Falamu: Difference between revisions

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'''Falamu''' (native: [fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ]) is a Portuguese creole language with a high degree of Somali influence.

'''Falamu''' (native: ''falámu'' [fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ]) is a Portuguese creole language with a high degree of Somali influence.

{{Infobox language

|name = Falamu

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|pronunciation = bɔ́ˑkɑ fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ

|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]

|~~region~~ = East Africa

|state = East Africa

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|states =

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|iso2 =

|iso3 = -->

|~~script~~ = ~~[[w:Latin script|Latin]]~~

|script1 = Latn

<!--

|agency = -->

}}

==Introduction==

===Etymology===

From early Falamu ''(nu) falámu'' "we (incl.) speak" (= modern Falamu ''é nu fála'') < Portuguese ''~~(nós)~~ falamos'' "we speak".

From Portuguese ''falamos'' "we speak".

<!-- Example categories/headings:

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| nh || ɲ ~ j̃ || Free variation

|-

~~<!--~~

| q || ɢ || May be pronounced /ʁ/ between vowels.

|-->

|-

| r || r ||

|-

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|}

The consonants ''m, n, l, g, r, d, b'' can be geminated between vowels, which is indicated by doubling them.

<!--

The consonants ''dh'' and ''nh'' are always geminated when between vowels.

The consonants ''dh'' and ''nh'' are always geminated when between vowels.-->

The voiceless stops ''t, k'' are always aspirated.

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*Monophthong vowels in word-final syllables;

*Word-final diphthong vowels.

There are also true long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel letter of a monophthong (e.g. ''aa'') or the nucleus of a diphthong (e.g. ''aay''). If a word contains a true long vowel, an other accented short vowel in the same word is not lengthened.

There are also true long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel letter of a monophthong (e.g. ''aa'') or the nucleus of a diphthong (e.g. ''aay''). If a word contains a true long vowel, any other accented short vowel in the same word is not lengthened.

A word cannot begin in a vowel. Instead, a word written with an initial vowel is pronounced with a preceding glottal stop.

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In this article, a circumflex accent is used for accented "front" vowels, while an acute accent is used for accented "back" vowels. Accented vowels of indeterminate frontness/backness are represented with a grave accent.

====Etymological script====

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Consonants

! Regular script !! ES equivalent !! Remarks

|-

| ' || ' ||

|-

| b || b; p ||

|-

| d || d ||

|-

| dh || dh ||

|-

| f || f ||

|-

| g || g ||

|-

| gw || gu ||

|-

| h || h ||

|-

| j || ch; dj; dg¹ ||

|-

| k || c; qu¹ ||

|-

| kuw || qu ||

|-

| l || l ||

|-

| m || m ||

|-

| n || n; m² ||

|-

| nh || nh ||

|-

| q || k ||

|-

| r || r ||

|-

| s || s; ss; z; c¹; sc¹; sç ||

|-

| t || t ||

|-

| w || u ||

|-

| x || x; j; g¹ ||

|-

| y || y; i; ∅ || Written ''i'' after vowels except when after another ''i'' or before a stressed ''i'', in which case it is not written. Otherwise written ''y''.

|-

| CVrV || CVrV; CrV || rowspan="2" | When an "echo vowel" is inserted to break a consonant cluster ending in a liquid, the "echo vowel" is not written. The first vowel may also be dropped in writing in some words, even when etymological, provided that it is identical to the second vowel.

|-

| CVlV || CVlV; ClV

|}

'''Notes:'''

¹ Before front vowels

² Word-finally

Vowels are the same as the regular script, except diphthongs end in ''i'' and ''u'' instead of ''y'' and ''w'' respectively.

===Prosody===

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====Intonation====

===Phonotactics===

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{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center;

|+ Phonological correspondences between Portuguese and Falamu

! colspan="2"|Portuguese !! rowspan="2"|Falamu

! colspan="2"|Portuguese !! rowspan="2"|Falamu !! rowspan="2" | Remarks

|-

! Grapheme !! Environment

|-

| ch || all || rowspan="5" | j

| ch || all || rowspan="5" | j ||

|-

| j || initial or after consonant ||

|-

| g || initial or after consonant before e/i ||

|-

| j || ~~initial~~

| di || rowspan="2"|unstressed before vowels || Sometimes maintained as ''d(i)''.

|-

| g || ~~initial before e/~~i

| ti || Sometimes maintained as ''t(i)''.

|-

| di || rowspan="2"|~~unstressed before vowels~~

| x || as /ʃ/ || rowspan="3" | x ||

|-

| ti

| j || after vowels ||

|-

| x || ~~all as~~ /~~ʃ/ |~~| ~~rowspan="3"~~ | x

| g || after vowels before e/i ||

|-

| j || ~~non-initial~~

| u || as semivowel || rowspan="3" | w ||

|-

| g || ~~non~~-initial ~~before e~~/i

| gu || word-initial; as /ɡw/ between vowels || Sometimes maintained as ''g(w)''

|-

~~| v |~~| rowspan="3" | ~~all~~ || rowspan="3" | b

| rowspan="2"|v || initial before non-rounded vowel || rowspan="2" | Sometimes becomes ''b'' when ''w'' is expected or vice versa, and sometimes becomes ''f''.

|-

| p

| non-initial; initial before rounded vowel || rowspan="3" | b

|-

| b

| p || rowspan="2" | all ||

|-

| s || ~~rowspan="4" | all || rowspan="6" | s~~

| b ||

|-

| ss

| s || rowspan="5" | all || rowspan="7" | s ||

|-

| z

| ss ||

|-

| ç

| z ||

|-

| c || ~~rowspan="2"|before e/i~~

| ç ||

|-

| sc

| sç

|-

| lh || ~~all~~ || dh

| c || rowspan="2"|before e/i ||

|-

| ~~rowspan="2"~~ | ~~-ão~~ |~~| from earlier ''-an'' or ''-ano'' || -an~~

| sc ||

|-

| from earlier ''-on'' || -on

<!--

| lh || all || rowspan="2"| y ||

|-

| i || as semivowel ||

|-

-->

| rowspan="4" | lh || surrounded by non-front vowels || dh || rowspan="4" | These are the general tendencies, but individual words may break these guidelines.

|-

| preceded or followed by stressed /e/ || y

|-

| preceded by stressed /i/ and followed by non-front vowel || j

|-

| preceded by stressed /i/ and followed by front vowel || l

|-

| rowspan="2" | -ão || from earlier ''-an'' or ''-ano'' || -an ||

|-

| from earlier ''-on'' || -on ||

|-

<!--

| nd || usually || ndh

|-

| nt || usually || nd

|-

| ng, ngu || usually || (n)q

|-

| nc, nqu || usually || ng

|-

-->

|}

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-->

===Pronouns===

====Personal pronouns====

{| class="wikitable"

|+ ~~Pronouns~~

|+ Personal pronouns

|-

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|-

! 1S

| amî || mî || mi || kimî || mi ||

| amî || mî || mi || kimî || -mi ||

|-

! 2S

| abô || bô || bu || kibô || bu ||

| abô || bô || bu || kibô || -bu ||

|-

! 3S

! 3SM

| ~~ayêl~~ || êl || li || kisû || su ||

| êl || êl || li || kisû || -su ||

|-

~~<!--~~

! 3SF

| ~~êla~~ || ~~êla~~ || la || ~~dêla~~ || ~~dila~~ ||

| él || él || li || kisú || -su ||

|-

~~-->~~

! 1PI

| anô || nô || nu || kinô || nu ||

| anô || nô || nu || kinô || -nu ||

|-

! 1PE

| anôs || nôs || nus || kinôs || nus ||

| anôs || nôs || nus || kinôs || -nus ||

|-

! 2P

| abôs || bôs || bus || kibôs || bus ||

| abôs || bôs || bus || kibôs || -bus ||

|-

! 3P

| ~~ayêlis~~ || êlis || lis || kisûs || sus ||

| êlis || êlis || lis || kisûs || -sus ||

|-

! Reflexive

! Reflexive/reciprocal

| ~~asî~~ || sî |~~| si~~ || — || — || ~~Reflexive when~~ used ~~as an object~~.

| colspan="2"|méski + ''poss.'' || mes || — || — || When used independently, takes the definite article and a possessive - e.g. ''méskimi'' "myself"; ''méski kimî'' "I myself".

|-

! Impersonal

| — || — || si || — || — || ~~Impersonal when used as a subject~~ to form ~~the~~ pseudopassive.

| — || — || ''si'' || — || —|| Used to form pseudopassive.

|-

|}

<!--

There is also a reflexive object pronoun ''si'' used for all numbers and persons - e.g. ''é mi si labába'' "I washed myself." Its emphatic counterpart is ''sî'', which is used with possessives - e.g. ''mi sî'' "myself".

There is also a homophonous impersonal subject pronoun ''si'' used to form the pseudopassive ''é si mi labába'' "I was washed."-->

====Interrogative pronouns====

*''kôs, árguké'': what

*''úndi, rugálké'': where

*''móké'': how

*''kén, bisówké'': who

*''wêskê'': when

*''kê'': what/which

**Less generic than ''kôs''.

*''kâl'': which

**More specific than ''kê''.

When used in a sentence, interrogative pronouns are followed by the focus particle ''éki'', with optional contraction.

'''Examples:'''

*''Kôs éki bu tá komê?'' / ''Kosêbu tá komê?'' "What are you eating?"

*''Kén éki li mirába?'' / ''Kenhéli mirába?'' "Who did (s)he see?"

*''Wêskê éki lis bîn?'' / ''Weskêlis bîn?'' "When are they coming?"

*''Úndi éki lis nu mirába?'' / ''Undélis nu mirába?'' "Where did they see us?"

====Demonstrative pronouns====

*''kês'': "this/these" (near)

**Explicit plural: ''kêsis'' "these"

*''kêl'': "that/those" (far)

**Explicit plural: ''kêlis'' "those"

*''kulá'': "that/those over there" (far emphatic)

**Explicit plural: ''kulás'' "those over there"

**Used in opposition to ''kêl''.

====Definite pronouns====

*''ki'': "that, the one"

*''kî'': "that, the one (anaphoric)"

===Nouns===

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'''Examples:'''

*''~~ódhu~~'' "eye" -> ''~~ódhus~~'' "eyes"

*''ôdhu'' "eye" -> ''ôdhus'' "eyes"

*''dêd'' "finger, toe" -> ''dêdis'' "fingers, toes"

*''mán'' "hand, arm" -> ''mánhis'' "hands, arms"

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*''beni'aâdan'' "human" -> ''aadâmi'' "humanity"

**This is a collective noun, meaning it takes singular agreement. Colloquially, it may instead take plural agreement.

*''~~bisó~~'' "person" -> ''jênti'' "people"

*''bisów'' "person" -> ''jênti'' "people"

**Collective (as ''aadâmi'').

*''mûslin'' "Muslim" -> ''muslimîn'' "Muslims"

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| Present || Base stem with penultimate accent || ''fála'' "speak(s)" || The accent is final in monosyllabic verbs.

|-

| Past || Infinitive + ''-ba'' || ''falába'' "spoke" ||

| Past || Infinitive + ''-ba'' || ''falába'' "spoke" || Some irregular verbs instead drop their final vowel and add ''-èra''.

|-

| Passive participle || Infinitive + ''-d'' || ''falád'' "spoken" ||

<!--

| Passive participle || Infinitive + ''-d'' || ''falád'' "spoken" ||-->

|}

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! Infinitive !! Present stem !! Past stem !! Meaning !! Remarks

|-

| sê || é ~ sê || éra || "to be" || When ''é'' is used as the present, it falls before the complement and no clitic subject pronouns are used. E.g. ''~~êla~~ é ~~midhêr~~.'' ≈ ''~~midhêr~~ éki la sê.'' ≈ ''kôs la sê ~~midhêr~~.'' "she is a woman."

| sê || é ~ sê || éra || "to be" || When ''é'' is used as the present in main clauses, it falls before the complement and no clitic subject pronouns or focus particles are used. E.g. ''él é muyêr.'' ≈ ''muyêr éki li sê.'' ≈ ''kôs li sê muyêr.'' "she is a woman." When used adjectivally, ''sê'' is used. E.g. ''muyêr awtór sê'' "a woman who is an author''

|-

<!--

| tê || tên || tênha || "to have" ||

|-

| bî || ~~bîn~~ || ~~bînha~~ || "to come" ||

| wî || wîn || wînha || "to come" ||

|-

| bô || bôn || bônha || "to put" ||

|-

|-->

|}

Additionally, there are a class of verbs (many of which end in ''-u'') that form their past in ''-èra''. These generally correspond to adjectives in other languages - e.g. ''altú'' "to be high"; ''áltu'' "(is) high"; ''altéra'' "was high".

====Verb tenses====

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! Form !! Formation !! Examples !! Remarks

|-

| ~~Simple present~~ || Present stem || ''é la fála'' "~~she~~ speaks"; ''fála!'' "speak!" || ~~Also used~~ for imperative affirmative.

| Present 1 || Present stem || ''é li fála'' "(s)he speaks"; ''fála!'' "speak!"; ''bisów fála'' "a person who speaks" || Used for present simple affirmative (which may have a habitual or stative meaning depending on the verb), adjectival present simple affirmative, and imperative affirmative.

|-

| Present ~~prospective/subjunctive~~ || Infinitive || ''é mi falá'' "I'll speak"; ''ki mi falá'' "that I speak"; ''mi ná falá'' "I do not speak"; ''ná falá!'' "do not speak!" || ~~Also used~~ for present negative and imperative negative.

| Present 2 || Infinitive || ''é mi falá'' "I'll speak"; ''ba mi falá'' "that I speak"; ''ná mi falá'' "I do not speak"; ''ná falá!'' "do not speak!" || Used for present prospective, present subordinate (but not adjectival), present negative and imperative negative.

|-

| Present progressive || tá + infinitive || ''é bu tá falá'' "you (sg.) are speaking" ||

|-

| ~~Simple past~~ || Past stem || ''é nus falába'' "we (excl.) spoke" ||

| Past simple || Past stem || ''é nus falába'' "we (excl.) spoke" ||

|-

| Past progressive || tá + past || ''é nu tá falába'' "we (incl.) were speaking" ||

|-

| Past remote || já + past || ''é li já falába'' "he spoke (a ~~long time~~ ago)" ||

<!--

| Past remote || já + past || ''é li já falába'' "(s)he spoke [a while ago]; (s)he used to speak; (s)he already spoke; (s)he had spoken" ||

|-

~~<!--~~

| Future || Infinitive + kére || ''é bu falá kére'' "you will speak" || ''kére'' is the present tense of ''keré'' "to want"

|-

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|-

-->

| Jussive || ád + Infinitive || ''mi ád falá'' "I should speak" ||

| Jussive || ád + Infinitive || ''mi ád falá'' "I should speak; let me speak", ''li ád falá'' "let him/her speak", ''li ád ná falá'' "let him/her not speak" ||

|-

|}

<!--

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#As the table shows, ''keré'' "to want" + infinitive is used to form the future. In order to express a desire, a subjunctive phrase is used. For example:

#* ''é mi falá kére'' "I will speak" (lit. "I want speak") , versus

#* ''ki mi falá é mi kére'' or ''kôs mi kére ki mi falá'' "I want to speak" (lit. "I want that I speak")-->

#* ''ba mi falá é mi kére'' or ''kôs mi kére ba mi falá'' "I want to speak" (lit. "I want that I speak")-->

<!--

====Auxiliary verbs====

Auxiliary verbs are used to form additional tenses. They

-->

====Voice====

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====Derived verbs====

*'''Middle:''' add ''-se'' to stem - e.g. ''labá'' "to wash" -> ''labasé'' "to wash oneself, to wash for oneself"

<!--

*'''Anticausative/detransitive:''' add ''-du'' to stem - e.g. ''fejâ'' "to close (trans.)" -> ''fejadû'' "to close (intrans.)"

**While this can be considered a passive form, this is generally used when the action occurred without intent. If there is intent involved, use the ~~impersonal~~ pseudopassive instead.

**While this can be considered a passive form, this is generally used when the action occurred without intent. If there is intent involved, use the pseudopassive instead.

-->

*'''Causative 1:''' add ''-fa'' to stem - e.g. ''durmî'' "to sleep" -> ''durmifâ'' "to put to sleep"

**Usually used with intransitive verbs.

**This can be combined with the middle to form ''-fase'' - e.g. ''kosê'' "to cook (intr.)" -> ''kosefâ'' "to cook (tr.)" -> ''kosefasê'' "to cook for oneself"

*'''Causitive 2:''' add ''-da'' to stem - e.g. ''komê'' "to eat" -> ''~~komedâ~~'' "to give to eat"

*'''Causitive 2:''' add ''-(d)da'' to stem - e.g. ''komê'' "to eat" -> ''komeddâ'' "to give to eat"

**The ''-d-'' is geminated after vowels.

**Usually used with transitive verbs, and often when someone is being "caused" to do something.

**This can be combined with the middle to form ''-dase''.

**This can be combined with the middle to form ''-(d)dase''.

*'''Inchoative:''' add ''-eya'' to the stem (minus any final vowel).

**This is mostly used with verbs that form their past in ''-èra'' (other than ''sê'', which instead becomes ''fiká'') - e.g. ''altú'' "to be high" (past: ''altéra'') -> ''alteyá'' "to become high". It may also be added directly to nouns - e.g. ''bôs'' "voice, vote" -> ''boseyâ'' "to vote".

**Other verbal suffixes can be added on top of it, in which case the final ''-a'' is dropped - e.g. ''alteyá'' "to become high" -> ''alteyfá'' "to make high". Note that, depending on the verb, adding the middle suffix on its own may not always change the meaning - e.g. ''alteyá'' "to become high" -> ''alteysé'' "to become high"

===Particles===

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**Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. ''é mi kôme.'' "I eat."

**"Independent object" refers to a direct or indirect object that is not a clitic pronoun, while "emphasized subject" refers to a subject that has extra emphasis placed upon it in such a way that English would use a copular phrase.

**''é'' can contract with the subject pronoun, in which case it takes the frontness/backness of the verb - e.g. ''êmi kôme.'' "I eat."

**''é'' can contract with the subject pronoun, in which case it takes the frontness/backness of the pronoun (and the verb by extension) - e.g. ''êmi kôme.'' "I eat."

**''é'' is not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''ná mi komê.''' "I do not eat.".

**Note that any explicit subject (i.e. any subject other than a clitic pronoun) is placed before the focus particle - e.g. ''amî é mi komêba.'' "[As for] me, I ate."; ''Úmar é li komêba.'' "Omar ate."

*''éki'': used to form main clauses.

**Used when the independent object or emphasized subject is placed before the verb.

**Comes after the relevant object/subject. Note that when used with a subject, it places the verb into its subordinate form - e.g. ''~~komîda~~ éki mi kôme.'' "I eat food./Food [is what] I eat."; ''Úmar éki ~~komîda~~ komê.'' "[It is] Omar [who] eats food."

**Comes after the relevant object/subject. Note that when used with a subject, it places the verb into its subordinate form - e.g. ''kumîda éki mi kôme.'' "I eat food./Food [is what] I eat."; ''Úmar éki kumîda komê.'' "[It is] Omar [who] eats food."

**''éki'' can contract with a following subject pronoun (if applicable), in which case the ''-ki-'' is dropped and ''e-'' takes the frontness/backness of the verb - e.g. ''~~komîda émi~~ kôme.'' "I eat food." Note that this is identical to the contraction of ''é''.

**''éki'' can contract with a following subject pronoun (if applicable), in which case the ''-ki-'' is dropped and ''e-'' takes the frontness/backness of the verb - e.g. ''kumîda êmi kôme.'' "I eat food." Note that this is identical to the contraction of ''é''.

**''éki'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''~~komîda~~ ná mi komê.'' "I do not eat food.". However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''Úmar éki ~~komîda~~ ná komê.'' "[It is] Omar [who] does not eat food."

**''éki'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''kumîda ná mi komê.'' "I do not eat food.". However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''Úmar éki kumîda ná komê.'' "[It is] Omar [who] does not eat food."

*''kôs'': used to form main clauses.

**Used when the independent object is placed after the verb.

**Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. ''Úmar kôs li kôme ~~komîda~~.'' "Omar eats food."

**Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. ''Úmar kôs li kôme kumîda.'' "Omar eats food."

**''kôs'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''Úmar ná li komê ~~komîda~~.'' "Omar does not eat food." However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''Úmar kôs li ná komê ~~komîda~~.'' "[That which] Omar does not eat [is] food."

**''kôs'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''Úmar ná li komê kumîda.'' "Omar does not eat food." However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''Úmar kôs li ná komê kumîda.'' "[That which] Omar does not eat [is] food."

*''kôski'': used to form main clauses.

**Used when the emphasized subject is placed after the verb.

**Comes before verb and any clitic object pronouns - e.g. ''~~komîda~~ kôski kôme Úmar.'' "[The one who] eats food [is] Omar."

**Comes before verb and any clitic object pronouns - e.g. ''kumîda kôski kôme Úmar.'' "[The one who] eats food [is] Omar."

**''kôski'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''~~komîda~~ ná li komê Úmar.'' "Omar does not eat food." However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''~~komîda~~ kôski ná kôme Úmar.'' "[The one who] does not eat food [is] Omar."

**''kôski'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''kumîda ná li komê Úmar.'' "Omar does not eat food." However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''kumîda kôski ná kôme Úmar.'' "[The one who] does not eat food [is] Omar."

====Interrogative ~~pronouns~~====

====Interrogative suffixes/clitics====

*''~~kôs~~'': what

*''-kè'': "which/what"

*''~~ûndi, lugaké~~''~~: where~~

**Attaches to the word being modified (without affecting its accent) - e.g. ''bisówké?'' "what person?"

*''~~moké~~''~~: how~~

**Alternatively, can be a separate word after a word with a definite article - e.g. ''bisówki ké?'' "what person?"

*''~~kén~~'': ~~who~~

*''-kàl'': "which"

*''~~kán~~''~~: when~~

**Similar placement as ''kè''.

~~When used~~ in ~~a sentence, interrogative pronouns are followed by the focus particle~~ ''~~éki~~''.

**Similar in meaning to ''kè'', but implies a more limited set of options.

====Demonstrative suffixes/clitics====

These can either function as suffixes attached to the word they modified, or they can be independent words following a word with a definite article.

'''~~Examples~~:'''

'''Suffixed forms:'''

*''~~Kôs éki bu tá komê?~~'' "~~What are you eating?~~"

*''-kes'': "this/these"

*''~~Kén éki li bêba?~~'' "~~Who did he see?~~"

*''-kel'': that/those

*''~~Kán éki lis bî?~~'' "~~When are they coming?~~"

*''-kula'': that/those over there

*''~~Ûndi éki lis nu bêba?~~'' "~~Where did they see us?~~"

'''Postclitic forms:'''

*''kès'': "this/these"

*''kèl'': "that/those"

*''kulà'': "that/those over there"

====~~Interrogative clitic~~====

====Definite articles====

*''kè'': "~~which~~"

*''-ki'': "the"

**~~Comes after~~ word ~~being modified~~

*''-kì'': "the (anaphoric)"

**Does not affect ths word's accent.

====Negation particles====

*''ná'': negation.

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*''da'': "from"

*''ba'': "to, for"

~~The following prepositions are used solely before the modified noun phrases:~~

*''módi'': "like"

====Conjunctions====

*''i'': "and" (within a clause)

*''~~mas~~'': "and" (connects clauses)

*''tabên'': "and" (connects clauses)

*''o'': "or"

*''bos'': "or"

*''nón'': "or" (in questions)

*''kán'': "while, when"

*''~~berén~~'': "but"

*''mâs'': "but"

*''ê'': connects modified with modifier.

**Follows modified.

**Used for disambiguation (i.e. when its absence can lead to potential ambiguity).

*''ba'': "that" (relativizer)

==Syntax==

Line 432:

Line 582:

===Dependent clauses===

==Vocabulary==

===Time - ''Têmbuki - Têmpu-qui''===

<!--

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"

|+ Hijri Months - ''Los mesos hijrís''

! English !! Essanian

|-

| Muharram || muhárram

|-

| Safar || sáfar

|-

| Rabi' al-Awwal || rabigh primer

|-

| Rabi' ath-Thani || rabigh second

|-

| Jumada al-Ula || jumada primera

|-

| Jumada al-Akhirah || jumada seconda

|-

| Rajab || rájab

|-

| Sha'ban || xaghbán

|-

| Ramadan || ramadán

|-

| Shawwal || xawal

|-

| Dhu'l-Qa'dah || zulcaghda

|-

| Dhu'l-Hijjah || zulhaja

|-

|}-->

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"

|+ Greogorian months - ''Mêsiski milâdiki - Mêsis-qui milâdi-qui''

! English !! colspan="2"| Falamu

|-

| January || jenêru || djenêru

|-

| February || colspan="2"| febrêru

|-

| March || mársu || márçu

|-

| April || colspan="2"| abrílu

|-

| May || máyu || máiu

|-

| June || júnhu || djúnhu

|-

| July || júdhu || djúdhu

|-

| August || colspan="2"| agôstu

|-

| September || colspan="2"|setêbru

|-

| October ||colspan="2"| otôbru

|-

| November || colspan="2"|nobêbru

|-

| December || desêbru || decêbru

|-

|}

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"

|+ Days of the week - ''Dîyaski simánaki - Dîas-qui simána-qui''

! English !! colspan="2"| Falamu

|-

| Sunday || colspan="2"|dimíngu

|-

| Monday || colspan="2"|sugúnda

|-

| Tuesday || térsa || térça

|-

| Wednesday || kuwárta || quárta

|-

| Thursday || kínta || quínta

|-

| Friday || júm'a || djúm'a

|-

| Saturday || colspan="2"|sábtu

|-

|}

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"

|+ Parts of the day - ''Bártiski dîyaki - Pártis-qui dîa-qui''

! English !! colspan="2"|Falamu

|-

| day || dîya || dîa

|-

| dawn || manhasé || manhacé

|-

| morning || manhasîn || manhacîm

|-

| noon || meydîya || mei-dîa

|-

| afternoon || colspan="2"|tárdi

|-

| evening || serán || serám

|-

| dusk || notisê || noticê

|-

| night || colspan="2"|nôti

|-

| midnight || meynôti || mei-nôti

|}

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"

|+ Units of time - ''Bártiski têmbuki - Pártis-qui têmpu-qui''

! English !! colspan="2"|Falamu

|-

| second || colspan="2"|sugúndu

|-

| minute || colspan="2"|minútu

|-

| hour || colspan="2"|óra

|-

| day || dîya || dîa

|-

| week || colspan="2"|simána

|-

| month || colspan="2"|mês

|-

| year || colspan="2"|ánhu

|-

|}

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"

|+ Time adverbs - '' ''

! English !! colspan="2"| Falamu

|-

| now || colspan="2"| agóra

|-

| then || entôn || entôm

|-

| recently, a short time ago || resén || recém

|-

| earlier || colspan="2"| ántis

|-

| soon, shortly || ||

|-

| later || colspan="2"| lôg

|-

| always || sémber || sémper

|-

| often || wês jéy || uêz chéi

|-

| sometimes || wês-wês || uêz-uêz

|-

| rarely || ||

|-

| never || núnka || núnca

|-

| ever || núnka || núnca

|-

| still, yet || colspan="2"| înda

|-

| already || já || djá

|-

| today || ôxi || ôji

|-

| tonight || notîn || notîm

|-

| yesterday || colspan="2"| ónti

|-

| last night || ||

|-

| tomorrow || colspan="2"| manhá

|-

| before yesterday || ||

|-

| two nights ago || ||

|-

| after tomorrow || ||

|-

| this week || ||

|-

| last week || ||

|-

| next week || ||

|-

|}

===Colours - ''Kôriski - Côris-qui''===

{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"

|+ Colours - ''Kôriski - Côris-que''

! English !! colspan="2"|Falamu

|-

| white || baránku || bráncu

|-

| grey || sinsêntu || cinzêntu

|-

| black || colspan="2"|nêgru

|-

| red || werméyu || uerméiu

|-

| orange || laránja || larándja

|-

| brown || kastán || castám

|-

| yellow || colspan="2"| marêl

|-

| green || wêrdi || uêrdi

|-

| blue || asúl || azúl

|-

| pink || colspan="2"|rósa

|-

| purple || colspan="2"|rôx

|-

| golden || colspan="2"|dorád

|-

|}

==Sample Texts==

===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===

'''Regular:'''

~~Aadami tod dili~~ kos li nase ~~kan li~~ se ~~hor i nibrad~~ na orra i ~~deretus~~. ~~Kos si~~ daba ~~rason~~ i ~~damir~~, ~~mas~~ e ~~ki biso~~ otu ~~biso~~ kuli li axi ~~modi irman~~.

Aadamiki todkisu kos li nase el e hor se nibradu taben na orra i deretis. Ilaahi kos daba menti i damiir, taben e ba bisowki si we bisowki otu kuli modi irman li axi.

'''Phonetic:'''

~~Aadâmi tôd dili~~ kôs li náse ~~kán li~~ sê ~~hór i nibrád~~ na órra i ~~derêtus~~. ~~Kôs si~~ dába ~~rasón~~ i ~~damír~~, ~~mas~~ é ~~ki bisó~~ ôtu ~~bisó kûli~~ li âxi ~~módi irmán~~.

Aadâmiki tôdkisu kôs li náse êl ê hór sê nibrádu tabên na órra i derêtis. Ilaâhi kôs dába mênti i damíir, tabên é ba bisówki si wê bisówki ôtu kuli módi irmán li âxi.

'''Portuguese-based:'''

Aadâmi tôd ~~dili~~ côs li násce ~~cã li~~ sê ~~hór i nibrád~~ na órra i ~~derêtus~~. ~~Côs si~~ dába ~~razõ~~ i ~~damír~~, ~~mas~~ é qui ~~pissó~~ ôtu ~~pissó cûli~~ li ~~âji módi irmã~~.

Aadâmi-qui tôd-qui-su côs li násce êl ê hór sê nibrádu tabêm na órra i drêtis. Ilaâhi côs dába mênti i damíir, tabêm é pa pissóu-qui si uê pissóu-qui ôtu culi módi irmám li âgi.

'''IPA:'''

/~~æːðǽmi tɞ́d dili~~ kɞ́s lɪ nɑ́sɛ ~~kɑ́ŋ li~~ sé ~~hɔ́r i nɪbrɑ́d~~ nɑ ʔɔ́rːɑ i ~~derétʉs~~ || kɞ́s si dɑ́bɑ ~~rɑsɔ́ŋ~~ ɪ ~~dɑmɪ́r~~ | ~~mɑs~~ ʔɛ́ ~~kɪ bɪsɔ́~~ ɞ́tʉ ~~bɪsɔ́ kʉ́li~~ li ʔǽʃi ~~mɔ́dɪ ʔɪrmɑ́ŋ~~/

/æːdǽmiki tɞ́dkisʉ kɞ́s lɪ nɑ́sɛ él é hɔ́r sé nɪbrɑ́dʊ tæbéŋ nɑ ʔɔ́rːɑ i derétis || ilæ̌ːhi kɞ́s dɑ́bɑ ménti ɪ dɑmɪ̂ːr | tæbéŋ ʔɛ́ bɑ bɪsɔ́ʊkɪ si wé bɪsɔ́ʊkɪ ɞ́tʉ kʉli mɔ́dɪ ʔɪrmɑ́ŋ li ʔǽʃi/

[æːðǽmiki tɞ́ˑdkisʉ kɞ́ˑs lɪ nɑ́ˑsɛ éˑl éˑ hɔ́ˑr séˑ nɪbrɑ́ˑðʊ tæβéˑŋ nɑ ʔɔ́rːɑ i deréˑtis || ilæ̌ːhi kɞ́ˑs dɑ́ˑβɑ ménti ɪ dɑmɪ́ˑr | tæβéˑŋ ʔɛ́ˑ bɑ bɪsɔ́ʊ̯kɪ si wéˑ bɪsɔ́ʊ̯kɪ ɞ́ːtʉ kʉli mɔ́ˑðɪ ʔɪrmɑ́ˑŋ li ʔǽˑʃi]

'''Gloss:'''

humanity all 3S.POSS FOC 3S.SUBJ be_born ~~while~~ 3S.SUBJ be free and ~~level~~ in dignity and rights. FOC ~~IMPRS~~ give-PST reason and conscience, and ~~FOC~~ that person other ~~person~~ with 3S.SUBJ act ~~like brother~~.

humanity-the all-the-3S.POSS FOC 3S.SUBJ be_born 3S.SUBJ ADJ free being being_equal and in dignity and rights. God FOC give-PST reason and conscience, and is that person-the IMP see person-the other with-3S like brother 3S.SUBJ act.PRES1.

'''Translation:'''

Humanity is born free and equal in dignity and rights. ~~They are given~~ reason and conscience, and a person must behave towards ~~another~~ person like a brother.

Humanity is born free and equal in dignity and rights. God gave them reason and conscience, and the person seen must behave towards the other person like a brother.

==Other resources==

[[Falamu/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-'''Falamu''' (native: [fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ]) is a Portuguese creole language with a high degree of Somali influence.
+'''Falamu''' (native: ''falámu'' [fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ]) is a Portuguese creole language with a high degree of Somali influence.
 {{Infobox language
 |name = Falamu
@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 |pronunciation = bɔ́ˑkɑ fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ
 |creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
-|region = East Africa
+|state = East Africa
 <!--
 |states =
@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 |iso2 =
 |iso3 = -->
-|script        = [[w:Latin script|Latin]]
+|script1       = Latn
 <!--
 |agency        = -->
 }}
 ==Introduction==
 ===Etymology===
-From early Falamu ''(nu) falámu'' "we (incl.) speak" (= modern Falamu ''é nu fála'') < Portuguese ''(nós) falamos'' "we speak".
+From <!--early Falamu ''(nu) falámu'' "we (incl.) speak" (= modern Falamu ''é nu fála'') < -->Portuguese ''falamos'' "we speak".
 <!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
 <!-- Example categories/headings:
@@ Line 83: / Line 84: @@
 | nh || ɲ ~ j̃ || Free variation
 |-
-<!--
 | q || ɢ || May be pronounced /ʁ/ between vowels.
-|-->
+|-
 | r || r ||
 |-
@@ Line 100: / Line 100: @@
 |}
 The consonants ''m, n, l, g, r, d, b'' can be geminated between vowels, which is indicated by doubling them.
+<!--
-The consonants ''dh'' and ''nh'' are always geminated when between vowels.
+The consonants ''dh'' and ''nh'' are always geminated when between vowels.-->
 The voiceless stops ''t, k'' are always aspirated.
@@ Line 144: / Line 144: @@
 *Monophthong vowels in word-final syllables;
 *Word-final diphthong vowels.
-There are also true long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel letter of a monophthong (e.g. ''aa'') or the nucleus of a diphthong (e.g. ''aay''). If a word contains a true long vowel, an other accented short vowel in the same word is not lengthened.
+There are also true long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel letter of a monophthong (e.g. ''aa'') or the nucleus of a diphthong (e.g. ''aay''). If a word contains a true long vowel, any other accented short vowel in the same word is not lengthened.
 A word cannot begin in a vowel. Instead, a word written with an initial vowel is pronounced with a preceding glottal stop.
@@ Line 151: / Line 151: @@
 In this article, a circumflex accent is used for accented "front" vowels, while an acute accent is used for accented "back" vowels. Accented vowels of indeterminate frontness/backness are represented with a grave accent.
+====Etymological script====
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+ Consonants
+! Regular script !! ES equivalent !! Remarks
+|-
+| ' || ' ||
+|-
+| b || b; p ||
+|-
+| d || d ||
+|-
+| dh || dh ||
+|-
+| f || f ||
+|-
+| g || g ||
+|-
+| gw || gu ||
+|-
+| h || h ||
+|-
+| j || ch; dj; dg¹ ||
+|-
+| k || c; qu¹ ||
+|-
+| kuw || qu ||
+|-
+| l || l ||
+|-
+| m || m ||
+|-
+| n || n; m² ||
+|-
+| nh || nh ||
+|-
+| q || k ||
+|-
+| r || r ||
+|-
+| s || s; ss; z; c¹; sc¹; sç ||
+|-
+| t || t ||
+|-
+| w || u ||
+|-
+| x || x; j; g¹ ||
+|-
+| y || y; i; ∅ || Written ''i'' after vowels except when after another ''i'' or before a stressed ''i'', in which case it is not written. Otherwise written ''y''.
+|-
+| CVrV || CVrV; CrV || rowspan="2" | When an "echo vowel" is inserted to break a consonant cluster ending in a liquid, the "echo vowel" is not written. The first vowel may also be dropped in writing in some words, even when etymological, provided that it is identical to the second vowel.
+|-
+| CVlV || CVlV; ClV
+|}
+'''Notes:'''
+¹ Before front vowels
+² Word-finally
+Vowels are the same as the regular script, except diphthongs end in ''i'' and ''u'' instead of ''y'' and ''w'' respectively.
 ===Prosody===
@@ Line 157: / Line 218: @@
 ====Intonation====
 ===Phonotactics===
 <!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
@@ Line 166: / Line 228: @@
 {| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center;
 |+ Phonological correspondences between Portuguese and Falamu
-! colspan="2"|Portuguese !! rowspan="2"|Falamu
+! colspan="2"|Portuguese !! rowspan="2"|Falamu !! rowspan="2" | Remarks
 |-
 ! Grapheme !! Environment
 |-
-| ch || all || rowspan="5" | j
+| ch || all || rowspan="5" | j ||
+|-
+| j || initial or after consonant ||
+|-
+| g || initial or after consonant before e/i ||
 |-
-| j || initial
+| di || rowspan="2"|unstressed before vowels || Sometimes maintained as ''d(i)''.
 |-
-| g || initial before e/i
+| ti || Sometimes maintained as ''t(i)''.
 |-
-| di || rowspan="2"|unstressed before vowels
+| x || as /ʃ/ || rowspan="3" | x ||
 |-
-| ti
+| j || after vowels ||
 |-
-| x || all as /ʃ/ || rowspan="3" | x
+| g || after vowels before e/i ||
 |-
-| j || non-initial
+| u || as semivowel || rowspan="3" | w ||
 |-
-| g || non-initial before e/i
+| gu || word-initial; as /ɡw/ between vowels || Sometimes maintained as ''g(w)''
 |-
-| v || rowspan="3" | all || rowspan="3" | b
+| rowspan="2"|v || initial before non-rounded vowel || rowspan="2" | Sometimes becomes ''b'' when ''w'' is expected or vice versa, and sometimes becomes ''f''.
 |-
-| p
+| non-initial; initial before rounded vowel || rowspan="3" | b
 |-
-| b
+| p || rowspan="2" | all ||
 |-
-| s || rowspan="4" | all || rowspan="6" | s
+| b ||
 |-
-| ss
+| s || rowspan="5" | all || rowspan="7" | s ||
 |-
-| z
+| ss ||
 |-
-| ç
+| z ||
 |-
-| c || rowspan="2"|before e/i
+| ç ||
 |-
-| sc
+| sç
 |-
-| lh || all || dh
+| c || rowspan="2"|before e/i ||
 |-
-| rowspan="2" | -ão || from earlier ''-an'' or ''-ano'' || -an
+| sc ||
 |-
-| from earlier ''-on'' || -on
+<!--
+| lh || all || rowspan="2"| y ||
+|-
+| i || as semivowel ||
+|-
+-->
+| rowspan="4" | lh || surrounded by non-front vowels || dh || rowspan="4" | These are the general tendencies, but individual words may break these guidelines.
+|-
+| preceded or followed by stressed /e/ || y
+|-
+| preceded by stressed /i/ and followed by non-front vowel || j
+|-
+| preceded by stressed /i/ and followed by front vowel || l
+|-
+| rowspan="2" | -ão || from earlier ''-an'' or ''-ano'' || -an ||
+|-
+| from earlier ''-on'' || -on ||
+|-
+<!--
+| nd || usually || ndh
+|-
+| nt || usually || nd
+|-
+| ng, ngu || usually || (n)q
+|-
+| nc, nqu || usually || ng
+|-
+-->
 |}
@@ Line 222: / Line 315: @@
 -->
 ===Pronouns===
+====Personal pronouns====
 {| class="wikitable"
-|+ Pronouns
+|+ Personal pronouns
 ! rowspan="2"| Person, Number !! colspan="2" | Independent !! rowspan="2" | Clitic !! colspan="2" | Possessive !! rowspan="2" | Remarks
 |-
@@ Line 229: / Line 323: @@
 |-
 ! 1S
-| amî || mî || mi || kimî || mi ||
+| amî || mî || mi || kimî || -mi ||
 |-
 ! 2S
-| abô || bô || bu || kibô || bu ||
+| abô || bô || bu || kibô || -bu ||
 |-
-! 3S
+! 3SM
-| ayêl || êl || li || kisû  || su ||
+| êl || êl || li || kisû  || -su ||
 |-
-<!--
 ! 3SF
-| êla || êla || la || dêla || dila ||
+| él || él || li || kisú || -su ||
 |-
--->
 ! 1PI
-| anô || nô || nu || kinô || nu ||
+| anô || nô || nu || kinô || -nu ||
 |-
 ! 1PE
-| anôs || nôs || nus || kinôs || nus ||
+| anôs || nôs || nus || kinôs || -nus ||
 |-
 ! 2P
-| abôs || bôs || bus || kibôs || bus ||
+| abôs || bôs || bus || kibôs || -bus ||
 |-
 ! 3P
-| ayêlis || êlis || lis || kisûs || sus ||
+| êlis || êlis || lis || kisûs || -sus ||
 |-
-! Reflexive
+! Reflexive/reciprocal
-| asî || sî || si || — || — || Reflexive when used as an object.
+| colspan="2"|méski + ''poss.'' || mes || — || — || When used independently, takes the definite article and a possessive - e.g. ''méskimi'' "myself"; ''méski kimî'' "I myself".
 |-
 ! Impersonal
-| — || — || si || — || — || Impersonal when used as a subject to form the pseudopassive.
+| — || — || ''si'' || — || —|| Used to form pseudopassive.
-|-
 |}
+<!--
+There is also a reflexive object pronoun ''si'' used for all numbers and persons - e.g. ''é mi si labába'' "I washed myself." Its emphatic counterpart is ''sî'', which is used with possessives - e.g. ''mi sî'' "myself".
+There is also a homophonous impersonal subject pronoun ''si'' used to form the pseudopassive  ''é si mi labába'' "I was washed."-->
+====Interrogative pronouns====
+*''kôs, árguké'': what
+*''úndi, rugálké'': where
+*''móké'': how
+*''kén, bisówké'': who
+*''wêskê'': when
+*''kê'': what/which
+**Less generic than ''kôs''.
+*''kâl'': which
+**More specific than ''kê''.
+When used in a sentence, interrogative pronouns are followed by the focus particle ''éki'', with optional contraction.
+'''Examples:'''
+*''Kôs éki bu tá komê?'' / ''Kosêbu tá komê?'' "What are you eating?"
+*''Kén éki li mirába?'' / ''Kenhéli mirába?'' "Who did (s)he see?"
+*''Wêskê éki lis bîn?'' / ''Weskêlis bîn?'' "When are they coming?"
+*''Úndi éki lis nu mirába?'' / ''Undélis nu mirába?'' "Where did they see us?"
+====Demonstrative pronouns====
+*''kês'': "this/these" (near)
+**Explicit plural: ''kêsis'' "these"
+*''kêl'': "that/those" (far)
+**Explicit plural: ''kêlis'' "those"
+*''kulá'': "that/those over there" (far emphatic)
+**Explicit plural: ''kulás'' "those over there"
+**Used in opposition to ''kêl''.
+====Definite pronouns====
+*''ki'': "that, the one"
+*''kî'': "that, the one (anaphoric)"
 ===Nouns===
@@ Line 267: / Line 393: @@
 '''Examples:'''
-*''ódhu'' "eye" -> ''ódhus'' "eyes"
+*''ôdhu'' "eye" -> ''ôdhus'' "eyes"
 *''dêd'' "finger, toe" -> ''dêdis'' "fingers, toes"
 *''mán'' "hand, arm" -> ''mánhis'' "hands, arms"
@@ Line 276: / Line 402: @@
 *''beni'aâdan'' "human" -> ''aadâmi'' "humanity"
 **This is a collective noun, meaning it takes singular agreement. Colloquially, it may instead take plural agreement.
-*''bisó'' "person" -> ''jênti'' "people"
+*''bisów'' "person" -> ''jênti'' "people"
 **Collective (as ''aadâmi'').
 *''mûslin'' "Muslim" -> ''muslimîn'' "Muslims"
@@ Line 293: / Line 419: @@
 | Present || Base stem with penultimate accent || ''fála'' "speak(s)" || The accent is final in monosyllabic verbs.
 |-
-| Past || Infinitive + ''-ba'' || ''falába'' "spoke" ||
+| Past || Infinitive + ''-ba'' || ''falába'' "spoke" || Some irregular verbs instead drop their final vowel and add ''-èra''.
 |-
-| Passive participle || Infinitive + ''-d'' || ''falád'' "spoken" ||
+<!--
+| Passive participle || Infinitive + ''-d'' || ''falád'' "spoken" ||-->
 |}
@@ Line 303: / Line 430: @@
 ! Infinitive !! Present stem !! Past stem !! Meaning !! Remarks
 |-
-| sê || é ~ sê || éra || "to be" || When ''é'' is used as the present, it falls before the complement and no clitic subject pronouns are used. <br /> E.g. ''êla é midhêr.'' ≈ ''midhêr éki la sê.'' ≈ ''kôs la sê midhêr.'' "she is a woman."
+| sê || é ~ sê || éra || "to be" || When ''é'' is used as the present in main clauses, it falls before the complement and no clitic subject pronouns or focus particles are used. <br /> E.g. ''él é muyêr.'' ≈ ''muyêr éki li sê.'' ≈ ''kôs li sê muyêr.'' "she is a woman." <br /> When used adjectivally, ''sê'' is used.<br /> E.g. ''muyêr awtór sê'' "a woman who is an author''
 |-
+<!--
 | tê || tên || tênha || "to have" ||
 |-
-| bî || bîn || bînha || "to come" ||
+| wî || wîn || wînha || "to come" ||
 |-
 | bô || bôn || bônha || "to put" ||
-|-
+|-->
 |}
+Additionally, there are a class of verbs (many of which end in ''-u'') that form their past in ''-èra''. These generally correspond to adjectives in other languages - e.g. ''altú'' "to be high"; ''áltu'' "(is) high"; ''altéra'' "was high".
 ====Verb tenses====
@@ Line 318: / Line 447: @@
 ! Form !! Formation !! Examples !! Remarks
 |-
-| Simple present || Present stem || ''é la fála'' "she speaks"; ''fála!'' "speak!" || Also used for imperative affirmative.
+| Present 1 || Present stem || ''é li fála'' "(s)he speaks"; ''fála!'' "speak!"; ''bisów fála'' "a person who speaks" || Used for present simple affirmative (which may have a habitual or stative meaning depending on the verb), adjectival present simple affirmative, and imperative affirmative.
 |-
-| Present prospective/subjunctive || Infinitive || ''é mi falá'' "I'll speak"; ''ki mi falá'' "that I speak"; ''mi ná falá'' "I do not speak"; ''ná falá!'' "do not speak!" || Also used for present negative and imperative negative.
+| Present 2 || Infinitive || ''é mi falá'' "I'll speak"; ''ba mi falá'' "that I speak"; ''ná mi falá'' "I do not speak"; ''ná falá!'' "do not speak!" || Used for present prospective, present subordinate (but not adjectival), present negative and imperative negative.
 |-
 | Present progressive || tá + infinitive || ''é bu tá falá'' "you (sg.) are speaking" ||
 |-
-| Simple past || Past stem || ''é nus falába'' "we (excl.) spoke" ||
+| Past simple || Past stem || ''é nus falába'' "we (excl.) spoke" ||
 |-
 | Past progressive || tá + past || ''é nu tá falába'' "we (incl.) were speaking" ||
 |-
-| Past remote || já + past || ''é li já falába'' "he spoke (a long time ago)" ||
+<!--
+| Past remote || já + past || ''é li já falába'' "(s)he spoke [a while ago]; (s)he used to speak; (s)he already spoke; (s)he had spoken" ||
 |-
-<!--
 | Future || Infinitive + kére || ''é bu falá kére'' "you will speak" || ''kére'' is the present tense of ''keré'' "to want"
 |-
@@ Line 336: / Line 465: @@
 |-
 -->
-| Jussive || ád + Infinitive || ''mi ád falá'' "I should speak" ||
+| Jussive || ád + Infinitive || ''mi ád falá'' "I should speak; let me speak", ''li ád falá'' "let him/her speak", ''li ád ná falá'' "let him/her not speak" ||
+|-
 |}
 <!--
@@ Line 342: / Line 472: @@
 #As the table shows, ''keré'' "to want" + infinitive is used to form the future. In order to express a desire, a subjunctive phrase is used. For example:
 #* ''é mi falá kére'' "I will speak" (lit. "I want speak") , versus
-#* ''ki mi falá é mi kére'' or ''kôs mi kére ki mi falá'' "I want to speak" (lit. "I want that I speak")-->
+#* ''ba mi falá é mi kére'' or ''kôs mi kére ba mi falá'' "I want to speak" (lit. "I want that I speak")-->
+<!--
+====Auxiliary verbs====
+Auxiliary verbs are used to form additional tenses. They
+-->
 ====Voice====
@@ Line 348: / Line 482: @@
 ====Derived verbs====
 *'''Middle:''' add ''-se'' to stem - e.g. ''labá'' "to wash" -> ''labasé'' "to wash oneself, to wash for oneself"
+<!--
 *'''Anticausative/detransitive:''' add ''-du'' to stem - e.g. ''fejâ'' "to close (trans.)" -> ''fejadû'' "to close (intrans.)"
-**While this can be considered a passive form, this is generally used when the action occurred without intent. If there is intent involved, use the impersonal pseudopassive instead.
+**While this can be considered a passive form, this is generally used when the action occurred without intent. If there is intent involved, use the pseudopassive instead.
+-->
 *'''Causative 1:''' add ''-fa'' to stem - e.g. ''durmî'' "to sleep" -> ''durmifâ'' "to put to sleep"
 **Usually used with intransitive verbs.
 **This can be combined with the middle to form ''-fase'' - e.g. ''kosê'' "to cook (intr.)" -> ''kosefâ'' "to cook (tr.)" -> ''kosefasê'' "to cook for oneself"
-*'''Causitive 2:''' add ''-da'' to stem - e.g. ''komê'' "to eat" -> ''komedâ'' "to give to eat"
+*'''Causitive 2:''' add ''-(d)da'' to stem - e.g. ''komê'' "to eat" -> ''komeddâ'' "to give to eat"
+**The ''-d-'' is geminated after vowels.
 **Usually used with transitive verbs, and often when someone is being "caused" to do something.
-**This can be combined with the middle to form ''-dase''.
+**This can be combined with the middle to form ''-(d)dase''.
+*'''Inchoative:''' add ''-eya'' to the stem (minus any final vowel).
+**This is mostly used with verbs that form their past in ''-èra'' (other than ''sê'', which instead becomes ''fiká'') - e.g. ''altú'' "to be high" (past: ''altéra'') -> ''alteyá'' "to become high". It may also be added directly to nouns - e.g. ''bôs'' "voice, vote" -> ''boseyâ'' "to vote".
+**Other verbal suffixes can be added on top of it, in which case the final ''-a'' is dropped - e.g. ''alteyá'' "to become high" -> ''alteyfá'' "to make high". Note that, depending on the verb, adding the middle suffix on its own may not always change the meaning - e.g. ''alteyá'' "to become high" -> ''alteysé'' "to become high"
 ===Particles===
@@ Line 363: / Line 503: @@
 **Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. ''é mi kôme.'' "I eat."
 **"Independent object" refers to a direct or indirect object that is not a clitic pronoun, while "emphasized subject" refers to a subject that has extra emphasis placed upon it in such a way that English would use a copular phrase.
-**''é'' can contract with the subject pronoun, in which case it takes the frontness/backness of the verb - e.g. ''êmi kôme.'' "I eat."
+**''é'' can contract with the subject pronoun, in which case it takes the frontness/backness of the pronoun (and the verb by extension) - e.g. ''êmi kôme.'' "I eat."
 **''é'' is not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''ná mi komê.''' "I do not eat.".
 **Note that any explicit subject (i.e. any subject other than a clitic pronoun) is placed before the focus particle - e.g. ''amî é mi komêba.'' "[As for] me, I ate."; ''Úmar é li komêba.'' "Omar ate."
 *''éki'': used to form main clauses.
 **Used when the independent object or emphasized subject is placed before the verb.
-**Comes after the relevant object/subject. Note that when used with a subject, it places the verb into its subordinate form - e.g. ''komîda éki mi kôme.'' "I eat food./Food [is what] I eat."; ''Úmar éki komîda komê.'' "[It is] Omar [who] eats food."
+**Comes after the relevant object/subject. Note that when used with a subject, it places the verb into its subordinate form - e.g. ''kumîda éki mi kôme.'' "I eat food./Food [is what] I eat."; ''Úmar éki kumîda komê.'' "[It is] Omar [who] eats food."
-**''éki'' can contract with a following subject pronoun (if applicable), in which case the ''-ki-'' is dropped and ''e-'' takes the frontness/backness of the verb - e.g. ''komîda émi kôme.'' "I eat food."<br /> Note that this is identical to the contraction of ''é''.
+**''éki'' can contract with a following subject pronoun (if applicable), in which case the ''-ki-'' is dropped and ''e-'' takes the frontness/backness of the verb - e.g. ''kumîda êmi kôme.'' "I eat food."<br /> Note that this is identical to the contraction of ''é''.
-**''éki'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''komîda ná mi komê.'' "I do not eat food.".<br />However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''Úmar éki komîda ná komê.'' "[It is] Omar [who] does not eat food."
+**''éki'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''kumîda ná mi komê.'' "I do not eat food.".<br />However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''Úmar éki kumîda ná komê.'' "[It is] Omar [who] does not eat food."
 *''kôs'': used to form main clauses.
 **Used when the independent object is placed after the verb.
-**Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. ''Úmar kôs li kôme komîda.'' "Omar eats food."
+**Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. ''Úmar kôs li kôme kumîda.'' "Omar eats food."
-**''kôs'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''Úmar ná li komê komîda.'' "Omar does not eat food." <br /> However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''Úmar kôs li ná komê komîda.'' "[That which] Omar does not eat [is] food."
+**''kôs'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''Úmar ná li komê kumîda.'' "Omar does not eat food." <br /> However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''Úmar kôs li ná komê kumîda.'' "[That which] Omar does not eat [is] food."
 *''kôski'': used to form main clauses.
 **Used when the emphasized subject is placed after the verb.
-**Comes before verb and any clitic object pronouns - e.g. ''komîda kôski kôme Úmar.'' "[The one who] eats food [is] Omar."
+**Comes before verb and any clitic object pronouns - e.g. ''kumîda kôski kôme Úmar.'' "[The one who] eats food [is] Omar."
-**''kôski'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''komîda ná li komê Úmar.'' "Omar does not eat food." <br /> However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''komîda kôski ná kôme Úmar.'' "[The one who] does not eat food [is] Omar."
+**''kôski'' is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. ''kumîda ná li komê Úmar.'' "Omar does not eat food." <br /> However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. ''kumîda kôski ná kôme Úmar.'' "[The one who] does not eat food [is] Omar."
-====Interrogative pronouns====
+====Interrogative suffixes/clitics====
-*''kôs'': what
+*''-kè'': "which/what"
-*''ûndi, lugaké'': where
+**Attaches to the word being modified (without affecting its accent) - e.g. ''bisówké?'' "what person?"
-*''moké'': how
+**Alternatively, can be a separate word after a word with a definite article - e.g. ''bisówki ké?'' "what person?"
-*''kén'': who
+*''-kàl'': "which"
-*''kán'': when
+**Similar placement as ''kè''.
-When used in a sentence, interrogative pronouns are followed by the focus particle ''éki''.
+**Similar in meaning to ''kè'', but implies a more limited set of options.
+====Demonstrative suffixes/clitics====
+These can either function as suffixes attached to the word they modified, or they can be independent words following a word with a definite article.
-'''Examples:'''
+'''Suffixed forms:'''
-*''Kôs éki bu tá komê?'' "What are you eating?"
+*''-kes'': "this/these"
-*''Kén éki li bêba?'' "Who did he see?"
+*''-kel'': that/those
-*''Kán éki lis bî?'' "When are they coming?"
+*''-kula'': that/those over there
-*''Ûndi éki lis nu bêba?'' "Where did they see us?"
+'''Postclitic forms:'''
+*''kès'': "this/these"
+*''kèl'': "that/those"
+*''kulà'': "that/those over there"
-====Interrogative clitic====
+====Definite articles====
-*''kè'': "which"
+*''-ki'': "the"
-**Comes after word being modified
+*''-kì'': "the (anaphoric)"
+**Does not affect ths word's accent.
 ====Negation particles====
 *''ná'': negation.
@@ Line 410: / Line 557: @@
 *''da'': "from"
 *''ba'': "to, for"
-The following prepositions are used solely before the modified noun phrases:
 *''módi'': "like"
 ====Conjunctions====
 *''i'': "and" (within a clause)
-*''mas'': "and" (connects clauses)
+*''tabên'': "and" (connects clauses)
-*''o'': "or"
+*''bos'': "or"
 *''nón'': "or" (in questions)
 *''kán'': "while, when"
-*''berén'': "but"
+*''mâs'': "but"
+*''ê'': connects modified with modifier.
+**Follows modified.
+**Used for disambiguation (i.e. when its absence can lead to potential ambiguity).
+*''ba'': "that" (relativizer)
 ==Syntax==
@@ Line 432: / Line 582: @@
 ===Dependent clauses===
 <!-- etc. etc. -->
+==Vocabulary==
+===Time - ''Têmbuki - Têmpu-qui''===
+<!--
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
+|+ Hijri Months - ''Los mesos hijrís''
+! English !! Essanian
+|-
+| Muharram || muhárram
+|-
+| Safar || sáfar
+|-
+| Rabi' al-Awwal || rabigh primer
+|-
+| Rabi' ath-Thani || rabigh second
+|-
+| Jumada al-Ula || jumada primera
+|-
+| Jumada al-Akhirah || jumada seconda
+|-
+| Rajab || rájab
+|-
+| Sha'ban || xaghbán
+|-
+| Ramadan || ramadán
+|-
+| Shawwal || xawal
+|-
+| Dhu'l-Qa'dah || zulcaghda
+|-
+| Dhu'l-Hijjah || zulhaja
+|-
+|}-->
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
+|+ Greogorian months - ''Mêsiski milâdiki - Mêsis-qui milâdi-qui''
+! English !! colspan="2"| Falamu
+|-
+| January || jenêru || djenêru
+|-
+| February || colspan="2"| febrêru
+|-
+| March || mársu || márçu
+|-
+| April || colspan="2"| abrílu
+|-
+| May || máyu || máiu
+|-
+| June || júnhu || djúnhu
+|-
+| July || júdhu || djúdhu
+|-
+| August || colspan="2"| agôstu
+|-
+| September || colspan="2"|setêbru
+|-
+| October ||colspan="2"| otôbru
+|-
+| November || colspan="2"|nobêbru
+|-
+| December || desêbru || decêbru
+|-
+|}
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
+|+ Days of the week - ''Dîyaski simánaki - Dîas-qui simána-qui''
+! English !! colspan="2"| Falamu
+|-
+| Sunday || colspan="2"|dimíngu
+|-
+| Monday || colspan="2"|sugúnda
+|-
+| Tuesday || térsa || térça
+|-
+| Wednesday || kuwárta || quárta
+|-
+| Thursday || kínta || quínta
+|-
+| Friday || júm'a || djúm'a
+|-
+| Saturday || colspan="2"|sábtu
+|-
+|}
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
+|+ Parts of the day - ''Bártiski dîyaki - Pártis-qui dîa-qui''
+! English !! colspan="2"|Falamu
+|-
+| day || dîya || dîa
+|-
+| dawn || manhasé || manhacé
+|-
+| morning || manhasîn || manhacîm
+|-
+| noon || meydîya || mei-dîa
+|-
+| afternoon || colspan="2"|tárdi
+|-
+| evening || serán || serám
+|-
+| dusk || notisê || noticê
+|-
+| night || colspan="2"|nôti
+|-
+| midnight || meynôti || mei-nôti
+|}
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
+|+ Units of time - ''Bártiski têmbuki - Pártis-qui têmpu-qui''
+! English !! colspan="2"|Falamu
+|-
+| second || colspan="2"|sugúndu
+|-
+| minute || colspan="2"|minútu
+|-
+| hour || colspan="2"|óra
+|-
+| day || dîya || dîa
+|-
+| week || colspan="2"|simána
+|-
+| month || colspan="2"|mês
+|-
+| year || colspan="2"|ánhu
+|-
+|}
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
+|+ Time adverbs - '' ''
+! English !! colspan="2"| Falamu
+|-
+| now || colspan="2"| agóra
+|-
+| then || entôn || entôm
+|-
+| recently, a short time ago || resén || recém
+|-
+| earlier || colspan="2"| ántis
+|-
+| soon, shortly ||  ||
+|-
+| later || colspan="2"| lôg
+|-
+| always || sémber || sémper
+|-
+| often || wês jéy || uêz chéi
+|-
+| sometimes || wês-wês || uêz-uêz
+|-
+| rarely || ||
+|-
+| never || núnka || núnca
+|-
+| ever || núnka || núnca
+|-
+| still, yet || colspan="2"| înda
+|-
+| already || já || djá
+|-
+| today || ôxi || ôji
+|-
+| tonight || notîn || notîm
+|-
+| yesterday || colspan="2"| ónti
+|-
+| last night ||  ||
+|-
+| tomorrow || colspan="2"| manhá
+|-
+| before yesterday || ||
+|-
+| two nights ago || ||
+|-
+| after tomorrow || ||
+|-
+| this week || ||
+|-
+| last week || ||
+|-
+| next week || ||
+|-
+|}
+===Colours - ''Kôriski - Côris-qui''===
+{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
+|+ Colours - ''Kôriski - Côris-que''
+! English !! colspan="2"|Falamu
+|-
+| white || baránku || bráncu
+|-
+| grey || sinsêntu || cinzêntu
+|-
+| black || colspan="2"|nêgru
+|-
+| red || werméyu || uerméiu
+|-
+| orange || laránja || larándja
+|-
+| brown || kastán || castám
+|-
+| yellow || colspan="2"| marêl
+|-
+| green || wêrdi || uêrdi
+|-
+| blue || asúl || azúl
+|-
+| pink || colspan="2"|rósa
+|-
+| purple || colspan="2"|rôx
+|-
+| golden || colspan="2"|dorád
+|-
+|}
 ==Sample Texts==
 ===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
 '''Regular:'''
-Aadami tod dili kos li nase kan li se hor i nibrad na orra i deretus. Kos si daba rason i damir, mas e ki biso otu biso kuli li axi modi irman.
+Aadamiki todkisu kos li nase el e hor se nibradu taben na orra i deretis. Ilaahi kos daba menti i damiir, taben e ba bisowki si we bisowki otu kuli modi irman li axi.
 '''Phonetic:'''
-Aadâmi tôd dili kôs li náse kán li sê hór i nibrád na órra i derêtus. Kôs si dába rasón i damír, mas é ki bisó ôtu bisó kûli li âxi módi irmán.
+Aadâmiki tôdkisu kôs li náse êl ê hór sê nibrádu tabên na órra i derêtis. Ilaâhi kôs dába mênti i damíir, tabên é ba bisówki si wê bisówki ôtu kuli módi irmán li âxi.
 '''Portuguese-based:'''
-Aadâmi tôd dili côs li násce cã li sê hór i nibrád na órra i derêtus. Côs si dába razõ i damír, mas é qui pissó ôtu pissó cûli li âji módi irmã.
+Aadâmi-qui tôd-qui-su côs li násce êl ê hór sê nibrádu tabêm na órra i drêtis. Ilaâhi côs dába mênti i damíir, tabêm é pa pissóu-qui si uê pissóu-qui ôtu culi módi irmám li âgi.
 '''IPA:'''
-/æːðǽmi tɞ́d dili kɞ́s lɪ nɑ́sɛ kɑ́ŋ li sé hɔ́r i nɪbrɑ́d nɑ ʔɔ́rːɑ i derétʉs || kɞ́s si dɑ́bɑ rɑsɔ́ŋ ɪ dɑmɪ́r | mɑs ʔɛ́ kɪ bɪsɔ́ ɞ́tʉ bɪsɔ́ kʉ́li li ʔǽʃi mɔ́dɪ ʔɪrmɑ́ŋ/
+/æːdǽmiki tɞ́dkisʉ kɞ́s lɪ nɑ́sɛ él é hɔ́r sé nɪbrɑ́dʊ tæbéŋ nɑ ʔɔ́rːɑ i derétis || ilæ̌ːhi kɞ́s dɑ́bɑ ménti ɪ dɑmɪ̂ːr | tæbéŋ ʔɛ́ bɑ bɪsɔ́ʊkɪ si wé bɪsɔ́ʊkɪ ɞ́tʉ kʉli  mɔ́dɪ ʔɪrmɑ́ŋ li ʔǽʃi/
+[æːðǽmiki tɞ́ˑdkisʉ kɞ́ˑs lɪ nɑ́ˑsɛ éˑl éˑ hɔ́ˑr séˑ nɪbrɑ́ˑðʊ tæβéˑŋ nɑ ʔɔ́rːɑ i deréˑtis || ilæ̌ːhi kɞ́ˑs dɑ́ˑβɑ ménti ɪ dɑmɪ́ˑr | tæβéˑŋ ʔɛ́ˑ bɑ bɪsɔ́ʊ̯kɪ si wéˑ bɪsɔ́ʊ̯kɪ ɞ́ːtʉ kʉli  mɔ́ˑðɪ ʔɪrmɑ́ˑŋ li ʔǽˑʃi]
 '''Gloss:'''
-humanity all 3S.POSS FOC 3S.SUBJ be_born while 3S.SUBJ be free and level in dignity and rights. FOC IMPRS give-PST reason and conscience, and FOC that person other person with 3S.SUBJ act like brother.
+humanity-the all-the-3S.POSS FOC 3S.SUBJ be_born 3S.SUBJ ADJ free being being_equal and in dignity and rights. God FOC give-PST reason and conscience, and is that person-the IMP see person-the other with-3S like brother 3S.SUBJ act.PRES1.
 '''Translation:'''
-Humanity is born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are given reason and conscience, and a person must behave towards another person like a brother.
+Humanity is born free and equal in dignity and rights. God gave them reason and conscience, and the person seen must behave towards the other person like a brother.
 <!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
 ==Other resources==
+[[Falamu/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]
 <!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
 <!-- Template area -->