TolsianR: Difference between revisions
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Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/ | Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/ | ||
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/ | Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/ | ||
Ɋ ɋ - / | Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/ | ||
Ƀ ƀ - /β/ | Ƀ ƀ - /β/ | ||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
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|} | |} | ||
/ | /ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ> | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
/ | /ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch> | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography. | The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography. | ||
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/. | However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/. | ||
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written. | After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written. | ||
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography. | After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography. | ||
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography. | The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography. | ||
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====Case==== | ====Case==== | ||
TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural | TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix. | ||
<!-- aspirated plosives lose their aspiration ; voiceless obstruents become voiced ; the palatal nasal gets partially assimilated and turns into ''n'' ; prenasalised occlusives get totally nasalised ; the bilabial fricative becomes a labio-velar approximant [w] ; and there's gemination with the dental occlusives : [dd]. Those changes are usually reflected in the orthography. | <!-- aspirated plosives lose their aspiration ; voiceless obstruents become voiced ; the palatal nasal gets partially assimilated and turns into ''n'' ; prenasalised occlusives get totally nasalised ; the bilabial fricative becomes a labio-velar approximant [w] ; and there's gemination with the dental occlusives : [dd]. Those changes are usually reflected in the orthography. | ||
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Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/. | Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/. | ||
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/. | The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/. | ||
The voiced dental plosive is geminated : /d/ → /dː/. | <!--The voiced dental plosive is geminated : /d/ → /dː/. | ||
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/. | -->Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/. | ||
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/. | Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/. | ||
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/. | Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/. | ||
</poem> | |||
===Pronouns=== | |||
Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation. | |||
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s. | |||
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Example | |||
|- | |||
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective | |||
|- | |||
! 1SG | |||
| æ̊ / ya <p> æ̊bi / yabi <p> œæ̊ / oya || me <p> mebi (mebe) <p> ome || mi <p> mibi <p> omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines <p> mina, minac / minas <p> mini, minic / minis | |||
|- | |||
! 2SG | |||
| tw / tu <p> twbi / tubi <p> œtw / otu || te <p> tebi (tebe) <p> ote || ti <p> tibi (tqibi / tshibi) <p> oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines <p> tina, tinac / tinas <p> tini, tinic / tinis | |||
|- | |||
! 3SG.masc | |||
| æ / ay <p> æbi / aybi <p> æœ / ayo || wm / um <p> wmbi / umbi <p> wmo / umo|| im <p> imbi (bim) <p> imo (oim) | |||
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines <p> cina, cinac / sina, sinas <p> cini, cinic / sini, sinis | |||
|- | |||
! 3SG.fem | |||
| mæ / may <p> mæbi / maybi <p> œmæ / omay || am <p> ambi <p> amo|| ima <p> imabi (bima) <p> oima | |||
|- | |||
! 1PL | |||
| cæ̊n / syan <p> bicæ̊n / bisyan <p> œcæ̊n / osyan || ne <p> nebi (nebe) <p> one || ni <p> nibi <p> oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines <p> nina, ninac / ninas <p> nini, ninic / ninis | |||
|- | |||
! 2PL | |||
| vw / vu <p> vwbi / vubi <p> œvw / ovu || ve <p> vebi (vebe) <p> ove || vi <p> vibi <p> ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines <p> vina, vinac / vinas <p> vini, vinic / vinis | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL.masc | |||
| cæ / say <p> bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) <p> œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo) | |||
|rowspan=3 | ce / se <p> cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) <p> oce / ose | |||
|rowspan=3 | ci / si <p> cibi / sibi <p> oci / osi | |||
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos | |||
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines <p> icina, icinac / isina, isinas <p> icini, icinic / isini, isinis | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL.fem | |||
| mæcͪ /mays (may) <p> mæbic / maybis <p> mæœc / mayos | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL.neut | |||
| ci / si <p> cibi / sibi <p> œci / osi | |||
|- | |||
! 2FORMAL | |||
| ææ̊ / ayya <p> œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye <p> œæe / oaye || æi / ayi <p> œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes <p> ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas <p> ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====Other types of pronouns==== | |||
=====Interrogative pronouns and words===== | |||
<poem> | |||
who ? ƿ / wi | |||
what ? kea | |||
whose ? ƿdo / wido | |||
when ? pune / püne | |||
where ? don (dôn) | |||
why ? | |||
</poem> | |||
=====Relative pronouns and words===== | |||
<poem> | |||
who, whom - | |||
that - | |||
whose - dœte / dote | |||
when - | |||
where - | |||
why - | |||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
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Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default. | Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default. | ||
Absolute : gnomic | Absolute : gnomic | ||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
====Grammatical Mood==== | ====Grammatical Mood==== | ||
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|} | |} | ||
--> | --> | ||
The following tables | The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms : | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 1SG | ! 1SG | ||
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V- | | ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2SG | ! 2SG | ||
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V- | | ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3SG | ! 3SG | ||
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V- | | ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1PL | ! 1PL | ||
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V- | | ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2PL | ! 2PL | ||
| ''stem''V- | | ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3PL | ! 3PL | ||
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V- | | ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2FORMAL | ! 2FORMAL | ||
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V- | | ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː | ||
|} | |} | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 1SG | ! 1SG | ||
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''- | | ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh | ||
|- | |||
! 2SG | |||
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ | |||
|- | |||
! 3SG | |||
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚ | |||
|- | |||
! 1PL | |||
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ | |||
|- | |||
! 2PL | |||
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL | |||
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi | |||
|- | |||
! 2FORMAL | |||
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate | |||
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate | |||
|- | |||
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) | |||
|- | |||
! 1SG | |||
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh | |||
|- | |- | ||
! 2SG | ! 2SG | ||
| ''stem''- | | ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3SG | ! 3SG | ||
| ''stem''- | | ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1PL | ! 1PL | ||
| ''stem''- | | ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2PL | ! 2PL | ||
| ''stem''- | | ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3PL | ! 3PL | ||
| ''stem''- | | ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2FORMAL | ! 2FORMAL | ||
| | | ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː | ||
|} | |} | ||
Note : | Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate | |||
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate | |||
|- | |||
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) | |||
|- | |||
! 1SG | |||
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh | |||
|- | |||
! 2SG | |||
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ | |||
|- | |||
! 3SG | |||
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚ | |||
|- | |||
! 1PL | |||
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ | |||
|- | |||
! 2PL | |||
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL | |||
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi | |||
|- | |||
! 2FORMAL | |||
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː | |||
|} | |||
<!-- In this table, the endings correspond, respectively, to 1SG, 2SG, 3SG, 1PL, 2PL, 3PL, and 2FORMAL persons. "Stem" represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel, as the diverse verbal categories markers can be inserted between the final vowel and the rest of the verb root. The final vowel is represented by the letter "V". The verbal declensions are given in phonological form ; indeed, orthography is not entirely transparent here, which can be most appreciated with the [tʃ] of the inanimate imperfect past which results from affrication of /t/ before /j/. The "(i)" is an epenthetic i sometimes inserted to break some consonant clusters (rules not perfectly described yet). Let's illustrate this table with a Class A verb, ''barinir'', "to want" : | <!-- In this table, the endings correspond, respectively, to 1SG, 2SG, 3SG, 1PL, 2PL, 3PL, and 2FORMAL persons. "Stem" represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel, as the diverse verbal categories markers can be inserted between the final vowel and the rest of the verb root. The final vowel is represented by the letter "V". The verbal declensions are given in phonological form ; indeed, orthography is not entirely transparent here, which can be most appreciated with the [tʃ] of the inanimate imperfect past which results from affrication of /t/ before /j/. The "(i)" is an epenthetic i sometimes inserted to break some consonant clusters (rules not perfectly described yet). Let's illustrate this table with a Class A verb, ''barinir'', "to want" : | ||
| Line 866: | Line 1,000: | ||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
--> | --> | ||
=====Examples of conjugated verbs===== | |||
Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! | ||
| Line 877: | Line 1,015: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1SG | ! 1SG | ||
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i | | barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2SG | ! 2SG | ||
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic | | barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3SG | ! 3SG | ||
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it | | barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1PL | ! 1PL | ||
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo | | barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2PL | ! 2PL | ||
| | | bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3PL | ! 3PL | ||
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in | | barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2FORMAL | ! 2FORMAL | ||
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || | | barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo | ||
|} | |} | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! | ||
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want" | ! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want" | ||
|- | |||
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) | |||
|- | |||
! 1SG | |||
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho | |||
|- | |||
! 2SG | |||
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos | |||
|- | |||
! 3SG | |||
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot | |||
|- | |||
! 1PL | |||
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof | |||
|- | |||
! 2PL | |||
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL | |||
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon | |||
|- | |||
! 2FORMAL | |||
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want" | ! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Person | ! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1SG | ! 1SG | ||
| | | barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2SG | ! 2SG | ||
| | | barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3SG | ! 3SG | ||
| | | barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1PL | ! 1PL | ||
| | | barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2PL | ! 2PL | ||
| | | barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3PL | ! 3PL | ||
| | | barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2FORMAL | ! 2FORMAL | ||
| | | barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo | ||
|} | |} | ||
But it is debated whether orthography should reflect better the palatalization and some write : ''barintqi, barintqic, barintqit, barintqimo, barintqitc, barintqin''. | |||
<!--But it is debated whether orthography should reflect better the palatalization and some write : ''barintqi, barintqic, barintqit, barintqimo, barintqitc, barintqin''.--> | |||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| Line 951: | Line 1,121: | ||
|} | |} | ||
--> | --> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want" | |||
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want" | |||
|- | |||
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) | |||
|- | |||
! 1SG | |||
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo | |||
|- | |||
! 2SG | |||
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc | |||
|- | |||
! 3SG | |||
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott | |||
|- | |||
! 1PL | |||
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh | |||
|- | |||
! 2PL | |||
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL | |||
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi | |||
|- | |||
! 2FORMAL | |||
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want" | |||
|- | |||
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) | |||
|- | |||
! 1SG | |||
| veka || vekita → veki <!--vekta--> || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo | |||
|- | |||
! 2SG | |||
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis <!--vektac-->|| vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos | |||
|- | |||
! 3SG | |||
| vekat || vekitat → vekit <!--vektat--> || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot | |||
|- | |||
! 1PL | |||
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo <!--vektʃimo--> || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof | |||
|- | |||
! 2PL | |||
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits <!--vekitqi / vekitshi--> || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL | |||
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon | |||
|- | |||
! 2FORMAL | |||
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye | |||
|} | |||
Let's illustrate this table with the Class B verb ''vekƃ'', "to help" : | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want" | |||
|- | |||
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) | |||
|- | |||
! 1SG | |||
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo | |||
|- | |||
! 2SG | |||
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc | |||
|- | |||
! 3SG | |||
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott | |||
|- | |||
! 1PL | |||
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh | |||
|- | |||
! 2PL | |||
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh | |||
|- | |||
! 3PL | |||
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi | |||
|- | |||
! 2FORMAL | |||
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo | |||
|} | |||
<!--Let's illustrate this table with the Class B verb ''vekƃ'', "to help" : | |||
<poem> | <poem> | ||
| Line 972: | Line 1,230: | ||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
Some write instead : ''vekitqmo, vekitqi , vekitqne'' (imperfect animate), ''vekitqa, vekitqac, vekitqat, vekitqimo, vekitqitc, vekitqan, vekitqe'' (imperfect inanimate). | Some write instead : ''vekitqmo, vekitqi , vekitqne'' (imperfect animate), ''vekitqa, vekitqac, vekitqat, vekitqimo, vekitqitc, vekitqan, vekitqe'' (imperfect inanimate).--> | ||
'''Participles''' | '''Participles''' | ||
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===Adjectives=== | ===Adjectives=== | ||
Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well. Adjectives derived from nouns often take on the suffix -''el(c)'', -''al(c)'', ''-ilc'' (/el/, /al/, /il/ ; masculine (masculine plural), feminine (feminine plural) and neuter plural, respectively) if the noun stem ends in a consonant ; or the suffix ''-le(c)'', -''la(c)'', -''lic'' (/le(s)/, /la(s)/, /lis/) if it ends in a vowel. As for adjectives derived from verbs, they're usually past participle with added suffixes for gender and number : ''-e(c)'', -''a(c)'', ''-i(c)''. The | Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well. | ||
There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form : | |||
<poem> | |||
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. | |||
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel. | |||
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs. | |||
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending. | |||
</poem> | |||
The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions. | |||
Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify. | |||
<!-- Adjectives derived from nouns often take on the suffix -''el(c)'', -''al(c)'', ''-ilc'' (/el/, /al/, /il/ ; masculine (masculine plural), feminine (feminine plural) and neuter plural, respectively) if the noun stem ends in a consonant ; or the suffix ''-le(c)'', -''la(c)'', -''lic'' (/le(s)/, /la(s)/, /lis/) if it ends in a vowel. As for adjectives derived from verbs, they're usually past participle with added suffixes for gender and number : ''-e(c)'', -''a(c)'', ''-i(c)''. | |||
--> | |||
====Comparative and superlative==== | |||
The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel. | |||
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article. | |||
===Adverbs=== | ===Adverbs=== | ||
Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''liƿn'' or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify. | Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify. | ||
===Prepositions=== | ===Prepositions=== | ||
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a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb | a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb | ||
u- creates an antonym | u- creates an antonym | ||
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names) | |||
ki-, k- diminutive | ki-, k- diminutive | ||
go-, go͠- aumentative | go-, go͠- aumentative | ||