Nawuhu: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox language

| name = {{PAGENAME}}

| altname = Nauhu, Wuhu

| image = WuhuIslandFlag.png

| imagecaption = Flag of the Wuhu Autonomous Zone

| nativename = na’a wúhu

| pronunciation = ˀna.a ˈwu.ɦu

| pronunciation_key = IPA for Nawuhu

| creator = User:Jukethatbox

| created = 2024

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| date = 2024

| script1 = Latn

| stand1 = Standard Nawuhu

| dia1 = Pemaka dialect †

| dia2 = Nisulu dialect †

| development_body = [https://discord.gg/Wzd9gWFu97 Wuhu Island Community Discord]

| agency = [https://wuhugov.neocities.org/ Wuhu Autonomous Zone]

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| notice = ipa

}}

'''Nawuhu'''(''~~na'a~~ wúhu'', Nawuhu: [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ˀna.a ˈwu.ɦu]]]), also called '''Wuhu''' or '''Nauhu''' is a language isolate that was once predominantly spoken by the inhabitants of Wuhu Island(''wúhu'', ''~~akka wúhu~~'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ak.ka ~~ˈwu~~.ɦu]]]). It was spoken primarily by the civilisation that probably encompassed the entire island, the ruins of which can be seen on the southern half of the island.<ref>See [https://wuhugov.neocities.org/html/history].</ref> Today, it is only spoken by around 90 native speakers, and ''Ethnologue'' marks Nawuhu as a definitely endangered language.

'''Nawuhu'''(''na’a wúhu'', Nawuhu: [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ˀna.a ˈwu.ɦu]]]), also called '''Wuhu''' or '''Nauhu''' is a language isolate that was once predominantly spoken by the inhabitants of Wuhu Island(''akka wúhu'' or ''Akka’a'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ak.ka.a]]]). It was spoken primarily by the civilisation that probably encompassed the entire island, the ruins of which can be seen on the southern half of the island.<ref>See [https://wuhugov.neocities.org/html/history].</ref> Today, it is only spoken by around 90 native speakers, and ''Ethnologue'' marks Nawuhu as a definitely endangered language.

==Phonology==

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| a || b || c || k || d || e || g || h || i || j || l || m || n || ñ ||o || p || s || t || u || v || w || y || z

|-

! ~~rowspan=2 |~~ IPA

! IPA

~~| rowspan=2~~ | a |~~| rowspan=2~~ | b || ɕ |~~| rowspan=2~~ | k |~~| rowspan=2~~ | d || e |~~| rowspan=2~~ | g || h |~~| rowspan=2~~ | i |~~| rowspan=2~~ | ʑ |~~| rowspan=2~~ | l |~~| rowspan=2~~ | m |~~| rowspan=2~~ | n |~~| rowspan=2~~ | ɲ |~~| rowspan=2~~ | o |~~| rowspan=2~~ | p |~~| rowspan=2~~ | s |~~| rowspan=2~~ | t |~~| rowspan=2~~ | u || ʉ |~~| rowspan=2~~ | w |~~| rowspan=2~~ | j |~~| rowspan=2~~ | z

| a || b || ɕ || k || d || e || g || h || i || ʑ || l || m || n || ɲ || o || p || s || t || u || ʉ || w || j || z

|-

~~| ç || ɘ̯ || ɦ || ɘ̯~~

|}

Note that ⟨Vv⟩ is a vowel, representing the sound /ʉ/~~, as well as the sound /ɘ̯/ in intervocalic, non-syllabic positions~~.

Note that ⟨Vv⟩ is a vowel, representing the sound /ʉ/.

The digraph ⟨LHlh⟩ represents the phoneme /ʎ/.

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===Consonants===

{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"

! colspan=2 | !! Bilabial !! Alveolar ~~!! Alveolo- palatal~~ !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal

! colspan=2 | !! Bilabial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal

|-

! colspan=2 |Plosive

| p b || t d || || || k g ||

| p b || t d || || k g ||

|-

! rowspan=2 | Nasal

! pulmonic

| m || n || || ɲ || ŋ ||

| m || n || ɲ || ŋ ||

|-

! pre-glottalised

| ˀm || ˀn || || || ˀŋ

| ˀm || ˀn || || ˀŋ ||

|-

! colspan=2 |Fricative

| || s z || ɕ ʑ ~~|| (ç)~~ || || h~ɦ

| || s z || ɕ ʑ || || h (ɦ)

|-

! colspan=2 |Semivowel

| w || || || j || ||

| w || || j || ||

|-

! colspan=2 |Lateral

| || l || || ʎ || ||

| || l || ʎ || ||

|}

/h/ ~~and~~ /ɦ/ ~~are interchangeable, but most speakers only~~ pronounced ~~/ɦ/~~ in intervocalic positions(between vowels), hence the /ɦ/ in ''[[Contionary:wúhu|wú'''h'''u]]''.

/ɦ/ is an allophone of /h/ pronounced in intervocalic positions(between vowels), hence the /ɦ/ in ''[[Contionary:wúhu|wú'''h'''u]]''. However, when a /h/ is stressed, even in intervocalic positions, it is always pronounced /h/, hence the /h/ in ''[[Contionary:puhúno|pu'''h'''úno]]''.

====Glottalisation====

Though glottal stops do not occur phonemically in Nawuhu, some consonants are pre-glottalised at the beginning of a word, usually /n/, /m/ and /ŋ/. This glottalisation is not marked, mainly because Mark Mii, the creator of the Mark Mii romanisation system, never actually noticed the phonemic pre-glottalisation when researching the language. However, subsequent studies that interrogated actual native speakers did note the phonemic difference, with one research paper noting that one participant reportedly joked that a foreigner they had met greeted them with ''~~yeniye~~ ngala!'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[~~jenije~~ ŋala]]], meaning "Give us the spider!", instead of what the participant believed the foreigner wanted to say, ''~~yeniye~~ *ngala!''(The asterisk is a common unofficial way to note pre-glottalisation) [[IPA for Nawuhu|[~~jenije~~ ˀŋala]]], meaning "Welcome [to my home]!".

Though glottal stops do not occur phonemically in Nawuhu, some consonants are pre-glottalised at the beginning of a word, usually /n/, /m/ and /ŋ/. This glottalisation is not marked, mainly because Mark Mii, the creator of the Mark Mii romanisation system, never actually noticed the phonemic pre-glottalisation when researching the language. However, subsequent studies that interrogated actual native speakers did note the phonemic difference, with one research paper noting that one participant reportedly joked that a foreigner they had met greeted them with ''yenita’a ngala!'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[jenita.a ŋala]]], meaning "Give the spider!", instead of what the participant believed the foreigner wanted to say, ''yenita’a *ngala!''(The asterisk is a common unofficial way to note pre-glottalisation) [[IPA for Nawuhu|[jenita.a ˀŋala]]], meaning "Welcome [to my home]!".

===Vowels===

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|-

! Close-mid

| e || ~~(ɘ̯)~~ || o

| e || || o

|-

! Front

| || a ||

|}

~~/ɘ/ is an unstressed intervocalic allohpone of /e/ and /ʉ/, e.g. ''[[Contionary:íea|í'''e'''a]]'', "one", pronounced [ˈiɘ̯a].~~

===Stress and pitch===

Stressed syllables have their vowels marked with an ~~accute~~ accent to denote its stress. Historically, [[Classical Nâuxu]] had a single pitch accent, the falling tone, akin to the pitch accent in [[w:Swedish language|Swedish]] or [[w:Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]. Orthographically, this is most often represented by a circumflex accent, ⟨◌̂⟩, such as in the word ''N'''â''' uuxu'' "[Classical] Nâuxu", [[Help:IPA|[nâ ʉː.hʉ]]].

Stressed syllables have their vowels marked with an acute accent to denote its stress.

==Grammar==

===Word order===

Nawuhu is primarily an SOV(subject-object-verb) language. ~~However, in~~ a phrase where there is no object, the word order is verb-initial. However, if the object is omitted but still implied, the word order remains as the standard SV. Thus, "I am", would be ''í ja'', lit. "am I", while "I am a person" would be ''ja pida’a í'', lit. "I person-a am".

Nawuhu is primarily an SOV(subject-object-verb) language. In a phrase where there is no object, the word order is verb-initial. However, if the object is omitted but still implied, the word order remains as the standard SV. Thus, "I am", would be ''í ja'', lit. "am I", while "I am a person" would be ''ja pida’a í'', lit. "I person-a am".

When forming a question(or a proposition, which uses roughly the same structure), the word order becomes VSO(verb-subject-object). Thus, though "I have a cat" would be ''ja éppia gvé'', the question "Do you have a cat?" would be ''lhún ja éppia?''.

When forming a question(or a proposition, which uses roughly the same structure), the word order becomes VSO(verb-subject-object). Thus, though "I have a cat" would be ''ja éppia gvé'', the question "Do you have a cat?" would be ''lhún ádo éppia?''.

===Null-subject===

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===Nouns===

====Number====

Nawuhu has ~~five~~ categories of grammatical number: '''singular''', '''dual''', '''~~paucal''', '''greater~~ paucal''' and '''plural'''. If there is not sufficient context, all nouns in a phrase have to be marked with suffixes denoting their number, including if the noun is singular. If a word ending in ''-a'' must be denoted as singular, the suffix ''-’a'' is placed instead.

Nawuhu has four categories of grammatical number: '''singular''', '''dual''', '''paucal''' and '''plural'''. If there is not sufficient context, all nouns in a phrase have to be marked with suffixes denoting their number, including if the noun is singular. If a word ending in ''-a'' must be denoted as singular, the suffix ''-’a'' is placed instead.

Adjectives do not have to agree with nouns, though verbs do. Agreeing verbs have their own suffixes to indicate number, please see the [[Nawuhu#Verbs|Verbs]] section for more information.

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|+ Base suffixes for nouns

|-

! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! ~~Greater Paucal !!~~ Plural

! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Plural

|-

| ''-a'' || ''-an'' || ''-avn~~'' || ''-avne~~'' || ''-ai''

| ''-a'' || ''-an'' || ''-avn'' || ''-ai''

|}

====Genidative====

The '''genidative case'''(Latin: ''casus genidativus'') is a popular term used by Nawuhu linguists to refer to the merged genitive and dative case in Nawuhu, marked by an ''-u''. Originally two separate cases in Classical Nâuxu(''-eu'' and ''-u'' for the genitive and dative cases respectively), the two cases began to merge sometime around the arrival of initial colonisers, although some linguists argue that the Japanese possessive article の(''no''), which has similar properties as the Nawuhu ''-u'' suffix, could have accelerated the merging of the two cases, though this is still up to debate.

===Pronouns===

====Personal====

{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"

! !! Singular !! Dual !! ~~Paucal !! Greater~~ Paucal !! Plural

! !! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Plural

|-

! First

| ''ja'' || ''jan'' || ''~~jv'vn'' || ''jvlván~~'' || ''~~ja'aon~~''

| ''ja'' || ''jan'' || ''jvn'' || ''jaon''

|-

! Second

| ''ádo'' || ''ádon'' || ''yuín'' || ''~~náyun'' || ''neíyo~~''

| ''ádo'' || ''ádon'' || ''yuín'' || ''néyo''

|-

! Third

| ''ain'' || ''aina'' || ''avni~~'' || ''avnin~~'' || ''enawe''

| ''ain'' || ''aina'' || ''avni'' || ''enawe''

|}

There are no gendered third person pronouns in Nawuhu, though some older translations of excavated texts translated the third person pronoun as "he". Today, most translators translate the ''ain'' pronoun as "they".

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Demonstrative pronouns are placed after the noun, and have to agree with the grammatical number of the noun.

{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"

! !! Singular !! Dual !! ~~Paucal !! Greater~~ Paucal !! Plural

! !! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Plural

|-

! Proximal

| ''pa'' || ''pi’i'' || ''piwa~~'' || ''bewan~~'' || ''nimu''

| ''pa'' || ''pi’i'' || ''piwa'' || ''nimu''

|-

! Medial

| ''co'' || ''coi'' || ''nva~~'' || ''nvna~~'' || ''anca''

| ''co'' || ''coi'' || ''nva'' || ''anca''

|-

! Distal

| ''nis'' || ''eni'' || ''~~zola~~'' || ''~~zeoya'' || ''milha~~''

| ''nis'' || ''eni'' || ''hua'' || ''miha’a''

|}

'''Proximal''' refers to things near the speaker("this thing"), '''medial''' refers to things near the addressee("that thing near you"), and '''distal''' refers to things "over there", as in not near the speaker or the addressee.

===~~Weak verbs~~===

====Interrogative====

Interrogative pronouns in Nawuhu are quite distinct from demonstrative and personal pronouns. They do not agree with grammatical number, and instead mostly follow the English pattern of "what, why, who, when and how", although "when" has variations based on tense.

{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"

|-

! Far Past !! Near Past !! Near Future !! General Future

|-

| ''lim'' || ''ley'' || ''lou'' || ''i’ilam'' || ''ilam'' || ''ewil'' || ''ewe’el'' || ''li’i''

|}

Here are some examples on how to use the variations of 'when':

* "When did this battle take place?"

** '''''I’ilam''' kubkubwálo te’esek nis?''

* "When did you go there?"

** '''''Ilam''' kolauálo ádo egnis?''

* "When will you be eating lunch?"

** '''''Ewil''' gopak baniksanián ádo?''

* "When will the project be completed?"

** '''''Ewe’el''' pulojek bakampián?''

===Verbs===

Nawuhu verbs are inflected on mood, aspect and tense. Weak verbs have specific suffixes to indicate mood, tense and aspect. Strong verbs, like ''oí'', "to be", or ''gvé'', "to have", have their own specific mood, tense and aspect conjugations.

====Mood====

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|}

To form perfective and imperfective tenses for past, present and future, the aforementioned the suffixes ''-sen'' and ''-san'' are placed before the tense suffix. Thus, something like "I do" would be ''ja kubu''(or simply ''kubu'' if one chooses to [[Nawuhu#Null-subject|omit the subject]]), or for emphasis ''ja kubusen'', while "I was doing" would be ''ja kubusanálo''(or ''kubusanálo'').

~~===Strong verbs===~~

====To be, ''oí''====

{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"

''Oí'' is the only strong verb in Nawuhu. It has unique declensions based on person and tense.

! ~~colspan=2 | Person~~ !! First !! Second !! Third

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"

! !! First !! Second !! Third

|-

! Past

| ''ya'' || ''iyu'' || ''ewo''

|-

! ~~colspan=2 |~~ Present

! Present

| ''í'' || ''ey'' || ''oí''

|-

! ~~rowspan~~=5 | ~~Perfect~~

! Future

! ~~Indicative~~

| ''iló'' || ''we’é'' || ''inó''

| ''í'' || ''ey'' || ''oí''

|}

==Vocabulary==

===Conversation===

{| class=wikitable

! English(''na’a ingélu'') !! Nawuhu(''na’a wúhu'') !! Pronunciation

|-

| Yes || ''Pi'' || [pi]

|-

| No || ''Nvki'' || [ˈnʉki]

|-

| Of course! || ''Tiéma!'' || [tiˈema]

|-

| Hello! || rowspan=2 | ''Peku!''(informal) / ''Pekutéleki!''(formal) || rowspan=2 | [peku]; [pekuˈteleki]

|-

| Goodbye!

|-

| Cheers! || ''Kal!'' || [kal]

|-

~~! Conditional~~

| How are you? || ''Li’i?''(informal) / ''Li’i ey?''(formal) || [li.i]; [li.i ej]

| ''~~yéa~~'' || ''~~na’á~~'' || ~~''aíyé''~~

|-

! ~~Optative~~

| Good day! || ''Pi tupi!'' || [pi tupi]

~~| ''wáo''~~ || ''~~wa’ai~~'' || ~~''newálo''~~

|-

! ~~Imperative~~

| Good morning! || ''Pi tupi!'' / ''Pi tupi’ikélo!''(lit. "What a good sunrise!") || [pi tupi]; [pi tupi.iˈkelo]

| ''má'' || ''~~yuá~~'' || ~~''í’ine~~

|-

! ~~Jussive~~

| Good evening! || ''Pi tupi'iyáki!''<ref>This greeting is rarely used; one would typically use ''Pi tupi!'' instead.</ref> || [pi tupi.iˈjaki]

| ''~~mánka~~'' || ''~~yuála~~'' || ~~''í’inta''~~

|}

==Dialects==

===Historical===

==References==

[[Category:Nawuhu]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A priori]]

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Infobox language
 | name = {{PAGENAME}}
+| altname = Nauhu, Wuhu
 | image = WuhuIslandFlag.png
 | imagecaption = Flag of the Wuhu Autonomous Zone
 | nativename = na’a wúhu
 | pronunciation = ˀna.a ˈwu.ɦu
+| pronunciation_key = IPA for Nawuhu
 | creator = User:Jukethatbox
 | created = 2024
@@ Line 16: / Line 18: @@
 | date = 2024
 | script1 = Latn
+| stand1 = Standard Nawuhu
+| dia1 = Pemaka dialect †
+| dia2 = Nisulu dialect †
 | development_body = [https://discord.gg/Wzd9gWFu97 Wuhu Island Community Discord]
 | agency = [https://wuhugov.neocities.org/ Wuhu Autonomous Zone]
@@ Line 22: / Line 27: @@
 | notice = ipa
 }}
-'''Nawuhu'''(''na'a wúhu'', <small>Nawuhu:</small> [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ˀna.a ˈwu.ɦu]]]), also called '''Wuhu''' or '''Nauhu''' is a language isolate that was once predominantly spoken by the inhabitants of Wuhu Island(''wúhu'', ''akka wúhu'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ak.ka ˈwu.ɦu]]]). It was spoken primarily by the civilisation that probably encompassed the entire island, the ruins of which can be seen on the southern half of the island.<ref>See [https://wuhugov.neocities.org/html/history].</ref> Today, it is only spoken by around 90 native speakers, and ''Ethnologue'' marks Nawuhu as a definitely endangered language.
+'''Nawuhu'''(''na’a wúhu'', <small>Nawuhu:</small> [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ˀna.a ˈwu.ɦu]]]), also called '''Wuhu''' or '''Nauhu''' is a language isolate that was once predominantly spoken by the inhabitants of Wuhu Island(''akka wúhu'' or ''Akka’a'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ak.ka.a]]]). It was spoken primarily by the civilisation that probably encompassed the entire island, the ruins of which can be seen on the southern half of the island.<ref>See [https://wuhugov.neocities.org/html/history].</ref> Today, it is only spoken by around 90 native speakers, and ''Ethnologue'' marks Nawuhu as a definitely endangered language.
 ==Phonology==
@@ Line 34: / Line 39: @@
 | a || b || c || k || d || e || g || h || i || j || l || m || n || ñ ||o || p || s || t || u || v || w || y || z
 |-
-! rowspan=2 | IPA
+! IPA
-| rowspan=2 | a || rowspan=2 | b || ɕ || rowspan=2 | k || rowspan=2 | d || e || rowspan=2 | g || h || rowspan=2 | i || rowspan=2 | ʑ || rowspan=2 | l || rowspan=2 | m || rowspan=2 | n || rowspan=2 | ɲ || rowspan=2 | o || rowspan=2 | p || rowspan=2 | s || rowspan=2 | t || rowspan=2 | u || ʉ || rowspan=2 | w || rowspan=2 | j || rowspan=2 | z
+| a || b || ɕ || k || d || e || g || h || i || ʑ || l || m || n || ɲ || o || p || s || t || u || ʉ || w || j || z
-|-
-| ç || ɘ̯ || ɦ || ɘ̯
 |}
-Note that ⟨Vv⟩ is a vowel, representing the sound /ʉ/, as well as the sound /ɘ̯/ in intervocalic, non-syllabic positions.
+Note that ⟨Vv⟩ is a vowel, representing the sound /ʉ/.
 The digraph ⟨LHlh⟩ represents the phoneme /ʎ/.
@@ Line 53: / Line 56: @@
 ===Consonants===
 {| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
-! colspan=2 | !! Bilabial !! Alveolar !! Alveolo-<br>palatal !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
+! colspan=2 | !! Bilabial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
 |-
 ! colspan=2 |Plosive
-| p b || t d || || || k g ||
+| p b || t d || || k g ||
 |-
 ! rowspan=2 | Nasal
 ! pulmonic
-| m || n || || ɲ || ŋ ||
+| m || n || ɲ || ŋ ||
 |-
 ! pre-glottalised
-| ˀm || ˀn || || || ˀŋ
+| ˀm || ˀn || || ˀŋ ||
 |-
 ! colspan=2 |Fricative
-| || s z || ɕ ʑ || (ç) || || h~ɦ
+| || s z || ɕ ʑ || || h (ɦ)
 |-
 ! colspan=2 |Semivowel
-| w || || || j || ||
+| w || || j || ||
 |-
 ! colspan=2 |Lateral
-| || l || || ʎ || ||
+| || l || ʎ || ||
 |}
-/h/ and /ɦ/ are interchangeable, but most speakers only pronounced /ɦ/ in intervocalic positions(between vowels), hence the /ɦ/ in ''[[Contionary:wúhu|wú'''h'''u]]''.
+/ɦ/ is an allophone of /h/ pronounced in intervocalic positions(between vowels), hence the /ɦ/ in ''[[Contionary:wúhu|wú'''h'''u]]''. However, when a /h/ is stressed, even in intervocalic positions, it is always pronounced /h/, hence the /h/ in ''[[Contionary:puhúno|pu'''h'''úno]]''.
 ====Glottalisation====
-Though glottal stops do not occur phonemically in Nawuhu, some consonants are pre-glottalised at the beginning of a word, usually /n/, /m/ and /ŋ/. This glottalisation is not marked, mainly because Mark Mii, the creator of the Mark Mii romanisation system, never actually noticed the phonemic pre-glottalisation when researching the language. However, subsequent studies that interrogated actual native speakers did note the phonemic difference, with one research paper noting that one participant reportedly joked that a foreigner they had met greeted them with ''yeniye ngala!'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[jenije ŋala]]], meaning "Give us the spider!", instead of what the participant believed the foreigner wanted to say, ''yeniye *ngala!''(The asterisk is a common unofficial way to note pre-glottalisation) [[IPA for Nawuhu|[jenije ˀŋala]]], meaning "Welcome [to my home]!".
+Though glottal stops do not occur phonemically in Nawuhu, some consonants are pre-glottalised at the beginning of a word, usually /n/, /m/ and /ŋ/. This glottalisation is not marked, mainly because Mark Mii, the creator of the Mark Mii romanisation system, never actually noticed the phonemic pre-glottalisation when researching the language. However, subsequent studies that interrogated actual native speakers did note the phonemic difference, with one research paper noting that one participant reportedly joked that a foreigner they had met greeted them with ''yenita’a ngala!'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[jenita.a ŋala]]], meaning "Give the spider!", instead of what the participant believed the foreigner wanted to say, ''yenita’a *ngala!''(The asterisk is a common unofficial way to note pre-glottalisation) [[IPA for Nawuhu|[jenita.a ˀŋala]]], meaning "Welcome [to my home]!".
 ===Vowels===
@@ Line 86: / Line 89: @@
 |-
 ! Close-mid
-| e || (ɘ̯) || o
+| e || || o
 |-
 ! Front
 | || a ||
 |}
-/ɘ/ is an unstressed intervocalic allohpone of /e/ and /ʉ/, e.g. ''[[Contionary:íea|í'''e'''a]]'', "one", pronounced [ˈiɘ̯a].
 ===Stress and pitch===
-Stressed syllables have their vowels marked with an accute accent to denote its stress. Historically, [[Classical Nâuxu]] had a single pitch accent, the falling tone, akin to the pitch accent in [[w:Swedish language|Swedish]] or [[w:Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]. Orthographically, this is most often represented by a circumflex accent, ⟨◌̂⟩, such as in the word ''N'''â''' uuxu'' "[Classical] Nâuxu", [[Help:IPA|[nâ ʉː.hʉ]]].
+Stressed syllables have their vowels marked with an acute accent to denote its stress.
 ==Grammar==
 ===Word order===
-Nawuhu is primarily an SOV(subject-object-verb) language. However, in a phrase where there is no object, the word order is verb-initial. However, if the object is omitted but still implied, the word order remains as the standard SV. Thus, "I am", would be ''í ja'', lit. "am I", while "I am a person" would be ''ja pida’a í'', lit. "I person-a am".
+Nawuhu is primarily an SOV(subject-object-verb) language. In a phrase where there is no object, the word order is verb-initial. However, if the object is omitted but still implied, the word order remains as the standard SV. Thus, "I am", would be ''í ja'', lit. "am I", while "I am a person" would be ''ja pida’a í'', lit. "I person-a am".
-When forming a question(or a proposition, which uses roughly the same structure), the word order becomes VSO(verb-subject-object). Thus, though "I have a cat" would be ''ja éppia gvé'', the question "Do you have a cat?" would be ''lhún ja éppia?''.
+When forming a question(or a proposition, which uses roughly the same structure), the word order becomes VSO(verb-subject-object). Thus, though "I have a cat" would be ''ja éppia gvé'', the question "Do you have a cat?" would be ''lhún ádo éppia?''.
 ===Null-subject===
@@ Line 109: / Line 111: @@
 ===Nouns===
 ====Number====
-Nawuhu has five categories of grammatical number: '''singular''', '''dual''', '''paucal''', '''greater paucal''' and '''plural'''. If there is not sufficient context, all nouns in a phrase have to be marked with suffixes denoting their number, including if the noun is singular. If a word ending in ''-a'' must be denoted as singular, the suffix ''-’a'' is placed instead.
+Nawuhu has four categories of grammatical number: '''singular''', '''dual''', '''paucal''' and '''plural'''. If there is not sufficient context, all nouns in a phrase have to be marked with suffixes denoting their number, including if the noun is singular. If a word ending in ''-a'' must be denoted as singular, the suffix ''-’a'' is placed instead.
 Adjectives do not have to agree with nouns, though verbs do. Agreeing verbs have their own suffixes to indicate number, please see the [[Nawuhu#Verbs|Verbs]] section for more information.
@@ Line 115: / Line 117: @@
 |+ Base suffixes for nouns
 |-
-! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Greater Paucal !! Plural
+! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !!  Plural
 |-
-| ''-a'' || ''-an'' || ''-avn'' || ''-avne'' || ''-ai''
+| ''-a'' || ''-an'' || ''-avn'' || ''-ai''
 |}
+====Genidative====
+The '''genidative case'''(Latin: ''casus genidativus'') is a popular term used by Nawuhu linguists to refer to the merged genitive and dative case in Nawuhu, marked by an ''-u''. Originally two separate cases in Classical Nâuxu(''-eu'' and ''-u'' for the genitive and dative cases respectively), the two cases began to merge sometime around the arrival of initial colonisers, although some linguists argue that the Japanese possessive article の(''no''), which has similar properties as the Nawuhu ''-u'' suffix, could have accelerated the merging of the two cases, though this is still up to debate.
 ===Pronouns===
 ====Personal====
 {| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
-! !! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Greater Paucal !! Plural
+! !! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Plural
 |-
 ! First
-| ''ja'' || ''jan'' || ''jv'vn'' || ''jvlván'' || ''ja'aon''
+| ''ja'' || ''jan'' || ''jvn'' || ''jaon''
 |-
 ! Second
-| ''ádo'' || ''ádon'' || ''yuín'' || ''náyun'' || ''neíyo''
+| ''ádo'' || ''ádon'' || ''yuín'' || ''néyo''
 |-
 ! Third
-| ''ain'' || ''aina'' || ''avni'' || ''avnin'' || ''enawe''
+| ''ain'' || ''aina'' || ''avni'' || ''enawe''
 |}
 There are no gendered third person pronouns in Nawuhu, though some older translations of excavated texts translated the third person pronoun as "he". Today, most translators translate the ''ain'' pronoun as "they".
@@ Line 139: / Line 143: @@
 Demonstrative pronouns are placed after the noun, and have to agree with the grammatical number of the noun.
 {| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
-! !! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Greater Paucal !! Plural
+! !! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Plural
 |-
 ! Proximal
-| ''pa'' || ''pi’i'' || ''piwa'' || ''bewan'' || ''nimu''
+| ''pa'' || ''pi’i'' || ''piwa'' || ''nimu''
 |-
 ! Medial
-| ''co'' || ''coi'' || ''nva'' || ''nvna'' || ''anca''
+| ''co'' || ''coi'' || ''nva'' || ''anca''
 |-
 ! Distal
-| ''nis'' || ''eni'' || ''zola'' || ''zeoya'' || ''milha''
+| ''nis'' || ''eni'' || ''hua'' || ''miha’a''
 |}
 '''Proximal''' refers to things near the speaker("this thing"), '''medial''' refers to things near the addressee("that thing near you"), and '''distal''' refers to things "over there", as in not near the speaker or the addressee.
-===Weak verbs===
+====Interrogative====
+Interrogative pronouns in Nawuhu are quite distinct from demonstrative and personal pronouns. They do not agree with grammatical number, and instead mostly follow the English pattern of "what, why, who, when and how", although "when" has variations based on tense.
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
+! rowspan=2 | What !! rowspan=2 | Why !! rowspan=2 | Who !! colspan=4 | When !! rowspan=2 | How
+|-
+! Far Past !! Near Past !! Near Future !! General Future
+|-
+| ''lim'' || ''ley'' || ''lou'' || ''i’ilam'' || ''ilam'' || ''ewil'' || ''ewe’el'' || ''li’i''
+|}
+Here are some examples on how to use the variations of 'when':
+* "When did this battle take place?"
+** '''''I’ilam''' kubkubwálo te’esek nis?''
+* "When did you go there?"
+** '''''Ilam''' kolauálo ádo egnis?''
+* "When will you be eating lunch?"
+** '''''Ewil''' gopak baniksanián ádo?''
+* "When will the project be completed?"
+** '''''Ewe’el''' pulojek bakampián?''
+===Verbs===
 Nawuhu verbs are inflected on mood, aspect and tense. Weak verbs have specific suffixes to indicate mood, tense and aspect. Strong verbs, like ''oí'', "to be", or ''gvé'', "to have", have their own specific mood, tense and aspect conjugations.
 ====Mood====
@@ Line 173: / Line 196: @@
 |}
 To form perfective and imperfective tenses for past, present and future, the aforementioned the suffixes ''-sen'' and ''-san'' are placed before the tense suffix. Thus, something like "I do" would be ''ja kubu''(or simply ''kubu'' if one chooses to [[Nawuhu#Null-subject|omit the subject]]), or for emphasis ''ja kubusen'', while "I was doing" would be ''ja kubusanálo''(or ''kubusanálo'').
-===Strong verbs===
 ====To be, ''oí''====
-{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
+''Oí'' is the only strong verb in Nawuhu. It has unique declensions based on person and tense.
-! colspan=2 | Person !! First !! Second !! Third
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
+! !! First !! Second !! Third
+|-
+! Past
+| ''ya'' || ''iyu'' || ''ewo''
 |-
-! colspan=2 | Present
+! Present
 | ''í'' || ''ey'' || ''oí''
 |-
-! rowspan=5 | Perfect
+! Future
-! Indicative
+| ''iló'' || ''we’é'' || ''inó''
-| ''í'' || ''ey'' || ''oí''
+|}
+==Vocabulary==
+===Conversation===
+{| class=wikitable
+! English(''na’a ingélu'') !! Nawuhu(''na’a wúhu'') !! Pronunciation
+|-
+| Yes || ''Pi'' || [pi]
+|-
+| No || ''Nvki'' || [ˈnʉki]
+|-
+| Of course! || ''Tiéma!'' || [tiˈema]
+|-
+| Hello! || rowspan=2 | ''Peku!''(informal) / ''Pekutéleki!''(formal) || rowspan=2 | [peku]; [pekuˈteleki]
+|-
+| Goodbye!
+|-
+| Cheers! || ''Kal!'' || [kal]
 |-
-! Conditional
+| How are you? || ''Li’i?''(informal) / ''Li’i ey?''(formal)  || [li.i]; [li.i ej]
-| ''yéa'' || ''na’á'' || ''aíyé''
 |-
-! Optative
+| Good day! || ''Pi tupi!'' || [pi tupi]
-| ''wáo'' || ''wa’ai'' || ''newálo''
 |-
-! Imperative
+| Good morning! || ''Pi tupi!'' / ''Pi tupi’ikélo!''(lit. "What a good sunrise!") || [pi tupi]; [pi tupi.iˈkelo]
-| ''má'' || ''yuá'' || ''í’ine
 |-
-! Jussive
+| Good evening! || ''Pi tupi'iyáki!''<ref>This greeting is rarely used; one would typically use ''Pi tupi!'' instead.</ref> || [pi tupi.iˈjaki]
-| ''mánka'' || ''yuála'' || ''í’inta''
 |}
+==Dialects==
+===Historical===
 ==References==
+[[Category:Nawuhu]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A priori]]