi / sibi <p> œci / osi
+|-
+! 2FORMAL
+| ææ̊ / ayya <p> œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye <p> œæe / oaye || æi / ayi <p> œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes <p> ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas <p> ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
+|-
+|}
+====Other types of pronouns====
+=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
+<poem>
+who ? ƿ / wi
+what ? kea
+whose ? ƿdo / wido
+when ? pune / püne
+where ? don (dôn)
+why ?
+</poem>
+=====Relative pronouns and words=====
+<poem>
+who, whom -
+that -
+whose - dœte / dote
+when -
+where -
+why -
 </poem>
@@ Line 741: / Line 812: @@
 Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
 Absolute : gnomic
 </poem>
 ====Grammatical Mood====
@@ Line 1,178: / Line 1,249: @@
 ===Adjectives===
-Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well. Adjectives derived from nouns often take on the suffix -''el(c)'', -''al(c)'', ''-ilc'' (/el/, /al/, /il/ ; masculine (masculine plural), feminine (feminine plural) and neuter plural, respectively) if the noun stem ends in a consonant ; or the suffix ''-le(c)'', -''la(c)'', -''lic'' (/le(s)/, /la(s)/, /lis/) if it ends in a vowel. As for adjectives derived from verbs, they're usually past participle with added suffixes for gender and number : ''-e(c)'', -''a(c)'', ''-i(c)''. The neutral only exist in the plural form nowadays and is used when an adjective qualifies several nouns of diverging gender. Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.
+Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.
+There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
+<poem>
+. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
+. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
+. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
+. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
+</poem>
+The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.
+Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.
+<!-- Adjectives derived from nouns often take on the suffix -''el(c)'', -''al(c)'', ''-ilc'' (/el/, /al/, /il/ ; masculine (masculine plural), feminine (feminine plural) and neuter plural, respectively) if the noun stem ends in a consonant ; or the suffix ''-le(c)'', -''la(c)'', -''lic'' (/le(s)/, /la(s)/, /lis/) if it ends in a vowel. As for adjectives derived from verbs, they're usually past participle with added suffixes for gender and number : ''-e(c)'', -''a(c)'', ''-i(c)''.
+-->
+====Comparative and superlative====
+The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
+The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.
 ===Adverbs===
-Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''liƿn'' or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.
+Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.
 ===Prepositions===
@@ Line 1,219: / Line 1,309: @@
 a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
 u- creates an antonym
+u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
 ki-, k- diminutive
 go-, go͠- aumentative