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===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
Finite clauses are VOS and use ergative syntax:
Finite clauses have unmarked word order SV, OAV and use ergative syntax:


  preverb verb dir_obj subj ind_obj place manner time.
  preverb dir_obj subj ind_obj verb place manner time.


Infinitive clauses are VSO and accusative; the preposition ''mi'' must be used before a direct object in infinitive clauses.
Infinitive clauses are VSO and accusative; the preposition ''mi'' must be used before a direct object in infinitive clauses.
''Mi''-infinitive clauses lack the ergative argument when using transitive verbs, and use OV order and accusative syntax
An example of a clause with a transitive verb:
Ingánakh              tładméen      wa fígħdri      u shaanf.
3SG.A.ERG-PST-3PL.ABS plant-PST.PTCP DEF.PL flower-PL DEF.SG.A woman
Aux                  V              O                S
The woman planted the flowers.


===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
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Genitive noun phrases use possessive affixes on the possessed noun:
Genitive noun phrases use possessive affixes on the possessed noun:
:''ni chaast'''s''' rái'chal'' = Rachel's friend (weak possession)
:''laš'''ý''' Ráičal'' = Rachel's hand (inalienable possession)
:'''''in'''-lásh rái'chal'' = Rachel's hand (strong possession)


===Nominal sentences===
===Nominal sentences===
{{PAGENAME}} is zero-copula for nominal sentences and for predicative adjuncts such as ''lar roft'' 'at home'. Nominal sentences in the present tense are negated with the preverb ''thoor''.
{{PAGENAME}} is zero-copula for nominal sentences and for predicative adjuncts such as ''għar roft'' 'at home'. Nominal sentences in the present tense are negated with the preverb ''thoor''.


:'''''Am shaanft lánameen swid?'''''
:'''''Am shaanft Għánameen swid?'''''
:Q.PRES woman-3SG.AN lánameen 2SG
:Q.PRES woman-3SG.AN Għánameen 2SG
:''Are you lánameen's wife/girlfriend?''
:''Are you Għánameen's wife/girlfriend?''


:'''''Thoor, sháanfalna fin.'''''
:'''''Thoor, sháanfalna fin.'''''
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:''No, she's *my* girlfriend.''
:''No, she's *my* girlfriend.''


:'''''Am lar roft Inthar? Thoor.'''''
:'''''Am għar roft Inthar? Thoor.'''''
:''Is Inthar home? No, they're not.''
:''Is Inthar home? No, they're not.''


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:''Who are you?''
:''Who are you?''


:'''''laib lōkh swid?'''''
:'''''Għaib lōkh swid?'''''
:where PST 2SG
:where PST 2SG
:''Where have you been?''
:''Where have you been?''
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Verbal wh-questions are always cleft sentences: The material after the wh-word becomes a relative clause with the wh-word as the head. The relative clause can be a ''cha''-clause vs. a ''vi''-clause:
Verbal wh-questions are always cleft sentences: The material after the wh-word becomes a relative clause with the wh-word as the head. The relative clause can be a ''cha''-clause vs. a ''vi''-clause:


:'''''Yan vi tálti?'''''
:'''''Yan vi u shaanf inágħdi?'''''
:yan vi ta-lát-i
:yan vi in-għád-i u shaanf
:what VI.PRES 2SG.S-see-INF
:what VI.PRES 3SG.A-see-INF DEF.SG.A woman
:''What do you see?'' (lit. What is that which you see?)
:''What does the woman see?'' (lit. What is that which the woman sees?)


:'''''Yakh lan do'ch alt vikh rṓzhas?'''''
:'''''Yakh għan do'ch agħd vikh rṓjas?'''''
:yakh lan do'ch a-lát-0 vikh rōzh-as
:yakh għan do'ch a-għád-0 vikh rōj-as
:who here CHA.NEG.PRES 3SG.A-see-3SG.I VI.PST do.INF-3SG.H
:who here CHA.NEG.PRES 3SG.A-see-3SG.I VI.PST do.INF-3SG.H
:''Who here does not see what she (hon.) has done?'' (lit. Who here is it that does not see that which she has done?)
:''Who here does not see what she (hon.) has done?'' (lit. Who here is it that does not see that which she has done?)


==='There is' and 'have'===
==='There is' and 'have'===
'There is' clauses use the word ''whid'' at the beginning of the word, and have-possessives use the structure ''whid'' + the thing possessed + the preposition ''lar'' + possessor. The negative of ''whid'' is ''yaan'ch'' 'there is not' (etymologically from an interrogative *yan cha' whid "where is..."), and the negative interrogative form is ''maand''.
'There is' clauses use the word ''whid'' at the beginning of the word, and have-possessives use the structure ''whid'' + the thing possessed + the preposition ''għar'' + possessor. The negative of ''whid'' is ''yaan'ch'' 'there is not' (etymologically from an interrogative *yan cha' whid "where is..."), and the negative interrogative form is ''maand''.


:'''''Yaan'ch vózhleedash lar áifer.'''''
:'''''Yaan'ch għar áifer vojlid.'''''
:''There is no justice in this (fact or situation).''
:''There is no justice in this (fact or situation).''


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====Transitives====
====Transitives====
Transitive verbs (such as 'to hit') mark both persons on the verb. Passive verbs formed from transitives behave like intransitives and take the absolutive argument for the "patient" just like the active counterpart does. The antipassive turns the agent into the absolutive argument and uses ''lar'' with the patient.
Transitive verbs (such as 'to hit') mark both persons on the verb. Passive verbs formed from transitives behave like intransitives and take the absolutive argument for the "patient" just like the active counterpart does. The antipassive turns the agent into the absolutive argument and uses ''għar'' with the patient.


====Ditransitives====
====Ditransitives====
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A verbal ''vi''-clause has the form
A verbal ''vi''-clause has the form
  (when intransitive) vi-preverb + verb.INF + other constituents
  (when intransitive) vi-preverb + other constituents verb.INF
or  
or  
  (when transitive) vi-preverb + POSSESSIVE_i-verb.INF + ergative noun_i + other constituents.
  (when transitive) vi-preverb + POSSESSIVE_i-verb.INF + ergative noun_i + other constituents.
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  vi-preverb predicate.
  vi-preverb predicate.


====''cha''-clauses====
====''če''-clauses====
Forms of ''cha'' are used when the head of the relative clause is NOT absolutive. Unlike ''vi''-clauses, ''cha''-clauses use finite verbs and are more syntactically straightforward. Resumptive pronouns (referring back to the head) are usually used in a ''cha''-clause, either on the verb or on other constituents.
Forms of ''če'' are used when the head of the relative clause is NOT absolutive. Unlike ''vi''-clauses, ''če''-clauses use finite verbs and are more syntactically straightforward. Resumptive pronouns (referring back to the head) are usually used in a ''če''-clause, either on the verb or on other constituents.


===Complement clauses===
===Complement clauses===
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Conditional clauses that indicate a general truth use the present form of the "if" preverb. A preverb need not be used in the apodosis.
Conditional clauses that indicate a general truth use the present form of the "if" preverb. A preverb need not be used in the apodosis.


:'''''Sher syóokh ładéem, ħónath ni jalm sikht.''
:'''''Sher syukh ładéem, ħónath ni chalm sikht.''
:if.PRES fall_precipitation snow, become DEF road cold
:if.PRES fall_precipitation snow, become DEF road cold
:''If it snows, the road becomes cold.''
:''If it snows, the road becomes cold.''


Conditional clauses that are conditioned on a possible future event use the future form of the "if" preverb:
Conditional clauses that are conditioned on a possible future event use the future form of the "if" preverb:
:'''''Wher't syóokh ładéem, kháiral roftas.'''''
:'''''Wher't syukh ładéem, kháiral roftas.'''''
:if.FUT fall_precipitation snow, go-1SG to_home
:if.FUT fall_precipitation snow, go-1SG to_home
:''If it snows, I'll go home.''
:''If it snows, I'll go home.''
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There are conjunctions for time clauses.
There are conjunctions for time clauses.


However, the infinitive construction ''lar'' + infinitive is more commonly used:
However, the infinitive construction ''għar'' + infinitive is more commonly used:
*''lar zhá'unal'' = when I awake/have awakened
*''Għar shá'unal, vor shafiħée, għar wáirjan mi shontái.'' = When I awake, she begins to play the violin.
*''zhar't lidanzháis láathvai, chōns lar kháir't.'' (FUT 1SG-APP-come-3SG.A together every LOC go-3SG.A  = Whenever she goes, I'm going together with her.'')
*''Għar sháfiħal, as kaléer mi wair, lōkh shafiħée mi shontái.'' = When I began singing the song, she began playing.
*''Łar't lidanjáis shṓlriv, chōns għar khairée.'' (FUT 1SG-follow-3SG.A together every LOC go-3SG.A  = Whenever she goes, I'm going together with her.'')


In infinitive clauses, the possessor of the infinitive is the absolutive noun, and ''mi'' is used in front of the ergative noun.
In infinitive clauses, the possessor of the infinitive is the absolutive noun, and ''mi'' is used in front of the ergative noun.
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The syntax ''vair'' + form of ''cha'' is used when comparing clauses:
The syntax ''vair'' + form of ''cha'' is used when comparing clauses:


:'''''Ashfíl'azhal, lōkh tirṓj thols vair chakh lidanrú'k.'''''
:'''''Ashfíl'ajal, lōkh tirṓj thogħs vair chakh lidanrú'k.'''''
:''Congrats, you did [it] better than I expected.''
:''Congrats, you did [it] better than I expected.''


The syntax ''vair'' + possessed form of the infinitive is used for clauses of the form "too ADJ for NOUN to VERB".
The syntax ''vair'' + possessed form of the infinitive is used for clauses of the form "too ADJ for NOUN to VERB".
:'''''Khom ħi qōv lirwhálan vair shéerishawh thóolab.'''''
:'''''Khom u għōv lirwhágħan vair shéerishawh thóogħa.'''''
:be_at.3SG.I DEF.SG.I death COMP-evil than neglect-INF-1PL from-3SG.I
:be_at.3SG.I DEF.SG.I death COMP-evil than neglect-INF-1PL from-3SG.I
:''Death is too evil for us to neglect.'' (lit. more evil than our neglecting it)
:''Death is too evil for us to neglect.'' (lit. more evil than our neglecting it)
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===Cleft constructions===
===Cleft constructions===
In cleft sentences, the present tense preverb is used before the fronted constituent.
In cleft sentences, the present tense preverb is used before the fronted constituent.
:'''''Vor sowh vikh qonár'ads.'''''
:'''''Vor sowh vikh għanór'ads.'''''
:PRES 1PL VI.PST choose.INF-2SG.H
:PRES 1PL VI.PST choose.INF-2SG.H
:''It's us whom you have chosen.''
:''It's us whom you have chosen.''
===Modal expressions===
The modal expressions are the following:
*''kórtha mi X'' = X wants
*''idréen mi X'' = X needs
*''fangán għar X'' = X must
*''għai't mi X'' = X likes
*''tłákht għar X'' = X can (lit. X has a method)
**'can't' is usually expressed by using the word ''rōn'' in front of a finite verb.
*''khuméen mi X'' = X is permitted to
All modal expressions use ''mi''-infinitive clauses for their complements:
:'''''Kórth mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
:desire to Mary, milk to drink
:''Mary wants to drink milk.''
:'''''Idréen mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
:necessary to Mary, milk to drink
:''Mary needs to drink milk.''
:'''''Għai't mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
:pleasure to Mary milk to drink
:''Mary likes drinking milk.''
:'''''Tłákht għar Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
:method at Mary, milk to drink
:''Mary can drink milk.''
:'''''Rōn inhóshan Máiri whádi.''''' / '''''Yand tłákhter għar Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
:NEG.POT 3SG.A-drink-3SG.I Mary milk / exists_no method at Mary, milk to drink
:''Mary can't drink milk.''
:'''''Khuméen mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
:permit-PASS_PTCP DAT Mary, milk to drink
:''It's okay for Mary to drink milk.''
Alternatively, the possessed infinitive construction can be used:
:'''''Khuméen hoshnée Máiri mi whádi.'''''
:''It's okay for Mary to drink milk.'' (lit. Mary's drinking of milk is okay)


==Poetic Shalaian==
==Poetic Shalaian==
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