Minhast: Difference between revisions

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Stress in Minhast is syllable-timed; it is not a pitch-accent language.

Assuming a word contains at least three syllables, accent can be reliably predicted to fall on one of the last three syllables. With only a few exceptions, stress always falls on the last heavy syllable, defined as a (C)VVC or (C)VCC syllable. Otherwise, the accent falls on the antepenult. The same is true for two-syllable words: the last heavy syllable receives primary stress.

Assuming a word contains at least three syllables, accent can be reliably predicted to fall on one of the last three syllables. With only a few exceptions, stress always falls on the last heavy syllable, defined as a (C)VVC or (C)VCC syllable. Otherwise, the accent falls on the antepenult. The same is true for two-syllable words: the last heavy syllable receives primary stress, otherwise stress falls on the first syllable.

One noticeable exception to this rule: the endoynm "Minhast", pronounced /'min.hast/, not the expected /min.'hast/. However, when clitics attach to the noun, stress becomes regular.

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====Oblique Cases====

===== Marked Oblique=====

Position and directional information are marked on the NP by various clitics. A few clitics are used to mark an argument that has been demoted by antipassivation, or by displacement by applicative formation. Some forms are dialectal or rare, such as the Inessive =''kīr/=kir''. The Oblique clitics have two forms, one form with a short medial vowel, and the other with a long medial vowel. Use of both forms are acceptable, but native speakers tend to use the clitics with short vowels when the clitic is preceded by a long vowel, while the converse is true for the clitics forms with long vowels. Highly uncommon postpositions, such as the aforementioned Inessive =''kīr/=kir'' are indicated in the following table with a double asterisk (**).

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|}

===== Unmarked Oblique=====

====Tense-Aspect Marking====

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! Mitigative

| -hipsa- -psa- -ps-

| a little, somewhat

| a little, somewhat; about/around (with numeric roots)

| Opposite and incompatible with the Intensive

|-

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Like many polysynthetic languages, such as Ainu and the Iroquioan languages, Minhast employs noun incorporation (NI) extensively to carry out various processes: derivation, case modification and valence operations, and discourse manipulation. The motivating factors for NI is a complex topic which is dealt separately in [[Minhast/Noun_Incorporation|Noun Incorporation]].

Noun incorporation is the process whereby a noun lexeme is absorbed into the verb complex. The noun is stripped of any inflectional markers and is then inserted immediately after the verb root. The noun is essentially treated as a verbal affix and plays an important morphological role. The incorporated noun is subject to complex morphophonemic sandhi, as described earlier in the [[Minhast#Phonology|Phonology]] section; moreover, most nouns have a reduced incorporating form, as in the case of ''-rupmak-/-rumpak-'' << ''ruppamak'' (face). These reduced forms are highly irregular and must be memorized.

Noun incorporation is the process whereby a noun lexeme is absorbed into the verb complex. The noun is stripped of any inflectional markers and is then inserted immediately after the verb root <ref>Minhast is unusual in its placement of the incorporated noun, as most SOV languages place the incorporated noun ''prior'' to the verb root. Minhast, although classified as an SOV language, may have developed from an earlier verb-initial stage. Post-verbal NI languages statistically occur more frequently in VSO languages, although they are still in the minority.</ref>. The noun is essentially treated as a verbal affix and plays an important morphological role. The incorporated noun is subject to complex morphophonemic sandhi, as described earlier in the [[Minhast#Phonology|Phonology]] section; moreover, most nouns have a reduced incorporating form, as in the case of ''-rupmak-/-rumpak-'' << ''ruppamak'' (face). These reduced forms are highly irregular and must be memorized.

Not all nouns can be incorporated. Proper nouns and many kinship terms, e.g. ''anxea'' (brother) cannot be incorporated. Similarly, toponyms and demonyms cannot be incorporated. Only one lexical noun root can be incorporated at a time. Nouns functioning in most case roles can be incorporated, but such incorporation interacts with the semantics of the verb, e.g. Locatives are restricted to locomotive and positional verbs, while Datives are restricted to donor verbs. The incorporation of Instrumentals and Datives usually do not affect valency, as the Patient argument slot of the clause remains open. However, as in most incorporating languages, Agents cannot be incorporated.

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! Distributed-Periodic

| -(a)x-

|-

! Iterative 2

| -(a)š-<ref>For numeric roots only</ref>

|-

! Partial Completion

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| IPA =

| morphemes = šp-saxt-kalam-iħy-šatt-mah-x=min izzesparak-tirek=de

| gloss = INCH-be.high-in.air-RFLX-3NS.INAN.NOM-PTCP=CONN canoe-3S.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM=ERG

| gloss = CAUS-INCH-be.high-in.air-RFLX-3NS.INAN.NOM-PTCP=CONN canoe-3S.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM=ERG

| translation = my hovercraft

| translation = my hovercraft (lit. my canoe, the one that makes itself high)

}}

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! rowspan="9" |Evidentials

! Factive

| -∅- -ne -št(a)- -štanne

| -∅- -ne- -št(a)- -štanne-

| Referred to as the Gnomic, Aorist, and Neutral in other comparative linguistics material, the term Factive is used due to the influence of Iroquoian linguistic literature, since early treatises of Minhast were conducted by experts in the Iroquoian languages, who noticed structural and typological similarities between the two otherwise different language groups.

|-

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! rowspan="4" |Miratives

! Unexpected

| -kil- -kila

| -kil- -kila-

| Indicates the verb is a sudden, unexpected event or state. The second form occurs in verb-final position.

|-

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=== Affixal Derivation ===

==== Denominalization ====

Derivation by converting pre-existing words from one word class into another is a highly productive process in Minhast. Converting pre-existing nouns into verbs by appending the ''-an'' and ''-u'' suffixes is done frequently and on-the-fly in the modern language, in both the written and spoken language, and across social registers, ranging from informal and colloquial settings, to formal and academic environments. Even the classical language abounds with examples, in both prose and poetic texts. This strategy appears equally favoured across all dialects, from the conservative Salmonic dialects, through the innovative urban dialects of the City Speakers and the expatriate communities.

Derivation by converting pre-existing words from one word class into another is a highly productive process in Minhast. Converting pre-existing nouns into verbs by appending the ''-an'' and ''-u'' (and optionally additional) suffixes is done frequently and on-the-fly in the modern language, in both the written and spoken language, and across social registers, ranging from informal and colloquial settings, to formal and academic environments. Even the classical language abounds with examples, in both prose and poetic texts. This strategy appears equally favoured across all dialects, from the conservative Salmonic dialects, through the innovative urban dialects of the City Speakers and the expatriate communities. Some simple and complex examples of denominalization include:

#''tawan'' "song" → ''tawan-an'' "to sing, to engage in song"

#''ašmukke'' "trap, snare" → ''ašmukkey-un'' <ref>The ''-un'' morph belies this example's Salmonic origins.</ref> "to capture something in a trap"; ''ašmukke-tar-an'' "to lay out traps" (note Distributive ''-tar-'' affix)

#''hammek'' "egg" → ''hammek-an'' "to clutch, lay eggs"; ''hammek-u'' "to lay (a specific egg or set of eggs)"

#''gattim'' "worm" → ''šupni-gattim-an'' "to wriggle, squirm" (note Simulative ''-šupn-'' affix)

#''akkikruppumak'' "foreigner" (properly: "Hairy-Face") → ''akkikruppumak-an'' "to act like an idiot"

==== Telicity ====

A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the Semelfactive ''-minn-''. Technically telicity is a type of aspect, but unlike other aspect markers, which can be spontaneously employed in a single utterance, these affixes serve a more derivational purpose; their function is chiefly semantic as opposed to syntactic. For example, the verb root ''-dāwap-'' "to drip", when prefixed with the Durative, creates the derived verb ''-ħtaštāwap-'', which means "to trickle", and the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) becomes ''-ħtassar-'' (to watch). Examples of derivation with the Semalfactive include ''-~~minnisasšši~~-'' "to sit down" from the verb root ''-sašši-'' "to sit" and ''-minnittaħš-'' "to seize (violently)" from the verb ''-ittaħš-'' "to take, to have"<ref>Semantically, "to take" is a semelfactive verb, but semantic bleaching of ''-ittaħš-'' has occurred with this root, originally meaning "to take" in Classical Minhast. Classical Minhast used the verb root ''-kta-'' (properly, "to own") to secondarily express "to have". In the modern dialects where ''-kta-'' survives, it either retains its original meaning, or "to steal" (Osprey Speaker dialect), "to pick up from the ground" (Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects), and "to gain, to come into possession (usually by purchase, barter, or other form of trade)" (Gull Speaker dialect).</ref>.

A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the Semelfactive ''-minn-''. Technically telicity is a type of aspect, but unlike other aspect markers, which can be spontaneously employed in a single utterance, these affixes serve a more derivational purpose; their function is chiefly semantic as opposed to syntactic. For example, the verb root ''-dāwap-'' "to drip", when prefixed with the Durative, creates the derived verb ''-ħtaštāwap-'', which means "to trickle", and the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) becomes ''-ħtassar-'' (to watch). Examples of derivation with the Semalfactive include ''-minnisašši-'' "to sit down" from the verb root ''-sašši-'' "to sit" and ''-minnittaħš-'' "to seize (violently)" from the verb ''-ittaħš-'' "to take, to have"<ref>Semantically, "to take" is a semelfactive verb, but semantic bleaching of ''-ittaħš-'' has occurred with this root, originally meaning "to take" in Classical Minhast. Classical Minhast used the verb root ''-kta-'' (properly, "to own") to secondarily express "to have". In the modern dialects where ''-kta-'' survives, it either retains its original meaning, or "to steal" (Osprey Speaker dialect), "to pick up from the ground" (Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects), and "to gain, to come into possession (usually by purchase, barter, or other form of trade)" (Gull Speaker dialect).</ref>.

==== Other Affixes ====

*The Salmonic dialects retain the Classical Minhast suffix ''-anki'' for deriving locative deverbals, e.g. ''saranki'' (lit. "see-place", i.e. "observation deck"), although there is a growing preference for using Type I noun incorporation in the Salmon Speaker dialect due to Horse Speaker influence. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding). The Wolf Speaker dialect, in contrast, overwhelmingly prefers ''-anki''. This suffix appears rarely in Modern Standard Minhast, and only in words of Salmonic origin.

*In the Gull Speaker dialect, ''-ru'', derives locative nouns from verbs. This suffix is the hallmark of the dialect, although the suffix has appeared in the City Speaker dialect, and its use appears to be increasing. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding).

*In the Gull Speaker dialect, ''-ru'', derives locative nouns from verbs. This suffix is the hallmark of the dialect, although the suffix has appeared in the City Speaker dialect, and its use there appears to be increasing. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding).

*The Gerundial ''-x-'' is becoming more frequently used, particularly for forming technological terminology.

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! ayyak

| Formal Vocative

| When spoken, said to greet and elicit a response; also often found in the greeting of formal letters.

| When spoken, said to greet and elicit a response; also often found in the greeting of formal letters.

Ex: "Ayyak Miyāri, waddūy kalluħtakminessuš?" (O Miyāri, shall we eat salmon?)

|-

! wannā'(a)

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! ra'e

| Confirmatory - Expective

| Particle indicating that the speaker expects the listener to agree what the speaker just said. Often cliticizes to ''wa='', which triggers lengthening of the following vowel, i.e. ''warrā'e''

|-

! tāreħ

| Remote Past

| Similar in meaning to ''damikman'', but requires ''wa''-binding. Derived from the verb ''tārehan'' "to recall, recount".

|-

! wāš

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! mek

| Deferential

| Particle used to soften an assertion or a command

| Particle used to soften an assertion or a command Ex: "Iknatūmantaħmaš mek" (I bid thee, return back to thy abode).

|-

! tana

| Deferential-Confirmatory

| Particle of politeness, used to gently confirm that the listener agrees with what the speaker said

| Particle of politeness, used to gently confirm that the listener agrees with what the speaker said

Ex: "Tana wa'Aynuširāwaran iyyaptiaš, Ikkūne" (Yes, Eminence, he must return to the Ainu Federation).

|-

! suš, surušši

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=== Negation ===

Minhast has a standard negator particle ''hatā' '' ("no", "not") that comes clause-initially. It may be joined to the clause via preposed-''wa='' binding, or it may remain independent. The verbal prefix ''ta-'' is also used to negate clauses. ''Hatā' '' typically appears as a response to yes-no questions. ''Hatā' '' may co-occur with the ''ta-'' marked verb; if so ''hatā' '' is followed by a pause, unless it is joined to the clause via ''wa='' binding. ~~Finally~~, the negative existential particle ''hambin'' may be used to negate the clause, in which case it must be bound to the clause by ''wa='', and the verb must be marked by the prefix ''ta-''. The ''hambin''-construction is particularly emphatic, and is best translated as "There is no one who..." or "There is nothing that...". An interesting thing to note is that the ''hambin''-construction operates on an S/A pivot, demonstrating split ergativity at the syntactic level. The positive counterpart of the ''hambin''-construction, i.e. the ''matti''-construction, also demonstrates syntactic split ergativity as it too operates on an S/A pivot.

Minhast has a standard negator particle ''hatā' '' ("no", "not") that comes clause-initially. It may be joined to the clause via preposed-''wa='' binding, or it may remain independent. The verbal prefix ''ta-'' is also used to negate clauses. ''Hatā' '' typically appears as a response to yes-no questions. ''Hatā' '' may co-occur with the ''ta-'' marked verb; if so ''hatā' '' is followed by a pause, unless it is joined to the clause via ''wa='' binding.

Additionally, the negative existential particle ''hambin'' may be used to negate the clause, in which case it must be bound to the clause by ''wa='', and the verb must be marked by the prefix ''ta-''. The ''hambin''-construction is particularly emphatic, and is best translated as "There is no one who..." or "There is nothing that...". An interesting thing to note is that the ''hambin''-construction operates on an S/A pivot, demonstrating split ergativity at the syntactic level. The positive counterpart of the ''hambin''-construction, i.e. the ''matti''-construction, also demonstrates syntactic split ergativity as it too operates on an S/A pivot.

The following examples illustrate the usage of ''hatā''', ''ta-'', and ''hambin'' for negation:

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# ''Ta'ušnekaru'' ("I did not hit him").

# ''Hambin watta'ušnaru'' ("There was no one who hit him", not "There was no one whom he hit", which represents the expected S/O pivot). This ''Wa''-structure is called the ''Absolute Negative Existential'' construction.

Minhast has an emphatic form ''hattāsi''/''huttāsi''/''hittāsi'', which is usually translated as "never". This particle licenses both negative concord and the Irrealis ''-š-'' verbal conjugation, e.g. ''Huttāsi Magastāran takneknenessa-š-kilmakš!'' "I will never go to Magastan!", or ''Hittāsi Kaslub min Kirmastim tuhurtirikte takalluttirkaru-š'' "I have never eaten Dog Speaker food!"

=== Conjunctions and Connectives===

Minhast has two classes of morphemes for joining two or more NPs into a larger phrase, one set being conjunctions, and another set called either ''ligatures'' or ''connectives'' which bind either mutually interdependent NPs (e.g. possessive phrases), or particles to the nuclear clause. Most of the Minhast linguistic literature uses the latter term ''connectives'', as in this article. The purpose of both conjunctions and connectives is to link two or more entities or structures together to form a cohesive unit. However, there are major differences between the two. Conjunctions simply link a series of NPs with no implication that the individual NP units are interdependent. The connectives, on the other hand, are required for interdependent NPs or other particles (e.g. evidential particles), otherwise the phrase would be ungrammatical when the connective is omitted. An example would be a possessive construction; omission of the connective min ~~render~~ the sentence ungrammatical because two NPs, namely the possessor and possessum, are “stranded”, and a possessive relationship cannot be inferred from the stranded NPs.

Minhast has two classes of morphemes for joining two or more NPs into a larger phrase, one set being conjunctions, and another set called either ''ligatures'' or ''connectives'' which bind either mutually interdependent NPs (e.g. possessive phrases), or particles to the nuclear clause. Most of the Minhast linguistic literature uses the latter term ''connectives'', as in this article. The purpose of both conjunctions and connectives is to link two or more entities or structures together to form a cohesive unit. However, there are major differences between the two. Conjunctions simply link a series of NPs with no implication that the individual NP units are interdependent. The connectives, on the other hand, are required for interdependent NPs or other particles (e.g. evidential particles), otherwise the phrase would be ungrammatical when the connective is omitted. An example would be a possessive construction; omission of the connective ''min'' renders the sentence ungrammatical because two NPs, namely the possessor and possessum, are “stranded”, and a possessive relationship cannot be inferred from the stranded NPs, being indistinguishable from nouns in an appositional relationship.

====Conjunctions====

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=== Possession ===

====Nominal Possession====

To express possessive phrases, Minhast uses the ligature particle ''min'' to link possessors with their dependent arguments, the possessum. Additionally, portmanteau pronominal affixes, identical in form to the verbal pronominal affixes, cliticize to the possessum. The Ergative clitic ''=de'', or more often its allomorphs ''=te'' or ''=t'', is the final element that binds to the NP, as depicted in the following template:

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'''(Note to author/collaborators: Use gloss templates for the examples in this section)'''

====Verbal Possession====

In addition to the ''matti'' construction, two verbs, ''subek-'' and ''wanket-'', both meaning "to hold in the hand", are used secondarily to mean "to have". The possessor is typically expressed with Absolutive affixes, and the possessum is expressed as an incorporated noun. There appears to be a restriction with these verbs, in that the possessum must either be inanimate, or an animate noun of low sentience. Thus, of the following examples, the first two are felicitous but the third is rejected by native speakers:

# Subekyetteħkan "My bowl" (lit. "I hold a bowl")

# Wankettuytahan "Your salmon"

# *Wakektaltahan (Intended: "Your horse")

In Modern Standard Minhast, the verb ''ittaħšu'' "to take" can secondarily mean "to have". Amongst younger speakers, the secondary meaning has actually eclipsed the original meaning. Because of this semantic bleaching, the Durative affix is now added to the verb stem to convey the meaning "to have", as in ''iħtašittaħšu'', whilst the Semelfactive, as in ''minnittaħšu'', is used by these speakers too convey "to take", displacing its original meaning, "to seize".

For animate possessa, the verb ''rununk-'' (to guide, to command) is used, but there is a noticeable avoidance of it for humans or other high agency nouns:

# Rununkigalkan "My horse" (lit. I command a horse)

# ?Rununkizāzakan (Intended: "My father")

# ?Rununkiminagamatekan (Intended: "My Orca Guardian Spirit"; Actual: "My orca slave")

=== The S/O Pivot ===

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| translation = While the other one ate, he watched tv. ''(lit. "The one (non-focus) who ate beside him (focus), he (focus) tv-watched.")'

}}

The Participial may also be used to create circumstantial clauses. This construction appears more often in Lower Minhast dialects.

===== Purposive =====

@@ Line 170: / Line 170: @@
 Stress in Minhast is syllable-timed; it is not a pitch-accent language.
-Assuming a word contains at least three syllables, accent can be reliably predicted to fall on one of the last three syllables.  With only a few exceptions, stress always falls on the last heavy syllable, defined as a (C)VVC or (C)VCC syllable.  Otherwise, the accent falls on the antepenult.  The same is true for two-syllable words: the last heavy syllable receives primary stress.
+Assuming a word contains at least three syllables, accent can be reliably predicted to fall on one of the last three syllables.  With only a few exceptions, stress always falls on the last heavy syllable, defined as a (C)VVC or (C)VCC syllable.  Otherwise, the accent falls on the antepenult.  The same is true for two-syllable words: the last heavy syllable receives primary stress, otherwise stress falls on the first syllable.
 One noticeable exception to this rule: the endoynm "Minhast", pronounced /'min.hast/, not the expected /min.'hast/.  However, when clitics attach to the noun, stress becomes regular.
@@ Line 474: / Line 474: @@
 ====Oblique Cases====
+===== Marked Oblique=====
 Position and directional information are marked on the NP by various clitics.  A few clitics are used to mark an argument that has been demoted by antipassivation, or by displacement by applicative formation.  Some forms are dialectal or rare, such as the Inessive =''kīr/=kir''.  The Oblique clitics have two forms, one form with a short medial vowel, and the other with a long medial vowel.  Use of both forms are acceptable, but native speakers tend to use the clitics with short vowels when the clitic is preceded by a long vowel, while the converse is true for the clitics forms with long vowels.  Highly uncommon postpositions, such as the aforementioned Inessive =''kīr/=kir'' are indicated in the following table with a double asterisk (**).
@@ Line 512: / Line 514: @@
 |}
+===== Unmarked Oblique=====
 ====Tense-Aspect Marking====
@@ Line 1,620: / Line 1,623: @@
 ! Mitigative
 | -hipsa- <br/> -psa- <br/>-ps-
-| a little, somewhat
+| a little, somewhat; about/around (with numeric roots)
 | Opposite and incompatible with the Intensive
 |-
@@ Line 1,773: / Line 1,776: @@
 Like many polysynthetic languages, such as Ainu and the Iroquioan languages, Minhast employs noun incorporation (NI) extensively to carry out various processes: derivation, case modification and valence operations, and discourse manipulation.  The motivating factors for NI is a complex topic which is dealt separately in [[Minhast/Noun_Incorporation|Noun Incorporation]].
-Noun incorporation is the process whereby a noun lexeme is absorbed into the verb complex.  The noun is stripped of any inflectional markers and is then inserted immediately after the verb root.  The noun is essentially  treated as a verbal affix and plays an important morphological role.  The incorporated noun is subject to complex morphophonemic sandhi, as  described earlier in the [[Minhast#Phonology|Phonology]] section; moreover, most nouns have a reduced incorporating form, as in the case of ''-rupmak-/-rumpak-'' << ''ruppamak'' (face).  These reduced forms are highly irregular and must be memorized.
+Noun incorporation is the process whereby a noun lexeme is absorbed into the verb complex.  The noun is stripped of any inflectional markers and is then inserted immediately after the verb root <ref>Minhast is unusual in its placement of the incorporated noun, as most SOV languages place the incorporated noun ''prior'' to the verb root.  Minhast, although classified as an SOV language, may have developed from an earlier verb-initial stage.  Post-verbal NI languages statistically occur more frequently in VSO languages, although they are still in the minority.</ref>.  The noun is essentially  treated as a verbal affix and plays an important morphological role.  The incorporated noun is subject to complex morphophonemic sandhi, as  described earlier in the [[Minhast#Phonology|Phonology]] section; moreover, most nouns have a reduced incorporating form, as in the case of ''-rupmak-/-rumpak-'' << ''ruppamak'' (face).  These reduced forms are highly irregular and must be memorized.
 Not all nouns can be incorporated.  Proper nouns and many kinship terms, e.g. ''anxea'' (brother) cannot be incorporated.  Similarly, toponyms and demonyms cannot be incorporated.  Only one lexical noun root can be incorporated at a time.  Nouns functioning in most case roles can be incorporated, but such incorporation interacts with the semantics of the verb, e.g. Locatives are restricted to locomotive and positional verbs, while Datives are restricted to donor verbs.  The incorporation of Instrumentals and Datives usually do not affect valency, as the Patient argument slot of the clause remains open. However, as in most incorporating languages, Agents cannot be incorporated.
@@ Line 1,914: / Line 1,917: @@
 ! Distributed-Periodic
 | -(a)x-
+|-
+! Iterative 2
+| -(a)š-<ref>For numeric roots only</ref>
 |-
 ! Partial Completion
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 | IPA =
 | morphemes = šp-saxt-kalam-iħy-šatt-mah-x=min izzesparak-tirek=de
-| gloss = INCH-be.high-in.air-RFLX-3NS.INAN.NOM-PTCP=CONN canoe-3S.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM=ERG
+| gloss = CAUS-INCH-be.high-in.air-RFLX-3NS.INAN.NOM-PTCP=CONN canoe-3S.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM=ERG
-| translation = my hovercraft
+| translation = my hovercraft (lit. my canoe, the one that makes itself high)
 }}
@@ Line 2,072: / Line 2,078: @@
 ! rowspan="9" |Evidentials
 ! Factive
-| -∅- <br/>-ne <br/>-št(a)-<br/>-štanne
+| -∅- <br/>-ne- <br/>-št(a)-<br/>-štanne-
 | Referred to as the Gnomic, Aorist, and Neutral in other comparative linguistics material, the term Factive is used due to the influence of Iroquoian linguistic literature, since early treatises of Minhast were conducted by experts in the Iroquoian languages, who noticed structural and typological similarities between the two otherwise different language groups.
 |-
@@ Line 2,109: / Line 2,115: @@
 ! rowspan="4" |Miratives
 ! Unexpected
-| -kil- <br/> -kila
+| -kil- <br/> -kila-
 | Indicates the verb is a sudden, unexpected event or state.  The second form occurs in verb-final position.
 |-
@@ Line 2,255: / Line 2,261: @@
 === Affixal Derivation ===
 ==== Denominalization ====
-Derivation by converting pre-existing words from one word class into another is a highly productive process in Minhast.  Converting pre-existing nouns into verbs by appending the ''-an'' and ''-u'' suffixes is done frequently and on-the-fly in the modern language, in both the written and spoken language, and across social registers, ranging from informal and colloquial settings, to formal and academic environments.  Even the classical language abounds with examples, in both prose and poetic texts.  This strategy appears equally favoured across all dialects, from the conservative Salmonic dialects, through the innovative urban dialects of the City Speakers and the expatriate communities.
+Derivation by converting pre-existing words from one word class into another is a highly productive process in Minhast.  Converting pre-existing nouns into verbs by appending the ''-an'' and ''-u'' (and optionally additional) suffixes is done frequently and on-the-fly in the modern language, in both the written and spoken language, and across social registers, ranging from informal and colloquial settings, to formal and academic environments.  Even the classical language abounds with examples, in both prose and poetic texts.  This strategy appears equally favoured across all dialects, from the conservative Salmonic dialects, through the innovative urban dialects of the City Speakers and the expatriate communities.  Some simple and complex examples of denominalization include:
+#''tawan'' "song" → ''tawan-an'' "to sing, to engage in song"
+#''ašmukke'' "trap, snare" → ''ašmukkey-un'' <ref>The ''-un'' morph belies this example's Salmonic origins.</ref> "to capture something in a trap"; ''ašmukke-tar-an'' "to lay out traps" (note Distributive ''-tar-'' affix)
+#''hammek'' "egg" → ''hammek-an'' "to clutch, lay eggs"; ''hammek-u'' "to lay (a specific egg or set of eggs)"
+#''gattim'' "worm" → ''šupni-gattim-an'' "to wriggle, squirm" (note Simulative ''-šupn-'' affix)
+#''akkikruppumak'' "foreigner" (properly: "Hairy-Face") → ''akkikruppumak-an'' "to act like an idiot"
 ==== Telicity ====
-A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the Semelfactive ''-minn-''.  Technically telicity is a type of aspect, but unlike other aspect markers, which can be spontaneously employed in a single utterance, these affixes serve a more derivational purpose; their function is chiefly semantic as opposed to syntactic.  For example, the verb root ''-dāwap-'' "to drip", when prefixed with the Durative, creates the derived verb ''-ħtaštāwap-'', which means "to trickle", and the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) becomes ''-ħtassar-'' (to watch).  Examples of derivation with the Semalfactive include ''-minnisasšši-'' "to sit down" from the verb root ''-sašši-'' "to sit" and ''-minnittaħš-'' "to seize (violently)" from the verb ''-ittaħš-'' "to take, to have"<ref>Semantically, "to take" is a semelfactive verb, but semantic bleaching of ''-ittaħš-'' has occurred with this root, originally meaning "to take" in Classical Minhast.  Classical Minhast used the verb root ''-kta-'' (properly, "to own") to secondarily express "to have".  In the modern dialects where ''-kta-'' survives, it either retains its original meaning, or "to steal" (Osprey Speaker dialect), "to pick up from the ground" (Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects), and "to gain, to come into possession (usually by purchase, barter, or other form of trade)" (Gull Speaker dialect).</ref>.
+A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the Semelfactive ''-minn-''.  Technically telicity is a type of aspect, but unlike other aspect markers, which can be spontaneously employed in a single utterance, these affixes serve a more derivational purpose; their function is chiefly semantic as opposed to syntactic.  For example, the verb root ''-dāwap-'' "to drip", when prefixed with the Durative, creates the derived verb ''-ħtaštāwap-'', which means "to trickle", and the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) becomes ''-ħtassar-'' (to watch).  Examples of derivation with the Semalfactive include ''-minnisašši-'' "to sit down" from the verb root ''-sašši-'' "to sit" and ''-minnittaħš-'' "to seize (violently)" from the verb ''-ittaħš-'' "to take, to have"<ref>Semantically, "to take" is a semelfactive verb, but semantic bleaching of ''-ittaħš-'' has occurred with this root, originally meaning "to take" in Classical Minhast.  Classical Minhast used the verb root ''-kta-'' (properly, "to own") to secondarily express "to have".  In the modern dialects where ''-kta-'' survives, it either retains its original meaning, or "to steal" (Osprey Speaker dialect), "to pick up from the ground" (Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects), and "to gain, to come into possession (usually by purchase, barter, or other form of trade)" (Gull Speaker dialect).</ref>.
 ==== Other Affixes ====
 *The Salmonic dialects retain the Classical Minhast suffix ''-anki'' for deriving locative deverbals, e.g. ''saranki'' (lit. "see-place", i.e. "observation deck"), although there is a growing preference for using Type I noun incorporation in the Salmon Speaker dialect due to Horse Speaker influence. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding).  The Wolf Speaker dialect, in contrast, overwhelmingly prefers ''-anki''.  This suffix appears rarely in Modern Standard Minhast, and only in words of Salmonic origin.
-*In the Gull Speaker dialect, ''-ru'', derives locative nouns from verbs.  This suffix is the hallmark of the dialect, although the suffix has appeared in the City Speaker dialect, and its use appears to be increasing.  (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding).
+*In the Gull Speaker dialect, ''-ru'', derives locative nouns from verbs.  This suffix is the hallmark of the dialect, although the suffix has appeared in the City Speaker dialect, and its use there appears to be increasing.  (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding).
 *The Gerundial ''-x-'' is becoming more frequently used, particularly for forming technological terminology.
@@ Line 2,643: / Line 2,654: @@
 ! ayyak
 | Formal Vocative
-| When spoken, said to greet and elicit a response; also often found in the greeting of formal letters.
+| When spoken, said to greet and elicit a response; also often found in the greeting of formal letters.<br/>
+Ex: "Ayyak Miyāri, waddūy kalluħtakminessuš?" (O Miyāri, shall we eat salmon?)
 |-
 ! wannā'(a)
@@ Line 2,699: / Line 2,711: @@
 ! ra'e
 | Confirmatory - Expective
 | Particle indicating that the speaker expects the listener to agree what the speaker just said.  Often cliticizes to ''wa='', which triggers lengthening of the following vowel, i.e. ''warrā'e''
+|-
+! tāreħ
+| Remote Past
+| Similar in meaning to ''damikman'', but requires ''wa''-binding.  Derived from the verb ''tārehan'' "to recall, recount".
 |-
 ! wāš
@@ Line 2,750: / Line 2,766: @@
 ! mek
 | Deferential
-| Particle used to soften an assertion or a command
+| Particle used to soften an assertion or a command<br/> Ex: "Iknatūmantaħmaš mek" (I bid thee, return back to thy abode).
 |-
 ! tana
 | Deferential-Confirmatory
-| Particle of politeness, used to gently confirm that the listener agrees with what the speaker said
+| Particle of politeness, used to gently confirm that the listener agrees with what the speaker said<br/>
+Ex: "Tana wa'Aynuširāwaran iyyaptiaš, Ikkūne" (Yes, Eminence, he must return to the Ainu Federation).
 |-
 ! suš, surušši
@@ Line 2,928: / Line 2,945: @@
 === Negation ===
-Minhast has a standard negator particle ''hatā' '' ("no", "not") that comes clause-initially.  It may be joined to the clause via preposed-''wa='' binding, or it may remain independent.  The verbal prefix ''ta-'' is also used to negate clauses.  ''Hatā' '' typically appears as a response to yes-no questions.  ''Hatā' '' may co-occur with the ''ta-'' marked verb; if so ''hatā' '' is followed by a pause, unless it is joined to the clause via ''wa='' binding.  Finally, the negative existential particle ''hambin'' may be used to negate the clause, in which case it must be bound to the clause by ''wa='', and the verb must be marked by the prefix ''ta-''.  The ''hambin''-construction is particularly emphatic, and is best translated as "There is no one who..." or "There is nothing that...".  An interesting thing to note is that the ''hambin''-construction operates on an S/A pivot, demonstrating split ergativity at the syntactic level.  The positive counterpart of the ''hambin''-construction, i.e. the ''matti''-construction, also demonstrates syntactic split ergativity as it too operates on an S/A pivot.
+Minhast has a standard negator particle ''hatā' '' ("no", "not") that comes clause-initially.  It may be joined to the clause via preposed-''wa='' binding, or it may remain independent.  The verbal prefix ''ta-'' is also used to negate clauses.  ''Hatā' '' typically appears as a response to yes-no questions.  ''Hatā' '' may co-occur with the ''ta-'' marked verb; if so ''hatā' '' is followed by a pause, unless it is joined to the clause via ''wa='' binding.
+Additionally, the negative existential particle ''hambin'' may be used to negate the clause, in which case it must be bound to the clause by ''wa='', and the verb must be marked by the prefix ''ta-''.  The ''hambin''-construction is particularly emphatic, and is best translated as "There is no one who..." or "There is nothing that...".  An interesting thing to note is that the ''hambin''-construction operates on an S/A pivot, demonstrating split ergativity at the syntactic level.  The positive counterpart of the ''hambin''-construction, i.e. the ''matti''-construction, also demonstrates syntactic split ergativity as it too operates on an S/A pivot.
 The following examples illustrate the usage of ''hatā''', ''ta-'', and ''hambin''  for negation:
@@ Line 2,939: / Line 2,958: @@
 # ''Ta'ušnekaru'' ("I did not hit him").
 # ''Hambin watta'ušnaru'' ("There was no one who hit him", not "There was no one whom he hit", which represents the expected S/O pivot).  This ''Wa''-structure is called the ''Absolute Negative Existential'' construction.
+Minhast has an emphatic form ''hattāsi''/''huttāsi''/''hittāsi'', which is usually translated as "never".  This particle licenses both negative concord and the Irrealis ''-š-'' verbal conjugation, e.g. ''Huttāsi Magastāran takneknenessa-š-kilmakš!'' "I will never go to Magastan!", or ''Hittāsi Kaslub min Kirmastim tuhurtirikte  takalluttirkaru-š'' "I have never eaten Dog Speaker food!"
 === Conjunctions and Connectives===
-Minhast has two classes of morphemes for joining two or more NPs into a larger phrase, one set being conjunctions, and another set called either ''ligatures'' or ''connectives'' which bind either mutually interdependent NPs (e.g. possessive phrases), or particles to the nuclear clause.  Most of the Minhast linguistic literature uses the latter term ''connectives'', as in this article.  The purpose of both conjunctions and connectives is to link two or more entities or structures together to form a cohesive unit.  However, there are major differences between the two.  Conjunctions simply link a series of NPs with no implication that the individual NP units are interdependent.   The connectives, on the other hand, are required for interdependent NPs or other particles (e.g. evidential particles), otherwise the phrase would be ungrammatical when the connective is omitted.   An example would be a possessive construction; omission of the connective min render the sentence ungrammatical because two NPs, namely the possessor and possessum, are “stranded”, and a possessive relationship cannot be inferred from the stranded NPs.
+Minhast has two classes of morphemes for joining two or more NPs into a larger phrase, one set being conjunctions, and another set called either ''ligatures'' or ''connectives'' which bind either mutually interdependent NPs (e.g. possessive phrases), or particles to the nuclear clause.  Most of the Minhast linguistic literature uses the latter term ''connectives'', as in this article.  The purpose of both conjunctions and connectives is to link two or more entities or structures together to form a cohesive unit.  However, there are major differences between the two.  Conjunctions simply link a series of NPs with no implication that the individual NP units are interdependent.   The connectives, on the other hand, are required for interdependent NPs or other particles (e.g. evidential particles), otherwise the phrase would be ungrammatical when the connective is omitted.   An example would be a possessive construction; omission of the connective ''min'' renders the sentence ungrammatical because two NPs, namely the possessor and possessum, are “stranded”, and a possessive relationship cannot be inferred from the stranded NPs, being indistinguishable from nouns in an appositional relationship.
 ====Conjunctions====
@@ Line 3,126: / Line 3,147: @@
 === Possession ===
+====Nominal Possession====
 To express possessive phrases, Minhast uses the ligature particle ''min'' to link possessors with their dependent arguments, the possessum.  Additionally, portmanteau pronominal affixes, identical in form to the verbal pronominal affixes, cliticize to the possessum.  The Ergative clitic ''=de'', or more often its allomorphs ''=te'' or ''=t'', is the final element that binds to the NP, as depicted in the following template:
@@ Line 3,205: / Line 3,227: @@
 '''(Note to author/collaborators: Use gloss templates for the examples in this section)'''
+====Verbal Possession====
+In addition to the ''matti'' construction, two verbs, ''subek-'' and ''wanket-'', both meaning "to hold in the hand", are used secondarily to mean "to have".  The possessor is typically expressed with Absolutive affixes, and the possessum is expressed as an incorporated noun.  There appears to be a restriction with these verbs, in that the possessum must either be inanimate, or an animate noun of low sentience.  Thus, of the following examples, the first two are felicitous but the third is rejected by native speakers:
+# Subekyetteħkan "My bowl" (lit. "I hold a bowl")
+# Wankettuytahan "Your salmon"
+# *Wakektaltahan (Intended: "Your horse")
+In Modern Standard Minhast, the verb ''ittaħšu'' "to take" can secondarily mean "to have".  Amongst younger speakers, the secondary meaning has actually eclipsed the original meaning.  Because of this semantic bleaching, the Durative affix is now added to the verb stem to convey the meaning "to have", as in ''iħtašittaħšu'', whilst the Semelfactive, as in ''minnittaħšu'', is used by these speakers too convey "to take", displacing its original meaning, "to seize".
+For animate possessa, the verb ''rununk-'' (to guide, to command) is used, but there is a noticeable avoidance of it for humans or other high agency nouns:
+# Rununkigalkan "My horse" (lit. I command a horse)
+# ?Rununkizāzakan (Intended: "My father")
+# ?Rununkiminagamatekan (Intended: "My Orca Guardian Spirit"; Actual: "My orca slave")
 === The S/O Pivot ===
@@ Line 3,378: / Line 3,412: @@
 | translation = While the other one ate, he watched tv. ''(lit. "The one (non-focus) who ate beside him (focus), he (focus) tv-watched.")'
 }}
+The Participial may also be used to create circumstantial clauses.  This construction appears more often in Lower Minhast dialects.
 ===== Purposive =====