Old Shalaian/Syntax: Difference between revisions

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===Constituent order===

Finite clauses ~~are VSO~~:

Finite clauses have unmarked word order SV, OAV and use ergative syntax:

preverb ~~verb subject~~ dir_obj ind_obj place manner time.

preverb dir_obj subj ind_obj verb place manner time.

Infinitive clauses are ~~VOS~~.

Infinitive clauses are VSO and accusative; the preposition ''mi'' must be used before a direct object in infinitive clauses.

''Mi''-infinitive clauses lack the ergative argument when using transitive verbs, and use OV order and accusative syntax

An example of a clause with a transitive verb:

Ingánakh tładméen wa fígħdri u shaanf.

3SG.A.ERG-PST-3PL.ABS plant-PST.PTCP DEF.PL flower-PL DEF.SG.A woman

Aux V O S

The woman planted the flowers.

===Noun phrase===

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article numeral NOUN adjective demonstrative genitive relative_clause.

~~Genitives~~ use possessive affixes:

Genitive noun phrases use possessive affixes on the possessed noun:

:''~~ni chaast~~'''~~s''' rái'chal'' = Rachel's friend (weak possession)~~

:''laš'''ý''' Ráičal'' = Rachel's hand (inalienable possession)

~~:'''''an'~~''~~-vó3ash rái~~'~~chal~~'' = Rachel's hand (~~strong~~ possession)

===Nominal sentences===

{{PAGENAME}} is zero-copula for nominal sentences and for predicative adjuncts such as ''għar roft'' 'at home'. Nominal sentences in the present tense are negated with the preverb ''thoor''.

:'''''Am ~~shaanfs~~ Għánameen ~~tee~~?'''''

:'''''Am shaanft Għánameen swid?'''''

:Q.PRES woman-3SG.AN Għánameen 2SG

:''Are you Għánameen's wife/girlfriend?''

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Yes-no questions are answered using preverbs.

====Wh-questions====

The interrogative word always comes first in the sentence. ~~Usually the~~ material after the wh-word becomes a relative clause with the wh-word as the head. The relative clause can be a ''cha''-clause vs. a ''vi''-clause.

The interrogative word always comes first in the sentence.

Predicative wh-questions are simpler:

:'''''Yakh swid?'''''

:who 2SG

:''Who are you?''

:'''''Għaib lōkh swid?'''''

:where PST 2SG

:''Where have you been?''

Verbal wh-questions are always cleft sentences: The material after the wh-word becomes a relative clause with the wh-word as the head. The relative clause can be a ''cha''-clause vs. a ''vi''-clause:

:'''''Yan vi u shaanf inágħdi?'''''

:yan vi in-għád-i u shaanf

:what VI.PRES 3SG.A-see-INF DEF.SG.A woman

:''What does the woman see?'' (lit. What is that which the woman sees?)

:'''''Yakh għan do'ch agħd vikh rṓjas?'''''

:yakh għan do'ch a-għád-0 vikh rōj-as

:who here CHA.NEG.PRES 3SG.A-see-3SG.I VI.PST do.INF-3SG.H

:''Who here does not see what she (hon.) has done?'' (lit. Who here is it that does not see that which she has done?)

==='There is' and 'have'===

'There is' clauses use the word ''whid'' at the beginning of the word, and have-possessives use the structure ''whid'' + the thing possessed + the preposition ''għar'' + possessor. The negative of ''whid'' is ''yaan'ch'' 'there is not' (etymologically from an interrogative *yan cha' whid "where is..."), and the negative interrogative form is ''maand''.

:'''''Yaan'ch ~~vózhleedash~~ għar áifer.'''''

:'''''Yaan'ch għar áifer vojlid.'''''

:''There is no justice in this (fact or situation).''

===Transitivity===

~~Verbs~~ index the arguments ergatively: the absolutive personal affixes are suffixes and the ergative affixes are prefixes.

Finite verbs index the arguments ergatively: the absolutive personal affixes are suffixes and the ergative affixes are prefixes.

====Intransitives====

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====''vi''-clauses====

Forms of the preverb ''vi'' are used when the head of the relative clause is absolutive or when relativizing a non-verbal predicate.

Headless relative clauses (indicated by ''that which'' or ''what'' in English) can be formed simply by omitting the head.

A verbal ''vi''-clause has the form

(when intransitive) vi-preverb + verb.INF ~~+ other constituents~~

(when intransitive) vi-preverb + other constituents verb.INF

or

(when transitive) vi-preverb + POSSESSIVE_i-verb.INF + ergative noun_i + other constituents.

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vi-preverb predicate.

====''~~cha~~''-clauses====

====''če''-clauses====

Forms of ''~~cha~~'' are used when the head of the relative clause is NOT absolutive. Unlike ''vi''-clauses, ''~~cha~~''-clauses use finite verbs and are more syntactically straightforward. Resumptive pronouns (referring back to the head) are usually used in a ''~~cha~~''-clause, either on the verb or on other constituents.

Forms of ''če'' are used when the head of the relative clause is NOT absolutive. Unlike ''vi''-clauses, ''če''-clauses use finite verbs and are more syntactically straightforward. Resumptive pronouns (referring back to the head) are usually used in a ''če''-clause, either on the verb or on other constituents.

===Complement clauses===

Like many other clause types in Shalian, complement clauses have two possible syntaxes: either finite, using forms of the preverb ''ith'', or an infinitive construction, formed with the preposition ''mi'' + infinitive. With infinitive complement clauses, the tense is usually assumed to be the same tense as the main clause.

===Conditional===

Conditional clauses that indicate a general truth use the present form of the "if" preverb. A preverb need not be used in the apodosis.

:'''''Sher syukh ładéem, ħónath ni chalm sikht.''

:if.PRES fall_precipitation snow, become DEF road cold

:''If it snows, the road becomes cold.''

Conditional clauses that are conditioned on a possible future event use the future form of the "if" preverb:

:'''''Wher't syukh ładéem, kháiral roftas.'''''

:if.FUT fall_precipitation snow, go-1SG to_home

:''If it snows, I'll go home.''

===Time clauses===

There are conjunctions for time clauses, ~~however~~ the construction ''għar'' + ~~the~~ infinitive is commonly used:

There are conjunctions for time clauses.

*''~~għar zhá~~'unal'' = ~~when~~ I awake~~/have awakened~~

*''~~zhar~~'t ~~wadanzháis láathvai~~, chōns għar ~~kháir't~~.'' (FUT 1SG-~~APP-come~~-3SG.A together every LOC go-3SG.A = Whenever she goes, I'm going together with her.'')

However, the infinitive construction ''għar'' + infinitive is more commonly used:

*''Għar shá'unal, vor shafiħée, għar wáirjan mi shontái.'' = When I awake, she begins to play the violin.

*''Għar sháfiħal, as kaléer mi wair, lōkh shafiħée mi shontái.'' = When I began singing the song, she began playing.

*''Łar't lidanjáis shṓlriv, chōns għar khairée.'' (FUT 1SG-follow-3SG.A together every LOC go-3SG.A = Whenever she goes, I'm going together with her.'')

In infinitive clauses, the possessor of the infinitive is the absolutive noun, and ''mi'' is used in front of the ergative noun.

todo: "while", "as soon as", "before", "after", "until"

===Comparison clauses===

''~~aiv~~'' + possessed form of the infinitive is used for clauses of the form "too ADJ for NOUN to VERB".

The syntax ''vair'' + form of ''cha'' is used when comparing clauses:

:'''''Khom ~~ħi qōv~~ lirwhágħan ~~aiv korréerishwha thóogħan~~.'''''

:'''''Ashfíl'ajal, lōkh tirṓj thogħs vair chakh lidanrú'k.'''''

:''Congrats, you did [it] better than I expected.''

The syntax ''vair'' + possessed form of the infinitive is used for clauses of the form "too ADJ for NOUN to VERB".

:'''''Khom u għōv lirwhágħan vair shéerishawh thóogħa.'''''

:be_at.3SG.I DEF.SG.I death COMP-evil than neglect-INF-1PL from-3SG.I

:''Death is too evil for us to neglect.'' (lit. more evil than our neglecting it)

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===Topicalization===

Topicalization involves placing the topic ''after'' the comment clause.

===Cleft constructions===

In cleft sentences, the present tense preverb is used before the fronted constituent.

:'''''Vor sowh vikh għanór'ads.'''''

:PRES 1PL VI.PST choose.INF-2SG.H

:''It's us whom you have chosen.''

===Modal expressions===

The modal expressions are the following:

*''kórtha mi X'' = X wants

*''idréen mi X'' = X needs

*''fangán għar X'' = X must

*''għai't mi X'' = X likes

*''tłákht għar X'' = X can (lit. X has a method)

**'can't' is usually expressed by using the word ''rōn'' in front of a finite verb.

*''khuméen mi X'' = X is permitted to

All modal expressions use ''mi''-infinitive clauses for their complements:

:'''''Kórth mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''

:desire to Mary, milk to drink

:''Mary wants to drink milk.''

:'''''Idréen mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''

:necessary to Mary, milk to drink

:''Mary needs to drink milk.''

:'''''Għai't mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''

:pleasure to Mary milk to drink

:''Mary likes drinking milk.''

:'''''Tłákht għar Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''

:method at Mary, milk to drink

:''Mary can drink milk.''

:'''''Rōn inhóshan Máiri whádi.''''' / '''''Yand tłákhter għar Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''

:NEG.POT 3SG.A-drink-3SG.I Mary milk / exists_no method at Mary, milk to drink

:''Mary can't drink milk.''

:'''''Khuméen mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''

:permit-PASS_PTCP DAT Mary, milk to drink

:''It's okay for Mary to drink milk.''

Alternatively, the possessed infinitive construction can be used:

:'''''Khuméen hoshnée Máiri mi whádi.'''''

:''It's okay for Mary to drink milk.'' (lit. Mary's drinking of milk is okay)

==Poetic Shalaian==

Topicalization used more often, preverbs and articles often omitted, word order freer eg. ''wairdí'nal laħchái't'' = I shall praise her with my song

Topicalization used more often, preverbs and articles often omitted, word order freer

e.g. ''wairdí'nal laħchái't'' = I shall praise her with my song

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 ===Constituent order===
-Finite clauses are VSO:
+Finite clauses have unmarked word order SV, OAV and use ergative syntax:
-  preverb verb subject dir_obj ind_obj place manner time.
+  preverb dir_obj subj ind_obj verb place manner time.
-Infinitive clauses are VOS.
+Infinitive clauses are VSO and accusative; the preposition ''mi'' must be used before a direct object in infinitive clauses.
+''Mi''-infinitive clauses lack the ergative argument when using transitive verbs, and use OV order and accusative syntax
+An example of a clause with a transitive verb:
+ Ingánakh              tładméen       wa fígħdri       u shaanf.
+SG.A.ERG-PST-3PL.ABS plant-PST.PTCP DEF.PL flower-PL DEF.SG.A woman
+ Aux                   V              O                S
+ The woman planted the flowers.
 ===Noun phrase===
@@ Line 13: / Line 22: @@
   article numeral NOUN adjective demonstrative genitive relative_clause.
-Genitives use possessive affixes:
+Genitive noun phrases use possessive affixes on the possessed noun:
-:''ni chaast'''s''' rái'chal'' = Rachel's friend (weak possession)
+:''laš'''ý''' Ráičal'' = Rachel's hand (inalienable possession)
-:'''''an'''-vó3ash rái'chal'' = Rachel's hand (strong possession)
 ===Nominal sentences===
 {{PAGENAME}} is zero-copula for nominal sentences and for predicative adjuncts such as ''għar roft'' 'at home'. Nominal sentences in the present tense are negated with the preverb ''thoor''.
-:'''''Am shaanfs Għánameen tee?'''''
+:'''''Am shaanft Għánameen swid?'''''
 :Q.PRES woman-3SG.AN Għánameen 2SG
 :''Are you Għánameen's wife/girlfriend?''
@@ Line 35: / Line 43: @@
 Yes-no questions are answered using preverbs.
 ====Wh-questions====
-The interrogative word always comes first in the sentence. Usually the material after the wh-word becomes a relative clause with the wh-word as the head. The relative clause can be a ''cha''-clause vs. a ''vi''-clause.
+The interrogative word always comes first in the sentence.
+Predicative wh-questions are simpler:
+:'''''Yakh swid?'''''
+:who 2SG
+:''Who are you?''
+:'''''Għaib lōkh swid?'''''
+:where PST 2SG
+:''Where have you been?''
+Verbal wh-questions are always cleft sentences: The material after the wh-word becomes a relative clause with the wh-word as the head. The relative clause can be a ''cha''-clause vs. a ''vi''-clause:
+:'''''Yan vi u shaanf inágħdi?'''''
+:yan vi in-għád-i u shaanf
+:what VI.PRES 3SG.A-see-INF DEF.SG.A woman
+:''What does the woman see?'' (lit. What is that which the woman sees?)
+:'''''Yakh għan do'ch agħd vikh rṓjas?'''''
+:yakh għan do'ch a-għád-0 vikh rōj-as
+:who here CHA.NEG.PRES 3SG.A-see-3SG.I VI.PST do.INF-3SG.H
+:''Who here does not see what she (hon.) has done?'' (lit. Who here is it that does not see that which she has done?)
 ==='There is' and 'have'===
 'There is' clauses use the word ''whid'' at the beginning of the word, and have-possessives use the structure ''whid'' + the thing possessed + the preposition ''għar'' + possessor. The negative of ''whid'' is ''yaan'ch'' 'there is not' (etymologically from an interrogative *yan cha' whid "where is..."), and the negative interrogative form is ''maand''.
-:'''''Yaan'ch vózhleedash għar áifer.'''''
+:'''''Yaan'ch għar áifer vojlid.'''''
 :''There is no justice in this (fact or situation).''
 ===Transitivity===
-Verbs index the arguments ergatively: the absolutive personal affixes are suffixes and the ergative affixes are prefixes.
+Finite verbs index the arguments ergatively: the absolutive personal affixes are suffixes and the ergative affixes are prefixes.
 ====Intransitives====
@@ Line 60: / Line 89: @@
 ====''vi''-clauses====
 Forms of the preverb ''vi'' are used when the head of the relative clause is absolutive or when relativizing a non-verbal predicate.
+Headless relative clauses (indicated by ''that which'' or ''what'' in English) can be formed simply by omitting the head.
 A verbal ''vi''-clause has the form
-  (when intransitive) vi-preverb + verb.INF + other constituents
+  (when intransitive) vi-preverb + other constituents verb.INF
 or
   (when transitive) vi-preverb + POSSESSIVE_i-verb.INF + ergative noun_i + other constituents.
@@ Line 72: / Line 103: @@
   vi-preverb predicate.
-====''cha''-clauses====
+====''če''-clauses====
-Forms of ''cha'' are used when the head of the relative clause is NOT absolutive. Unlike ''vi''-clauses, ''cha''-clauses use finite verbs and are more syntactically straightforward. Resumptive pronouns (referring back to the head) are usually used in a ''cha''-clause, either on the verb or on other constituents.
+Forms of ''če'' are used when the head of the relative clause is NOT absolutive. Unlike ''vi''-clauses, ''če''-clauses use finite verbs and are more syntactically straightforward. Resumptive pronouns (referring back to the head) are usually used in a ''če''-clause, either on the verb or on other constituents.
 ===Complement clauses===
+Like many other clause types in Shalian, complement clauses have two possible syntaxes: either finite, using forms of the preverb ''ith'', or an infinitive construction, formed with the preposition ''mi'' + infinitive. With infinitive complement clauses, the tense is usually assumed to be the same tense as the main clause.
+===Conditional===
+Conditional clauses that indicate a general truth use the present form of the "if" preverb. A preverb need not be used in the apodosis.
+:'''''Sher syukh ładéem, ħónath ni chalm sikht.''
+:if.PRES fall_precipitation snow, become DEF road cold
+:''If it snows, the road becomes cold.''
+Conditional clauses that are conditioned on a possible future event use the future form of the "if" preverb:
+:'''''Wher't syukh ładéem, kháiral roftas.'''''
+:if.FUT fall_precipitation snow, go-1SG to_home
+:''If it snows, I'll go home.''
 ===Time clauses===
-There are conjunctions for time clauses, however the construction ''għar'' + the infinitive is commonly used:
+There are conjunctions for time clauses.
-*''għar zhá'unal'' = when I awake/have awakened
-*''zhar't wadanzháis láathvai, chōns għar kháir't.'' (FUT 1SG-APP-come-3SG.A together every LOC go-3SG.A  = Whenever she goes, I'm going together with her.'')
+However, the infinitive construction ''għar'' + infinitive is more commonly used:
+*''Għar shá'unal, vor shafiħée, għar wáirjan mi shontái.'' = When I awake, she begins to play the violin.
+*''Għar sháfiħal, as kaléer mi wair, lōkh shafiħée mi shontái.'' = When I began singing the song, she began playing.
+*''Łar't lidanjáis shṓlriv, chōns għar khairée.'' (FUT 1SG-follow-3SG.A together every LOC go-3SG.A  = Whenever she goes, I'm going together with her.'')
 In infinitive clauses, the possessor of the infinitive is the absolutive noun, and ''mi'' is used in front of the ergative noun.
+todo: "while", "as soon as", "before", "after", "until"
 ===Comparison clauses===
-''aiv'' + possessed form of the infinitive is used for clauses of the form "too ADJ for NOUN to VERB".
+The syntax ''vair'' + form of ''cha'' is used when comparing clauses:
-:'''''Khom ħi qōv lirwhágħan aiv korréerishwha thóogħan.'''''
+:'''''Ashfíl'ajal, lōkh tirṓj thogħs vair chakh lidanrú'k.'''''
+:''Congrats, you did [it] better than I expected.''
+The syntax ''vair'' + possessed form of the infinitive is used for clauses of the form "too ADJ for NOUN to VERB".
+:'''''Khom u għōv lirwhágħan vair shéerishawh thóogħa.'''''
 :be_at.3SG.I DEF.SG.I death COMP-evil than neglect-INF-1PL from-3SG.I
 :''Death is too evil for us to neglect.'' (lit. more evil than our neglecting it)
@@ Line 103: / Line 158: @@
 ===Topicalization===
 Topicalization involves placing the topic ''after'' the comment clause.
+===Cleft constructions===
+In cleft sentences, the present tense preverb is used before the fronted constituent.
+:'''''Vor sowh vikh għanór'ads.'''''
+:PRES 1PL VI.PST choose.INF-2SG.H
+:''It's us whom you have chosen.''
+===Modal expressions===
+The modal expressions are the following:
+*''kórtha mi X'' = X wants
+*''idréen mi X'' = X needs
+*''fangán għar X'' = X must
+*''għai't mi X'' = X likes
+*''tłákht għar X'' = X can (lit. X has a method)
+**'can't' is usually expressed by using the word ''rōn'' in front of a finite verb.
+*''khuméen mi X'' = X is permitted to
+All modal expressions use ''mi''-infinitive clauses for their complements:
+:'''''Kórth mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
+:desire to Mary, milk to drink
+:''Mary wants to drink milk.''
+:'''''Idréen mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
+:necessary to Mary, milk to drink
+:''Mary needs to drink milk.''
+:'''''Għai't mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
+:pleasure to Mary milk to drink
+:''Mary likes drinking milk.''
+:'''''Tłákht għar Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
+:method at Mary, milk to drink
+:''Mary can drink milk.''
+:'''''Rōn inhóshan Máiri whádi.''''' / '''''Yand tłákhter għar Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
+:NEG.POT 3SG.A-drink-3SG.I Mary milk / exists_no method at Mary, milk to drink
+:''Mary can't drink milk.''
+:'''''Khuméen mi Máiri, whádi mi hoshan.'''''
+:permit-PASS_PTCP DAT Mary, milk to drink
+:''It's okay for Mary to drink milk.''
+Alternatively, the possessed infinitive construction can be used:
+:'''''Khuméen hoshnée Máiri mi whádi.'''''
+:''It's okay for Mary to drink milk.'' (lit. Mary's drinking of milk is okay)
 ==Poetic Shalaian==
-Topicalization used more often, preverbs and articles often omitted, word order freer eg. ''wairdí'nal laħchái't'' = I shall praise her with my song
+Topicalization used more often, preverbs and articles often omitted, word order freer
+e.g. ''wairdí'nal laħchái't'' = I shall praise her with my song