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====Oblique Cases====
====Oblique Cases====
===== Marked Oblique=====


Position and directional information are marked on the NP by various clitics.  A few clitics are used to mark an argument that has been demoted by antipassivation, or by displacement by applicative formation.  Some forms are dialectal or rare, such as the Inessive =''kīr/=kir''.  The Oblique clitics have two forms, one form with a short medial vowel, and the other with a long medial vowel.  Use of both forms are acceptable, but native speakers tend to use the clitics with short vowels when the clitic is preceded by a long vowel, while the converse is true for the clitics forms with long vowels.  Highly uncommon postpositions, such as the aforementioned Inessive =''kīr/=kir'' are indicated in the following table with a double asterisk (**).  
Position and directional information are marked on the NP by various clitics.  A few clitics are used to mark an argument that has been demoted by antipassivation, or by displacement by applicative formation.  Some forms are dialectal or rare, such as the Inessive =''kīr/=kir''.  The Oblique clitics have two forms, one form with a short medial vowel, and the other with a long medial vowel.  Use of both forms are acceptable, but native speakers tend to use the clitics with short vowels when the clitic is preceded by a long vowel, while the converse is true for the clitics forms with long vowels.  Highly uncommon postpositions, such as the aforementioned Inessive =''kīr/=kir'' are indicated in the following table with a double asterisk (**).  
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|}
|}


===== Unmarked Oblique=====


====Tense-Aspect Marking====
====Tense-Aspect Marking====
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! Distributed-Periodic
! Distributed-Periodic
| -(a)x-
| -(a)x-
|-
! Iterative 2
| -(a)š-<ref>For numeric roots only</ref>
|-
|-
! Partial Completion
! Partial Completion
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| IPA =  
| IPA =  
| morphemes = šp-saxt-kalam-iħy-šatt-mah-x=min izzesparak-tirek=de
| morphemes = šp-saxt-kalam-iħy-šatt-mah-x=min izzesparak-tirek=de
| gloss = INCH-be.high-in.air-RFLX-3NS.INAN.NOM-PTCP=CONN canoe-3S.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM=ERG
| gloss = CAUS-INCH-be.high-in.air-RFLX-3NS.INAN.NOM-PTCP=CONN canoe-3S.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM=ERG
| translation = my hovercraft
| translation = my hovercraft (lit. my canoe, the one that makes itself high)
}}
}}


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! rowspan="9" |Evidentials
! rowspan="9" |Evidentials
! Factive
! Factive
| -∅- <br/>-ne <br/>-št(a)-<br/>-štanne
| -∅- <br/>-ne- <br/>-št(a)-<br/>-štanne-
| Referred to as the Gnomic, Aorist, and Neutral in other comparative linguistics material, the term Factive is used due to the influence of Iroquoian linguistic literature, since early treatises of Minhast were conducted by experts in the Iroquoian languages, who noticed structural and typological similarities between the two otherwise different language groups.
| Referred to as the Gnomic, Aorist, and Neutral in other comparative linguistics material, the term Factive is used due to the influence of Iroquoian linguistic literature, since early treatises of Minhast were conducted by experts in the Iroquoian languages, who noticed structural and typological similarities between the two otherwise different language groups.
|-
|-
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! rowspan="4" |Miratives
! rowspan="4" |Miratives
! Unexpected
! Unexpected
| -kil- <br/> -kila
| -kil- <br/> -kila-
| Indicates the verb is a sudden, unexpected event or state.  The second form occurs in verb-final position.
| Indicates the verb is a sudden, unexpected event or state.  The second form occurs in verb-final position.
|-
|-
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==== Telicity ====
==== Telicity ====
A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the Semelfactive ''-minn-''.  Technically telicity is a type of aspect, but unlike other aspect markers, which can be spontaneously employed in a single utterance, these affixes serve a more derivational purpose; their function is chiefly semantic as opposed to syntactic.  For example, the verb root ''-dāwap-'' "to drip", when prefixed with the Durative, creates the derived verb ''-ħtaštāwap-'', which means "to trickle", and the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) becomes ''-ħtassar-'' (to watch).  Examples of derivation with the Semalfactive include ''-minnisasšši-'' "to sit down" from the verb root ''-sašši-'' "to sit" and ''-minnittaħš-'' "to seize (violently)" from the verb ''-ittaħš-'' "to take, to have"<ref>Semantically, "to take" is a semelfactive verb, but semantic bleaching of ''-ittaħš-'' has occurred with this root, originally meaning "to take" in Classical Minhast.  Classical Minhast used the verb root ''-kta-'' (properly, "to own") to secondarily express "to have".  In the modern dialects where ''-kta-'' survives, it either retains its original meaning, or "to steal" (Osprey Speaker dialect), "to pick up from the ground" (Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects), and "to gain, to come into possession (usually by purchase, barter, or other form of trade)" (Gull Speaker dialect).</ref>.
A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the Semelfactive ''-minn-''.  Technically telicity is a type of aspect, but unlike other aspect markers, which can be spontaneously employed in a single utterance, these affixes serve a more derivational purpose; their function is chiefly semantic as opposed to syntactic.  For example, the verb root ''-dāwap-'' "to drip", when prefixed with the Durative, creates the derived verb ''-ħtaštāwap-'', which means "to trickle", and the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) becomes ''-ħtassar-'' (to watch).  Examples of derivation with the Semalfactive include ''-minnisašši-'' "to sit down" from the verb root ''-sašši-'' "to sit" and ''-minnittaħš-'' "to seize (violently)" from the verb ''-ittaħš-'' "to take, to have"<ref>Semantically, "to take" is a semelfactive verb, but semantic bleaching of ''-ittaħš-'' has occurred with this root, originally meaning "to take" in Classical Minhast.  Classical Minhast used the verb root ''-kta-'' (properly, "to own") to secondarily express "to have".  In the modern dialects where ''-kta-'' survives, it either retains its original meaning, or "to steal" (Osprey Speaker dialect), "to pick up from the ground" (Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects), and "to gain, to come into possession (usually by purchase, barter, or other form of trade)" (Gull Speaker dialect).</ref>.


==== Other Affixes ====
==== Other Affixes ====
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! ra'e
! ra'e
| Confirmatory - Expective  
| Confirmatory - Expective  
| Particle indicating that the speaker expects the listener to agree what the speaker just said.  Often cliticizes to ''wa='', which triggers lengthening of the following vowel, i.e. ''warrā'e''  
| Particle indicating that the speaker expects the listener to agree what the speaker just said.  Often cliticizes to ''wa='', which triggers lengthening of the following vowel, i.e. ''warrā'e''
|-
! tāreħ
| Remote Past
| Similar in meaning to ''damikman'', but requires ''wa''-binding.  Derived from the verb ''tārehan'' "to recall, recount".
|-
|-
! wāš
! wāš
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=== Negation ===
=== Negation ===


Minhast has a standard negator particle ''hatā' '' ("no", "not") that comes clause-initially.  It may be joined to the clause via preposed-''wa='' binding, or it may remain independent.  The verbal prefix ''ta-'' is also used to negate clauses.  ''Hatā' '' typically appears as a response to yes-no questions.  ''Hatā' '' may co-occur with the ''ta-'' marked verb; if so ''hatā' '' is followed by a pause, unless it is joined to the clause via ''wa='' binding.  Finally, the negative existential particle ''hambin'' may be used to negate the clause, in which case it must be bound to the clause by ''wa='', and the verb must be marked by the prefix ''ta-''.  The ''hambin''-construction is particularly emphatic, and is best translated as "There is no one who..." or "There is nothing that...".  An interesting thing to note is that the ''hambin''-construction operates on an S/A pivot, demonstrating split ergativity at the syntactic level.  The positive counterpart of the ''hambin''-construction, i.e. the ''matti''-construction, also demonstrates syntactic split ergativity as it too operates on an S/A pivot.
Minhast has a standard negator particle ''hatā' '' ("no", "not") that comes clause-initially.  It may be joined to the clause via preposed-''wa='' binding, or it may remain independent.  The verbal prefix ''ta-'' is also used to negate clauses.  ''Hatā' '' typically appears as a response to yes-no questions.  ''Hatā' '' may co-occur with the ''ta-'' marked verb; if so ''hatā' '' is followed by a pause, unless it is joined to the clause via ''wa='' binding.   
 
Additionally, the negative existential particle ''hambin'' may be used to negate the clause, in which case it must be bound to the clause by ''wa='', and the verb must be marked by the prefix ''ta-''.  The ''hambin''-construction is particularly emphatic, and is best translated as "There is no one who..." or "There is nothing that...".  An interesting thing to note is that the ''hambin''-construction operates on an S/A pivot, demonstrating split ergativity at the syntactic level.  The positive counterpart of the ''hambin''-construction, i.e. the ''matti''-construction, also demonstrates syntactic split ergativity as it too operates on an S/A pivot.


The following examples illustrate the usage of ''hatā''', ''ta-'', and ''hambin''  for negation:
The following examples illustrate the usage of ''hatā''', ''ta-'', and ''hambin''  for negation:
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# ''Ta'ušnekaru'' ("I did not hit him").
# ''Ta'ušnekaru'' ("I did not hit him").
# ''Hambin watta'ušnaru'' ("There was no one who hit him", not "There was no one whom he hit", which represents the expected S/O pivot).  This ''Wa''-structure is called the ''Absolute Negative Existential'' construction.
# ''Hambin watta'ušnaru'' ("There was no one who hit him", not "There was no one whom he hit", which represents the expected S/O pivot).  This ''Wa''-structure is called the ''Absolute Negative Existential'' construction.
Minhast has an emphatic form ''hattāsi''/''huttāsi''/''hittāsi'', which is usually translated as "never".  This particle licenses both negative concord and the Irrealis ''-š-'' verbal conjugation, e.g. ''Huttāsi Magastāran takneknenessa-š-kilmakš!'' "I will never go to Magastan!", or ''Hittāsi Kaslub min Kirmastim tuhurtirikte  takalluttirkaru-š'' "I have never eaten Dog Speaker food!"


=== Conjunctions and Connectives===
=== Conjunctions and Connectives===
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'''(Note to author/collaborators: Use gloss templates for the examples in this section)'''
'''(Note to author/collaborators: Use gloss templates for the examples in this section)'''
====Verbal Possession====
====Verbal Possession====
Two verbs, ''subek-'' and ''wanket-'', both meaning "to hold in the hand", are used secondarily to mean "to have".  The possessor is typically expressed with Absolutive affixes, and the possessum is expressed as an incorporated noun.  There appears to be a restriction with these verbs, in that the possessum must either be inanimate, or an animate noun of low sentience.  Thus, of the following examples, the first two are felicitous but the third is rejected by native speakers:
In addition to the ''matti'' construction, two verbs, ''subek-'' and ''wanket-'', both meaning "to hold in the hand", are used secondarily to mean "to have".  The possessor is typically expressed with Absolutive affixes, and the possessum is expressed as an incorporated noun.  There appears to be a restriction with these verbs, in that the possessum must either be inanimate, or an animate noun of low sentience.  Thus, of the following examples, the first two are felicitous but the third is rejected by native speakers:
# Subekyetteħkan "My bowl" (lit. "I hold a bowl")
# Subekyetteħkan "My bowl" (lit. "I hold a bowl")
# Wankettuytahan "Your salmon"
# Wankettuytahan "Your salmon"
# *Wakektaltahan (Intended: "Your horse")
# *Wakektaltahan (Intended: "Your horse")
In Modern Standard Minhast, the verb ''ittaħšu'' "to take" can secondarily mean "to have".  Amongst younger speakers, the secondary meaning has actually eclipsed the original meaning.  Because of this semantic bleaching, the Durative affix is now added to the verb stem to convey the meaning "to have", as in ''iħtašittaħšu'', whilst the Semelfactive, as in ''minnittaħšu'', is used by these speakers too convey "to take", displacing its original meaning, "to seize".
For animate possessa, the verb ''rununk-'' (to guide, to command) is used, but there is a noticeable avoidance of it for humans or other high agency nouns:
# Rununkigalkan "My horse" (lit. I command a horse)
# ?Rununkizāzakan (Intended: "My father")
# ?Rununkiminagamatekan (Intended: "My Orca Guardian Spirit"; Actual: "My orca slave")


=== The S/O Pivot ===
=== The S/O Pivot ===
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| translation = While the other one ate, he watched tv. ''(lit. "The one (non-focus) who ate beside him (focus), he (focus) tv-watched.")'
| translation = While the other one ate, he watched tv. ''(lit. "The one (non-focus) who ate beside him (focus), he (focus) tv-watched.")'
}}
}}
The Participial may also be used to create circumstantial clauses.  This construction appears more often in Lower Minhast dialects.


===== Purposive =====
===== Purposive =====
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