Europaico: Difference between revisions

|posteriori=based on [[w:Romance languages|Romance]], [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]] and p[w:Slavic languages|Slavic]] languages.

|                       | '''Labial'''       | '''Alveolar'''       | '''Post-Alveolar''' | '''Palatal'''       | '''Velar'''         |

| ---------------------- | ----------------- | ------------------ | ------------------ | ----------------- | ----------------- |

| '''Nasal'''             | '''''m''''' /m/ '''м''' | '''''n''''' /n/ '''ɴ'''  |                   | '''''ň''''' /ɲ/ '''њ''' |                   |

| '''Unvoiced stop'''     | '''''p''''' /p/ '''п''' | '''''t''''' /t/ '''τ'''  |                   | '''''ť''''' /c/ '''ћ''' | '''''c''''' /k/ '''к''' |

| '''Voiced stop'''       | '''''b''''' /b/ '''б''' | '''''d''''' /d/ '''∂'''  |                   | '''''ď''''' /ɟ/ '''đ''' | '''''g''''' /ɡ/ '''г''' |

| '''Unvoiced affricate''' |                   | '''''c''''' /ts/ '''ц''' | '''''č''''' /tʃ/ '''ч''' |                   |                   |

| '''Unvoiced fricative''' | '''''f''''' /f/ '''ф''' | '''''s''''' /s/ '''с''' | '''''š''''' /ʃ/ '''ш'''  |                   | '''''h''''' /x/ '''x''' |

| '''Voiced fricative'''   | '''''v''''' /v/ '''w''' | '''''z''''' /z/ '''z''' | ( /ʒ/ )           |                   |                   |

| '''Glide'''             |                   |                   |                   | '''''y''''' /j/ '''ı''' |                   |

| '''Rhotic'''             |                   | '''''r''''' /ʀ/ '''ρ'''  |                   |                   |                   |

| '''Lateral'''           |                   | '''''l''''' /l/ '''ʌ'''  |                   |                   |                   |

The consonant /z/ may alternate freely between an alveolar realization \[z\] or a post-alveolar one /ʒ/. This explains why words which had a /ʒ/ or /dʒ/ in their source language might enter Europaico with a /z/ instead.

A velar nasal \[ŋ\] appear as an allophone of /n/ in clusters such as \[ŋk\] and \[ŋɡ\]. This consonant sound is not distinguished from /n/ in either orthography.

In addition to those, Europaico features seven falling diphthongs /ai̯ au̯ ei̯ eu̯ oi̯ ou̯ ui̯/, which might also be pronounced as \[aɪ̯ aʊ̯ eɪ̯ eʊ̯ oɪ̯ oʊ̯ uɪ̯\].

It might be noted that the /eu̯/ diphthong, featured in Europaico's own name no less, is absent from most major European languages (including German, English, French, most Slavic languages, etc). As a way to ease this problem, speakers are allowed to substitute /eu̯/ for whatever might be their native pronunciation of \<eu\> (as in their local pronunciation of 'Europe'). This means that possible realizations for Europaico's initial diphthong include \[jʊ\] (English), \[ø\] (Dutch, Danish, French), \[ɛɵ\] (Swedish), \[ɛv\] (Bulgarian) and \[\ɔʏ\] (German) among others.

- Syllables must have at least one vowel (or diphthong).

- /j/ might only appear before a vowel other than /i/ or /y/.

- Palatal consonants must not be followed by /j/.

- If the word ends in a consonant other than /n/ or /s/ or in a (falling) diphthong, stress falls on the last syllable.

- Otherwise (words ending in /n/, /s/ or a monophthong), stress falls on the second-to-last syllable.

Europaico's Latin-script orthography is largely based on that of Romance languages, particularly those of French and Catalan. The palatal (and palato-alveolar) consonants /ɲ c ɟ tʃ ʃ/, however, are written using a diacritic known as caron most commonly associated with Czech (where it is known as ''háček''). Carons typically look like an upside-down circumflex accent, as seen in ''č'' and ''ň'', although they adopt a different form closer to that of an apostrophe when applied to ''lowercase'' T and D (\<ť ď\>). This is not a joke feature from Europaico, it's how that diacritic actually works, for whatever reason. Letters bearing a caron are treated as separate letters for sorting purposes, coming after their non-accented counterparts (thus ''Č'' is regarded as being the fourth letter of Europaico's Latin alphabet, between regular ''C'' and ''D''). The character ''Ü'' (an umlauted U) is used for the vowel /y/ and it is also treated as letter of its own, being sorted between ''U'' and ''V''.

This orthography also uses the character \<ç\> (C with cedilla) as a way of representing the /ts/ sound in contexts where regular \<c\> (which can represent that sound before unrounded front vowels) would be pronounced as /k/ instead. Unlike caron-bearing palatals, \<ç\> is treated as a variant of \<c\> for collation, rather than as an independent letter.

| '''Letter'''   | '''Value''' | '''Notes'''                                                                                                                                                                       |

| ------------ | --------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |

| '''A''', '''a''' | /a/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''B''', '''b''' | /b/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''C''', '''c''' | /k/, /ts/ | Pronounced /ts/ before ''E'' or ''I''  or as /k/ otherwise.<br>See ''Q'' for the representation of /k/ before ''E'' and ''I''<br>and ''Ç'' for the representation of /ts/ in other contexts. |

| '''Ç''', '''ç''' | /ts/     | Variant of ''C'', used for the /ts/ when not followed by ''E'' or ''I''.                                                                                                               |

| '''Č''', '''č''' | /tʃ/     |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''D''', '''d''' | /d/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''Ď''', '''ď''' | /ɟ/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''E''', '''e''' | /e/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''F''', '''f''' | /f/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''G''', '''g''' | /ɡ/       | The sequences /ɡe/ and /ɡi/ are written with a silent ''U'': \<gue\>, \<gui\>.                                                                                                     |

| '''H''', '''h''' | /x/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''I''', '''i''' | /i/, /j/ | Read as /j/ when followed by a vowel (see also ''Y'').<br>Also used to write the diphthongs /ai̯ ei̯ oi̯ ui̯/ (\<ai ei oi ui\>).                                                   |

| '''J''', '''j''' | -         | Might be used to replace a caron when typing the diacritic is impossible or impractical.                                                                                         |

| '''L''', '''l''' | /l/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''M''', '''m''' | /m/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''N''', '''n''' | /n/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''Ň''', '''ň''' | /ɲ/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''O''', '''o''' | /o/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''P''', '''p''' | /p/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''Q''', '''q''' | /k/       | The digraph ''qu'' represents /k/ before the vowels ''E'' and ''I'', replacing ''C''.                                                                                                   |

| '''R''', '''r''' | /ʀ/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''S''', '''s''' | /s/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''Š''', '''š''' | /ʃ/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''T''', '''t''' | /t/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''Ť''', '''ť''' | /c/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''U''', '''u''' | /u/       | Silent in the trigraphs ''gue'' /ɡe/, ''gui'' /ɡi/, ''que'' /ke/ and ''qui'' /ki/.                                                                                                       |

| '''Ü''', '''ü''' | /y/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''V''', '''v''' | /v/       |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''Y''', '''y''' | /j/       | Used for /j/ when not preceded by another consonant in the syllable, otherwise ''I'' will be used instead.                                                                         |

| '''Z''', '''z''' | /z~ʒ/     |                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| Europaico   | Name     | Value   | Latin equivalent | Unicode-compatible look-alike                             |

| ------------ | --------- | -------- | ---------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------- |

| '''A''', '''a''' | ''Alfa''   | /a/     | '''a'''           | Latin uppercase/lowercase A                                |

| '''B''', '''б''' | ''Beta''   | /b/     | '''b'''           | Latin uppercase B, Cyrillic lowercase Be                  |

| '''Г''', '''г''' | ''Gama''   | /ɡ/     | '''g''', '''gu'''    | Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Ge                            |

| '''Δ''', '''∂''' | ''Delta''   | /d/     | '''d'''           | Greek uppercase Delta, Partial derivative sign            |

| '''Đ''', '''đ''' | ''Ďocovič'' | /ɟ/      | '''ď'''            | Latin uppercase/lowercase D with stroke                    |

| '''E''', '''e''' | ''Eta''     | /e/      | '''e'''           | Latin uppercase/lowercase E                                |

| '''Є''', '''ε''' | ''Yeť''    | /je/    | '''ie''', '''ye'''   | Ukrainian Cyrillic uppercase Ye, Greek lowercase Epsilon  |

| '''Z''', '''z''' | ''Zeta''   | /z/      | '''z'''            | Latin uppercase/lowercase Z                                |

| '''I''', '''ı''' | ''Yota''   | /i/, /j/ | '''i''', '''y'''     | Latin uppercase I, Turkish Latin lowercase dotless I      |

| '''K''', '''к''' | ''Capa''   | /k/     | '''c''', '''qu'''    | Latin uppercase K, Cyrillic lowercase Ka                  |

| '''Λ''', '''ʌ''' | ''Lamba''   | /l/     | '''l'''           | Greek uppercase Lambda, Latin lowercase turned V          |

| '''M''', '''м''' | ''Mü''     | /m/     | '''m'''           | Latin uppercase M, Cyrillic lowercase Em                  |

| '''N''', '''ɴ''' | ''Nu''     | /n/     | '''n'''           | Latin uppercase N, Latin small capital N                  |

| '''Њ''', '''њ''' | ''Ňü''     | /ɲ/     | '''ň'''           | Serbian Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Nje                  |

| '''O''', '''o''' | ''O''       | /o/     | '''o'''           | Latin uppercase/lowercase O                                |

| '''П''', '''п''' | ''Pe''     | /p/     | '''p'''           | Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Pe                            |

| '''Ρ,''' '''ρ''' | ''Ro''     | /ʀ/     | '''r'''           | Greek uppercase/lowercase Rho                              |

| '''С''', '''с''' | ''Se''     | /s/     | '''s'''           | Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Es                            |

| '''Τ''', '''τ''' | ''To''     | /t/     | '''t'''           | Greek uppercase/lowercase Tau                              |

| '''Ћ''', '''ћ''' | ''Ťoť''     | /c/     | '''ť'''           | Serbian Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Tshe                  |

| '''Ц''', '''ц''' | ''Ciť''     | /ts/     | '''c''', '''ç'''    | Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Tse                          |

| '''Ч''', '''ч''' | ''Čať''     | /tʃ/     | '''č'''           | Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Che                          |

| '''Ш''', '''ш''' | ''Šo''     | /ʃ/     | '''š'''           | Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Sha                          |

| '''V''', '''ʋ''' | ''Üs''     | /y/     | '''ü'''           | Latin uppercase V, Latin lowercase V with hook            |

| '''ȣ''', '''ɤ''' | ''U''       | /u/     | '''u'''           | Latin ''lowercase'' Ou ligature, Latin lowercase "rams horn" |

| '''Ф''', '''ф''' | ''Fe''     | /f/     | '''f'''            | Cyrillic uppercase/lowercase Ef                            |

| '''X''', '''x''' | ''He''      | /x/      | '''h'''            | Latin uppercase/lowercase X                               |

| '''W''', '''w''' | ''Vo''     | /v/     | '''v'''           | Latin uppercase/lowercase W                               |

- ''Ďe'' ~ /ɟe/ might can be either '''đe''' or '''∂ε'''.

- ''Ňe'' /ɲe/ might can be either '''њe''' or '''ɴε'''.

- ''Ťe'' ~ /ce/ might can be either '''ћe''' or '''τε'''.

- ''Če'' ~ /tʃe/ might can be either '''чe''' or '''цε'''.

- ''Še'' ~ /ʃe/ might can be either '''шe''' or '''сε'''.

Sometimes an Europaico word will not exactly match any of its sources. For instance, the Europaico word for 'wolf' is '''''vulk''''', made as a compromise between various descendants of Proto-Slavic ''\''vьlkъ'', including Russian ''волк'' (volk), Polish ''wilk'', Czech ''vlk'' (with a syllabic L that is not allowed in Europaico) and Bosnio-Montenegrin ''vuk''.

- Nouns ending in ''-o'' or ''-e'' are always '''neuter'''.

- Nouns ending in ''-a'' or in a palatal consonant (''č'', ''ď'', ''ň'', ''ť'' or ''š'') are always '''feminine'''.

- Nouns ending in a non-palatal consonant are always '''masculine'''.

The grammatical gender of nouns ending in a vowel other than neuter ''-o'' and ''-e'' or feminine ''-a'' cannot be determined from its form. Such nouns are rare and can usually be explained as borrowings from other language families such as ''çunami'' from Japanese ''tsunami''. Then the gender of the word depends on how it was usually borrowed into Slavic languages. In this case of ''çunami'', we can find that the Japanese word was borrowed as neuter ''цуна́ми'' (''tsunámi'') in Russian, neuter ''tsunami'' in Polish, feminine ''tsunami'' in Czech and masculine ''cunámi'' in Bosnio-Montenegrin; as a result Europaico ''çunami'' was made neuter gender as the most common option among those four control language.

- Western Romance languages and, for whatever odd twist, also English generally form plurals by adding an ''-s'' suffix or ''-es'' suffix to the singular form, as in English ''house'', ''houses'' or the corresponding Spanish ''casa'', ''casas''.

- Southern and Eastern Romance languages (most notably Italian and Romanian) and Slavic languages form their plurals by altering the ending of the singular, as in Italian ''casa'', ''case'' or Bosnio-Montenegrin ''kȕća'', ''kȕće''.

| '''Gender''' | '''Singular ending'''   | '''Plural ending''' | '''Example'''                               |

| ---------- | --------------------- | ----------------- | ----------------------------------------- |

| Masculine | Non-palatal consonant | '''''-is'''''         | ''muz'' (man) →''muzis'' (men)               |

| Feminine   | Final '''''-a'''''       | '''''-es'''''         | ''zena'' (woman) → ''zenes'' (women)         |

| Feminine   | Palatal consonant     | '''''-is'''''         | ''noč'' (night) →''nočis'' (nights)           |

| Neuter     | Final '''''-e'''''       | '''''-is'''''         | ''ďeťe'' (child) →''ďeťis'' (children)       |

| Neuter     | Final '''''-o'''''       | '''''-as'''''         | ''miesto'' (city) → ''miestas'' (cities)     |

| (Any)     | Other vowels         | '''''-s'''''         | ''çunami'' (tsunami) → ''çunamis'' (tsunamis) |

| Gender and number       | Definite | Example                 | Indefinite | Example                 |

| ----------------------- | --------- | ----------------------- | ---------- | ------------------------ |

| '''Feminine, singular''' | '''''la''''' | ''la zena'' (the woman)   | '''''ena''''' | ''ena zena'' (a woman)     |

| '''Masculine, singular''' | '''''el''''' | ''el muz'' (the man)     | '''''en'''''   | ''en muz'' (a man)         |

| '''Neuter, singular'''   | '''''lo''''' | ''lo miesto'' (the city) | '''''eno''''' | ''eno miesto'' (a city)   |

| '''Feminine, plural'''   | '''''les''''' | ''les zenes'' (the women) | -         | ''zenes'' (\[some\] women) |

| '''Common, plural'''     | '''''lis''''' | ''lis muzis'' (the men)   | -         | ''muzis'' (\[some\] men)   |

The possessive ''-'s'' suffix is applied without any regard to the shape of the previous word. This might yield unusual combinations such as ''des muz's'' (man's) with a /zs/ cluster which, in practice, speakers might end up simplifying to either /z/ or /s/ (even though, strictly speaking, an unreduced /zs/ cluster is prescribed) as well as sequences of multiple /s/ as in ''des muzis's'' (men's) which are not distinguished from a single /s/ (''muzis'' and ''muzis's'' will be pronounced identically as /ˈmu.zis/ or \[ˈmu.ʑis\]).

| '''Gender''' | '''Singular ending'''   | `GEN`.`SG`         | `GEN`.`PL` | Example                                                               |

| ---------- | --------------------- | ------------------- | ---------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------- |

| Masculine | Non-palatal consonant | '''''-a'''''           | '''''-ov''''' | ''muz'' → '''''muza''''' (man's)<br>''muzis'' → '''''muzov''''' (men's)           |

| Feminine   | Final '''''-a'''''       | '''''-i'''''           | -Ø         | ''zena'' → '''''zeni''''' (woman's)<br>''zene'' → '''''zen''''' (women's)         |

| Feminine   | Palatal consonant     | '''''-i'''''           | '''''-i'''''   | ''noč'' → '''''noči''''' (night's)<br>''nočis'' → '''''noči''''' (nights')       |

| Neuter     | Final '''''-e'''''       | '''''-'''('''i''')'''a''''' | '''''-i'''''   | ''ďeťe'' → '''''ďeťa''''' (child's)<br>''ďeťis'' → '''''ďeťi''''' (children's)   |

| Neuter     | Final '''''-o'''''       | '''''-a'''''           | -Ø         | ''miesto'' → '''''miesta''''' (city's)<br>''miestas'' → '''''miest''''' (cities') |

- For anyone:

- Look at historical variants or foreign counterparts of the name. For instance, Spanish ''José'' might regain its historical /p/ (preserved in Catalan ''Josep'' and Italian ''Giuseppe'' among others) to become ''Hosep'', while an English ''Elizabeth'' might opt to go instead by ''Isabela'', after the Italian and Latin versions of her name.

- For women:

- Add ''-a'' or the very Slavic-esque ''-va'' to the end of your name.

- For instance ''Mary Sue'' might adapt her name as ''Marija Šuva''.

- Replace final alveolar letters with their palatal counterparts: ''Karen'' → ''Careň''.

- For men:

- Dropping final vowels might be an easy option: ''Enrico'' → ''Enric''.

- Add a very Slavic-like ''-v'', particularly for surnames ending in ''e'' or ''o'': ''Vito Corleone'' → ''Victor Corleonev''.

- Replace final palatal letters with their alveolar counterparts: ''Ivanovič'' → ''Ivanoviç'' (it turns out that Slavic names don't do all that well either).

- For non-binary people:

- Isn't there enough invisibilization of non-binary identities already for you to bother with a conlang with mandatory gender marking too? Keep your name of choice, use a neuter ending or do whatever else you want, suit yourself! Sorry in advance for past-tense verbs, though.

- First of all, the resulting names risk having little international recognizability. This can be easily exemplified with Austria and its capital, Vienna. While the Latin-esque names used in English have a good chance of being understood all around the world, the German names ''Österreich'' and ''Wien'' are considerably more obscure, and the need to adapt them to Europaico phonotactics would yield even less recognizable results such as ''\''Estaraič'' and ''\''Vin''.

- The very concept of using the local language presupposes that there ''is'' a local language, bringing a whole lot of complications:

- For starters, the scheme couldn't apply to uninhabited places like most of Antarctica, deserted islands or the State of Wyoming.

- Continents and regions comprising linguistically diverse nations will likely have a variety of possible names. For the most extreme example, consider the name given to the planet itself: if there was a language widely accepted enough to be used for naming Earth as a whole, then chances are that we should be using that instead of any auxlang.

- Last but not least, many nations, provinces and cities are multilingual, often bearing multiple local names. Picking the variant favored by most locals seems like an easy choice but there won't be always a clear 'most used language' (and, even if there currently is one, it would be liable to change over time). Furthermore, the choice of one name over the other could be socially and politically problematic, highlighting regional tensions and stir debates about the colonialism and the repression of minorities.  

The second strategy, perhaps more common among earlier auxiliary languages, was to draw most names from a single source, usually an internationally 'prestigious' source such as English, French or Latin. This is the sort of reasoning that would suggest that we do indee pick internationally-recognizable names such as ''\''Austria'' and ''\''Viena'' for Austria and Vienna, where 'internationally-recognizable' means 'names speakers of major Western European languages are likely to have heard'. The colonialism undertones of that are problematic enough to stay away from that idea.

Fortunately, Europaico provides the ultimate solution for this sort of problem: all toponyms will be based on the names used in Czech. The Czech language is already phonetically close to Europaico, so distortions like the one found between German ''Österreich'' and ''\''Esteraič'' would be minimal. This solution completely sidesteps all linguistic and political issues with choosing a single 'local language' for each place and, with the Czech Republic lacking a colonial history, few people would question this choice on the basis of it being overly imperialistic (Slovaks might get a pass at it, but I am not aware of there ever being any Slovak placename which isn't the same in Czech).

Thus, Austria and Vienna, rather than having scarcely recognizable names such as ''\''Estaraič'' and ''\''Vin'' or potentially problematic names such as ''\''Austria'' and ''\''Viena'', will be known in Europaico as ''Racousco'' and ''Videň'', after the Czech names ''Rakousko'' and ''Vídeň'' respectively.

|                                 | '''Singular''' | '''Plural''' |

| -------------------------------- | ------------ | ---------- |

| '''Common''' (masculine or neuter) | '''''-o'''''     | '''''-is''''' |

| '''Feminine'''                     | '''''-a'''''     | '''''-es''''' |

| '''Person''' | '''Number''' | '''Gender''' | '''Nominative form''' | '''Accusative form''' | '''English equivalent''' |

| ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ------------------- | ------------------- | ---------------------- |

| 1st       | Sg.       | Any       | ''Ye''               | ''me'', ''m'''         | I, me                 |

| 2nd       | Sg.       | Any       | ''tü''               | ''te'', ''t'''         | You (informal)         |

| 2nd       | Sg.       | Any       | ''Vi''               | ''Vi''               | You (formal)           |

| 3rd       | Sg.       | Fem.       | ''el''               | ''le'', ''l'''         | She, her               |

| 3rd       | Sg.       | Masc.     | ''ela''               | ''la''               | He, him               |

| 3rd       | Sg.       | Neu.       | ''elo''               | ''lo''               | It                     |

| 1st       | Pl.       | Fem.       | ''nes''               | ''ens''               | We                     |

| 1st       | Pl.       | Masc.     | ''nis''               | ''nis''               | We                     |

| 1st       | Pl.       | Neu.       | ''nis''               | ''ens''               | We                     |

| 2nd       | Pl.       | Fem.       | ''ves''               | ''vi''               | You (plural), y'all   |

| 2nd       | Pl.       | M/N       | ''vis''               | ''vi''               | You (plural), y'all   |

| 3rd       | Pl.       | Fem.       | ''eles''             | ''els''               | They                   |

| 3rd       | Pl.       | Masc.     | ''elis''             | ''lis''               | They                   |

| 3rd       | Pl.       | Neu.       | ''elis''             | ''els''               | They                   |

- As in English 'I', the nominative form of the first person pronoun ''Ye'' must always be capitalized.

- Accusative forms such as ''me'' drop the final ''-e'' when followed by a vowel-initial verb.

- A formality distinction is made between informal second person singular ''tü'' (corresponding to Spanish ''tú'', ''vos'', French ''tu'', Italian ''tu'', Russian ''ты'', etc) and formal ''Vi'' (corresponding to Spanish ''usted'', French ''vous'', Italian ''Lei'', Russian ''вы'', etc).

- As with French ''vous'', or Russian ''вы'', Europaico ''Vi'' takes second person plural verbforms, even though it is used for singular 'you'.

- As in Italian ''Lei'', the formal pronoun ''Vi'' is capitalized in all cases.

Europaico also includes a reflexive pronoun only found in accusative form: ''si'' (\[one\]self).

| '''Subject''' | '''Object'''             | '''Usage of ''si''''' | '''Example'''                   | '''Translation'''           |

| ------------ | ---------------------- | ----------------- | ----------------------------- | -------------------------- |

| Third person | Third person (same)   | Required         | ''El si sei''                   | He sees himself           |

| Third person | Third person (other)   | Prohibited       | ''El le sei''                   | He sees him (someone else) |

| Other       | Same as subject       | Optional         | ''Ye si seic'' /<br>''Ye mi sec'' | I see myself.             |

| Other       | Other than the subject | Prohibited       | ''Ye li seic''<br>''El mi sei''   | I see him.<br>He sees me. |

 

| Gender   | '''Singular''' | '''Plural''' |

| --------- | ------------ | ---------- |

| Feminine | ''-a''         | ''-es''     |

| Masculine | -           | ''-is''     |

| Neuter   | ''-o''         | ''-is''     |

| '''Pronoun'''       | '''Possessive''' | '''English equivalent''' |

| ------------------ | -------------- | ---------------------- |

| ''Ye''               | ''min''         | my                     |

| ''tü''               | ''tin''         | your (informal)       |

| ''Vi''               | ''Vin''         | your (formal)         |

| ''el'', ''ela'', ''elo'' | ''lin''         | his, her, its         |

| ''nes'', ''nis''       | ''nin''         | our                   |

| ''ves'', ''vis''       | ''vin''         | your, y'all's         |

| ''eles'', ''elis''     | ''lor''         | their                 |

| ( ''si'' )           | ''sin''         | one's own             |

- ''El sei lo miesto sino'' ~ He sees his \[own\] city.

- ''El sei lo miesto lino'' ~ He sees his \[someone else's\] city.

- ''Ye seic lo miesto mino'' / ''Ye seic lo miesto sino'' ~ I see my city.

- ''Ye seic lo miesto lino'' ~ I see his city.

As it can be observed from the examples, the '''present''' and '''imperfect''' tenses are formed by adding suffixes to the present and past stems of the verb (which, in the case of ''singuen'', 'to sing', are ''sing-'' and ''sang-'', after English 'sing' and 'sang'). These suffixes change depending on the subject, with verb endings inspired by French and Catalan conjugation \[while basing features in Catalan might seem an odd choice for an international language, it can be noted that due to its geographic position and history it sort of bridges the gap between Spanish and French, the two most spoken Romance languages\].

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''helpo''             | ''holpeic''                 |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''helpes''           | ''holpeis''                 |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''helpe''             | ''holpei''                   |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''helpens''           | ''holpeyens''               |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''helpeť''           | ''holpeyeť''                 |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''helpen''           | ''holpeyen''                 |

The '''past tense''' is formed with an auxiliary verb followed by a passive participle. Most verbs require the auxiliary ''aven'' (to have) which is followed by the base form of the participle (generally ending in ''-el'') as in ''ye '''au sanguel''''' for 'I sang / I have sung'. On the other hand, reflexive verbs, motion verbs and other verbs that relate to a change affecting the subject such as ''groven'' (to grow) require using ''seinen'' (to be) as their auxiliary, which must then be followed by a passive participle agreeing with the subject in gender and number. For instance, a male speaker would say ''ye '''sin forlesel''''' for 'I \[have\] left', whereas a female speaker would say ''ye '''sin forlesela'''''. This distinction parallels that of French verbs that form their past with ''être'' as their auxiliary followed by participles showing agreement (''Je suis parti'' / ''Je suis partie'') instead of the usual ''avoir'' auxiliary followed by invariable participles (''J'ai chanté''), which means that incorporating this feature to Europaico should make the language even easier to learn for the whole ''Francophonie''.

| '''Subject'''                 | '''''Helpen'''''   | '''''Comen''''' (fem.) | '''''Comen''''' (masc.) | '''''Comen''''' (neu.) |

| --------------------------- | -------------- | ------------------ | ------------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''au holpel''   | ''sin camela''       | ''sin camel''         | ''sin camelo''       |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''as holpel''   | ''es camela''       | ''es camel''         | ''es camelo''       |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''a holpel''     | ''is camela''       | ''is camel''         | ''is camelo''       |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''avens holpel'' | ''sins cameles''     | ''sins camelis''     | ''sins camelis''     |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''aveť holpel'' | ''seť cameles''     | ''seť camelis''       | ''seť camelis''     |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''an holpel''   | ''sin cameles''     | ''sin camelis''       | ''sin camelis''     |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Future''' (`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''guic helpen''     |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''guis helpen''     |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''gui helpen''       |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''guens helpen''     |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''gueť helpen''     |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''guen helpen''     |

In principle, it would be possible to combine the constructions for past and future tenses in order to refer to things that ''were'' going to happen but perhaps didn't (''\''ye au gal helpen'' for 'I was going to help') or things that are will ''have'' happened by a certain point. (''\''ye guic aven holpel''). Whether such constructions would actually be permitted in Europaico is intentionally left ambiguous, although anyone willing to use them probably should also allow pluperfect tenses such as ''\''\''ye au adel holpel'' for 'I had sung' after all. If you'd rather keep things simple, ignoring this whole paragraph (if not the article as a whole) might be a better option.

| '''Subject number''' | '''Formality''' | '''Imperative''' |

| ------------------ | ------------- | -------------- |

| Singular           | Informal     | ''helpi''       |

| Singular           | Formal       | ''helpiť''       |

| Plural             | Any           | ''helpiť''       |

- ''El muste te helpen!'' - He must help you!

- ''Ens lesens helpen!'' - Let's help!

| '''Infinitive'''           | ''seyen''   |

| ------------------------ | --------- |

| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''aven''   |

| '''Active participle'''   | ''seyendo'' |

| '''Passive participle'''   | ''savel''   |

| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''sei''     |

| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''seyeť''   |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''seic''             | ''saveic''                   | ''au savel''       | ''guic seyen''       |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''seis''             | ''saveis''                   | ''as savel''       | ''guis seyen''       |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''sei''               | ''savei''                   | ''a savel''       | ''gui seyen''       |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''seyens''           | ''saveyens''                 | ''avens savel''   | ''guens seyen''     |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''seyeť''             | ''saveyeť''                 | ''aveť savel''     | ''gueť seyen''       |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''seyen''             | ''saveyen''                 | ''an savel''       | ''guen seyen''       |

| '''Infinitive'''          | ''aven''  |

 

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''au''               | ''adeic''                   | ''au adel''       | ''guic aven''       |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''as''               | ''adeis''                   | ''as adel''       | ''guis aven''       |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''a''                 | ''adei''                     | ''a adel''         | ''gui aven''         |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''avens''             | ''adens''                   | ''avens adel''     | ''guens aven''       |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''aveť''             | ''adeť''                     | ''aveť adel''     | ''gueť aven''       |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''an''               | ''aden''                     | ''an adel''       | ''guen aven''       |

| '''Infinitive'''           | ''canen''                     |

| ------------------------ | --------------------------- |

| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | (depends on following verb) |

| '''Active participle'''   | ''canendo''                   |

| '''Passive participle'''   | ''conel''                     |

| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''cani''                     |

| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''caniť''                     |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''canc''             | ''coneic''                   | ''au conel''       | ''guic seyen''       |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''cans''             | ''coneis''                   | ''as conel''       | ''guis seyen''       |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''can''               | ''conei''                   | ''a conel''       | ''gui seyen''       |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''canens''           | ''coneyens''                 | ''avens conel''   | ''guens seyen''     |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''caneť''             | ''coneyeť''                 | ''aveť conel''     | ''gueť seyen''       |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''canen''             | ''coneyen''                 | ''an conel''       | ''guen seyen''       |

| '''Infinitive'''           | ''canen'' |

| ------------------------ | -------- |

| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''aven''   |

| '''Active participle'''   | ''doendo'' |

| '''Passive participle'''   | ''del''   |

| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''doi''   |

| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''doiť''   |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''doc''               | ''deic''                     | ''au dnel''       | ''guic doen''       |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''does''             | ''deis''                     | ''as del''         | ''guis doen''       |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''doe''               | ''dei''                     | ''a del''         | ''gui doen''         |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''doens''             | ''deyens''                   | ''avens del''     | ''guens doen''       |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''doeť''             | ''deyeť''                   | ''aveť del''       | ''gueť doen''       |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''doen''             | ''deyen''                   | ''an del''         | ''guen doen''       |

| '''Infinitive'''           | ''esen''   |

| ------------------------ | -------- |

| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''aven''   |

| '''Active participle'''   | ''esendo'' |

| '''Passive participle'''   | ''atel''   |

| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''esi''   |

| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''esiť''   |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''esc''               | ''ateic''                   | ''au atel''       | ''guic esen''       |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''ets''               | ''ateis''                   | ''as atel''       | ''guis esen''       |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''et''               | ''atei''                     | ''a atel''         | ''gui esen''         |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''esens''             | ''ateyens''                 | ''avens atel''     | ''guens esen''       |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''eseť''             | ''ateyeť''                   | ''aveť atel''     | ''gueť esen''       |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''esen''             | ''ateyen''                   | ''an atel''       | ''guen esen''       |

| '''Infinitive'''           | ''canen'' |

| ------------------------ | -------- |

| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''seinen'' |

| '''Active participle'''   | ''guendo'' |

| '''Passive participle'''   | ''gal''   |

| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''gui''   |

| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''guiť''   |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''guic''             | ''gaic''                     | ''sin gal''       | ''guic guien''       |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''guis''             | ''gais''                     | ''es gal''         | ''guis guien''       |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''gui''               | ''gai''                     | ''is gal''         | ''gui guien''       |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''guens''             | ''gayens''                   | ''sins galis''     | ''guens guien''     |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''gueť''             | ''gayeť''                   | ''seť galis''     | ''gueť guien''       |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''guen''             | ''gayen''                   | ''sin galis''     | ''guen guien''       |

| '''Infinitive'''           | ''lesen''                     |

| ------------------------ | --------------------------- |

| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | (depends on following verb) |

| '''Active participle'''   | ''lesendo''                   |

| '''Passive participle'''   | ''lasel''                     |

| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''lesi''                     |

| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''lesiť''                     |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''lesc''             | ''laseic''                   | ''au lasel''       | ''guic lesen''       |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''lets''             | ''laseis''                   | ''as lasel''       | ''guis lesen''       |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''let''               | ''lasei''                   | ''a lasel''       | ''gui lesen''       |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''lesens''           | ''laseyens''                 | ''avens lasel''   | ''guens lesen''     |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''leseť''             | ''laseyeť''                 | ''aveť lasel''     | ''gueť lesen''       |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''lesen''             | ''laseyen''                 | ''an lasel''       | ''guen lesen''       |

| '''Infinitive'''           | ''musten''                   |

| ------------------------ | --------------------------- |

| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | (depends on following verb) |

| '''Active participle'''   | ''mustendo''                 |

| '''Passive participle'''   | ''mostel''                   |

| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | -                           |

| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | -                           |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''musto''             | ''mosteic''                 | ''au mosel''       | ''guic musten''     |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''musts''             | ''mosteis''                 | ''as mosel''       | ''guis musten''     |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''must''             | ''mostei''                   | ''a mosel''       | ''gui musten''       |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''mustens''           | ''mosteyens''               | ''avens mosel''   | ''guens musten''     |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''musteť''           | ''mosteyeť''                 | ''aveť mosel''     | ''gueť musten''     |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''musten''           | ''mosteyen''                 | ''an mosel''       | ''guen musten''     |

| '''Infinitive'''           | ''seinen'' |

| ------------------------ | -------- |

| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''seinen'' |

| '''Active participle'''   | ''sindo'' |

| '''Passive participle'''   | ''bül''   |

| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''bi''     |

| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''biť''   |

| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |

| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |

| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''sin''               | ''seineic''                 | ''sin bül''       | ''guic seinen''     |

| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''es''               | ''seineis''                 | ''es bül''         | ''guis seinen''     |

| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''is''               | ''seinei''                   | ''is bül''         | ''gui seinen''       |

| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''sins''             | ''seineyens''               | ''sins bülis''     | ''guens seinen''     |

| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''seť''               | ''seineyeť''                 | ''seť bülis''     | ''gueť seinen''     |

| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''sin''               | ''seineyen''                 | ''sin bülis''     | ''guen seinen''     |

| Number | Europaico numeral | Notes                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |

| ------ | ----------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |

| '''0''' | ''zero''           | Internationalism.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |

| '''1''' | ''ena''             | From Greek ''ένα'', also similar to German ''ein''. Identical to the feminine form of the indefinite article ''en/ena/eno''.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |

| '''2''' | ''düs''             | From the Greek-based prefix ''di-'', its source the Ancient Greek adverb ''δῐ́ς'', Albanian ''dy'' and Romance words such as Spanish ''dos'' and Portuguese ''dois''.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |

| '''3''' | ''tris''           | From the Greek-based prefix ''tri-'' and words for 'three' in multiple Indo-European languages from Europe.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |

| '''4''' | ''quear''           | From Manx Gaelic ''kiare'' /kʲeːə(r)/ which somehow resembles cognates such as French ''quatre''. Despite the fact that Romance, Slavic and Germanic words for 'four' ultimately share the same Indo-European root ''\''kʷetwóres'', modern reflexes have diverged so much that one could scarcely find common ground among them. Since Europaico was severely lacking in Celtic representation, a Manx Gaelic word was chosen, an obvious choice obeying to the Isle of Man position between the territories of Goidelic and Brittonic languages. |

| '''5''' | ''pinta''           | Mainly from the Greek-based prefix ''penta-'' although also influenced by the ''i'' found in Romance words for 'fifth' such as ''quinta'' (found in Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan and Italian among others).                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |

| '''6''' | ''secsa''           | From the Greek-based prefix ''hexa-'', its Latin counterpart ''sex(a)-'' and many words for 'six' in Indo-European languages including German ''sechs''.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |

| '''7''' | ''septa''           | A similar derivation to that from ''secsa'', inspired by the prefixes ''hepta-'', ''sept(a)-'' and various words for 'seven' or 'seventh' (such as Spanish ''séptimo'').                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |

| '''8''' | ''octa''           | From the Greek and Latin-based prefixes ''octo-/octa-''. The form with a final ''-a'' was chosen to agree with the previous numerals.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |

| '''9''' | ''nona''           | From the Latin prefix ''nona-'', keeping the pattern from previous numerals.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |

Words for multiples of ten from '''20''' to '''90''' are formed by suffixing ''-deç'' to the appropriate digit, from ''düsdeç'' for twenty to ''nonadeç'' for ninety. Unfortunately, this means that French-speakers learning this language will have to do some math to work out that the numeral for ninety is formed as ''nonadeç'' rather than something that would come more naturally to them such as ''\''\''quear-düsdeç-deç''.