Shaj: Difference between revisions

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==Phonology==

===Orthography===

===Consonants===

====Nasals====

Velshaj has three nasals: /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. The sequence /n/ + /ĭ/ yields a palatal nasal [ɲ], but this is not regarded as a separate phoneme.

====Fricatives====

Velshaj has five voiced fricatives /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /ɣ/. Although they each appear in complimentary distribution with their voiceless counterparts (/f/, /θ/, /s~~/, /ʃ/~~, and /x/), they are often regarded as separate phonemes.

Velshaj has five voiced fricatives /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /ɣ/. Although they each appear in complimentary distribution with their voiceless counterparts ([f], [θ], [s], and [x]), they are often regarded as separate phonemes. The voiceless postalveolar fricative (/ʃ/) is unique in that it clearly exists in contrastive distribution with /ʒ/, especially in syllable-initial position.

====Plosives====

Velshaj has four plosives /p/, /t̪/, /t/, /k/, and one affricate /tʃ/. There are very few minimal pairs between /t̪/ and /t/. One such pair is /t̪e/ "know", and /te/ "turned".

Velshaj has four plosives /p/, /t̪/, /t/, /k/, and one affricate /tʃ/. There are very few minimal pairs between dental /t̪/ and alveolar /t/. One such pair is t̪e "know", and te "turned". Also, alveolar /t/ can only occur in CV syllables (where C is /t/ and V is any vowel or diphthong), but /t̪/ may occur in consonant clusters or at the end of a syllable. The affricate /tʃ/ is also slightly restricted. It cannot occur before another consonant in the same syllable, but it can end a syllable.

====Liquids====

Velshaj has one lateral /l/, and one rhotic /r/. Like its nasal counterpart, the sequence /l/ + /ĭ/ yields a lateral palatal approximant [ʎ], but this is not regarded as a separate phoneme. Semivowels /ŭ/ and /ĭ/ exist, but are not regarded as consonants.

====Summary Chart====

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 442px; text-align:center;"

! style="width: 68px; "|

! style="width: 68px; "|Labial

! style="width: 68px; "|Dental

! style="width: 68px; "|Alveolar

! style="width: 68px; "|Postalveolar

! style="width: 68px; "|Velar

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Nasal

| m

| n

|

| ŋ

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Fricative

| v

| ð

| z

| ʒ, ʃ

| ɣ

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Plosive

| p

| t̪

| t

| tʃ

| k

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Lateral

|

| l

|

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Rhotic

|

| r

|

|}

===Vowels===

Shaj has five cardinal vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/, and two semivowels /ĭ/ and /ŭ/. Semivowels form ~~rising~~ diphthongs /eĭ/, /aĭ/, /oĭ/, /ŭĭ/, /aŭ/; and ~~falling~~ diphthongs /ĭə/, /ĭe/, /ĭa/, /ĭo/, /ĭu/. Any time /u/ or /ŭ/ precedes /i/ or /ĭ/, the result is /ŭĭ/. There are also two rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/, one open front vowel /æ/, a homogenous diphthong /ĭĭ/, and a schwa /ə/. There is no length distinction in Velshaj, but there used to be in its parent languages.

Shaj has five cardinal vowels /i/, /e/, /ɑ/, /o/, /u/, and two semivowels /ĭ/ and /ŭ/. Semivowels form closing diphthongs /eĭ/, /ɑĭ/, /oĭ/, /ŭĭ/, /aŭ/; and opening diphthongs /ĭə/, /ĭe/, /ĭɑ/, /ĭo/, /ĭu/. Any time /u/ or /ŭ/ precedes /i/ or /ĭ/, the result is /ŭĭ/. There are also two rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/, one open front vowel /æ/, a homogenous diphthong /ĭĭ/, and a schwa /ə/. There is no length distinction in Velshaj, but there used to be in its parent languages.

===~~Prosody~~===

====Summary Chart====

====~~Stress~~====

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 442px; text-align:center;"

====~~Intonation=~~===

! style="width: 68px; "|

! style="width: 68px; "|Front Unround

! style="width: 68px; "|Front Round

! style="width: 68px; "|Central Unround

! style="width: 68px; "|Back Unround

! style="width: 68px; "|Back Round

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Semivowel

| ĭ

|

| ŭ

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|High

| i

| y

|

| u

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Mid

| e

| ø

| ə

|

| o

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Low

| æ

|

| ɑ

|

|}

===Phonotactics===

===Phonotactics and Prosody===

Syllable structure can be as large as CCCVC and as small as V (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong). Every word needs a vowel, and no word may end in more than one consonant. Typically, stress is on the first syllable of the root, or the penultimate syllable of a word. Morphemes with two syllables rarely end in a vowel.

====Mutations and Assimilations====

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Dental obstruents /t/ and /ð/ may not precede /l/. Thus /l/ changes to /ŭ/ in this context.

=====Epenthesis=====

In most registers of Shaj, sequences of VV (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong) are prohibited anywhere within a word, or across word boundaries. Thus /l/ (or /ŭ/ if the first vowel is either /u/ or /aŭ/) becomes inserted between the vowels. For example, /ʒɑɣ ~~namvɑllet~~ ɑĭ ĭk/ → /ʒɑɣ ~~namvɑllet~~ ɑĭ lĭk/ "I have red hair". Sequences of /uŭ/ or /ŭŭ/ reduce to /ŭ/. Since epenthesis is an aesthetic rule that makes no semantic difference, it is inconsistently ignored both in speech and in writing. More recently, VV sequences are seen more often, where /l/ or /ŭ/ would need to be inserted.

In most registers of Shaj, sequences of VV (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong) are prohibited anywhere within a word, or across word boundaries. Thus /l/ (or /ŭ/ if the first vowel is either /u/ or /ɑŭ/) becomes inserted between the vowels. For example, /ʒɑɣ nɑmvɑllet ɑĭ ĭk/ → /ʒɑɣ nɑmvɑllet ɑĭ lĭk/ "I have red hair". Sequences of /uŭ/ or /ŭŭ/ reduce to /ŭ/. Since epenthesis is an aesthetic rule that makes no semantic difference, it is inconsistently ignored both in speech and in writing. More recently, VV sequences are seen more often, where /l/ or /ŭ/ would need to be inserted.

=====Alternations=====

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The postalveolar consonants /ʒ/, /ʃ/, and /tʃ/ may alternatively be realized as retroflex, or apico-palatal consonants. The sequences /nĭ/, /lĭ/, and /ŭĭ/, may be realized as true dorso-palatal consonants [ɲ], [ʎ], and [ɥ], respectively before vowels.

====Velars and Uvualrs====

The velar fricative /ɣ/ becomes pharyngeal [ʕ] between any two non-high back vowels. Additionally, a sequence of /ɣ/ + /r/ may yield a uvular fricative [ʁ] or trill [ʀ]. For example, /~~ɣroɣa~~/ "royal" → [~~ʁoʕa~~]. A geminated voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħː] occurs in rare cases (e.g. /~~ɣroɣɣa~~/ "the queen" → [~~ʁoħːa~~]).

The velar fricative /ɣ/ becomes pharyngeal [ʕ] between any two non-high back vowels. Additionally, a sequence of /ɣ/ + /r/ may yield a uvular fricative [ʁ] or trill [ʀ]. For example, /ɣroɣɑ/ "royal" → [ʁoʕɑ]. A geminated voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħː] occurs in rare cases (e.g. /ɣroɣɣɑ/ "the queen" → [ʁoħːɑ]).

====Voiced Stops====

Although voiced stops disappeared as phonemes early in the history of Shaj, they appear as allophones of other phonemes. Voiced stops are in free variation with their voiceless counterparts, except when beginning a word, or following /l/ or a nasal, in which case they are voiceless, and maybe aspirated. Voiced stops also occur in free variation with their voiced fricative counterparts when beginning a word, or following /l/ or a nasal. Otherwise, they are fricative. Voiced stops in loanwords are substituted by voiceless plosives.

=====Examples of Voiced Stops=====

/~~velʃaĭ~~/ = [~~βelʃaĭ~~] or [~~belʃaĭ~~]

/velʃɑĭ/ = [βelʃɑĭ] or [belʃɑĭ]

/~~namvellet~~/ = [~~namβellet~~] or [~~nambellet~~]

/nɑmvellet̪/ = [nɑmβellet] or [nɑmbellet̪]

/~~panðriʒen~~/ = [~~panðriʒen~~] or [~~pandriʒen~~], but not [~~banðridʒen~~]

/pɑnðriʒen/ = [pɑnðriʒen] or [pɑndriʒen], but not [bɑnðridʒen]

/ʒaɣ/ = [ʒax] or [dʒax]

/~~tʃarpel~~/ = [~~tʃarpel~~] or [~~tʃarbel~~], but not [~~dʒarpel~~] or [~~dʒarbel~~]

/tʃɑrpel/ = [tʃɑrpel] or [tʃɑrbel], but not [dʒɑrpel] or [dʒɑrbel]

/~~ɣaləm~~/ = [~~ɣaləm~~] or [~~ɡaləm~~]

/ɣɑləm/ = [ɣɑləm] or [ɡɑləm]

/~~kampel~~/ = [~~kampel~~], but not [~~ɡambel~~]

/kɑmpel/ = [kɑmpel], but not [ɡɑmbel]

====Gemination====

When two of the same consonant are next to each other, they are geminated. Obstruents are voiceless and sonorants are voiced. The phoneme /ɾ/ becomes a trill [r(ː)] when geminated.

====Summary Chart (WOP)====

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 442px; text-align:center;"

! style="width: 68px; "|

! style="width: 68px; "|Labial

! style="width: 68px; "|Dental

! style="width: 68px; "|Alveolar

! style="width: 68px; "|Postalveolar

! style="width: 68px; "|Palatal

! style="width: 68px; "|Velar

! style="width: 68px; "|Uvular

! style="width: 68px; "|Pharyngeal

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Nasal

| /m/

| /n/

|

| [ɲ]

| /ŋ/

|

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Voiced Fricative

| /v/

| /ð/

| /z/

| /ʒ/

|

| /ɣ/

| [ʁ]

| [ʕ]

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Voiceless Fricative

| [f]

| [θ]

| [s]

| /ʃ/

|

| [x]

| [χ]

| [ħ]

|-

! style="text-align: center; "|Lateral

|

| /l/

|

| [ʎ]

|

|}

===Vowels and Semivowels===

====Open Vowels====

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dog -POS- friend -POS- 1SG

my friend's dog

====Adjuncts====

Adjectives typically prefix the noun that they modify. Otherwise, they take the suffix -ɑ and follow the noun phrase. Adverbs follow the verb, adjective, or adverb that they modify, and take the suffix -tɑ. Postpositions that do not have objects also take the suffix -tɑ.

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====Lexical Verbs====

=====Tense=====

~~Unlike most Indo-European languages, verbs~~ are not conjugated. Instead, the verb appears uninflected near the end of a clause, and all information about tense, aspect, or mood follow the verb as separate words. For example ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ur means, 'I'm going to go to the castle', but ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ɑĭ means 'I went to the castle'.

Verbs are not conjugated. Instead, the verb appears uninflected near the end of a clause, and all information about tense, aspect, or mood follow the verb as separate words. For example ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ur means, 'I'm going to go to the castle', but ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ɑĭ means 'I went to the castle'.

======Past======

Usually, the past tense is marked with the word ɑĭ after the verb. However, t̪rɑ is used in rare cases where the speaker is describing an event they have never experienced. Therefore, t̪rɑ is called the historic past, and is often used when telling stories.

======Present======

Usually, the present tense is left unmarked, but in younger, vernacular varieties of Shaj, u has come to mean present tense.

======Future======

Shaj splits the future into three parts: far, near, and imminent. The far future corresponds mostly with English's use of 'will', and describes an action that has not yet happened, but is sure to happen sometime. The near future corresponds mostly with English's 'going to', and describes an action that will happen soon, or within a relatively short period of time. The imminent future can be thought of as a subset of the near future, and is used to describe and event that is about to happen imminently or immediately. They are marked vi, ur, and tʃĭ, respectively.

=====Aspect=====

======Perfect and Imperfect======

Shaj distinguishes many aspects ~~buy~~ using one of the following words between the verb and the tense. There is ɑv, which indicates perfect mood, just like english 'have'. For example, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv means 'I have eaten'. There is also ɑv ɑĭ, which indicates pluperfect mood, just like english 'had'. Therefore, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv ɑĭ means 'I had eaten'.

Shaj distinguishes many aspects by using one of the following words between the verb and the tense. There is ɑv, which indicates perfect mood, just like english 'have'. For example, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv means 'I have eaten'. There is also ɑv ɑĭ, which indicates pluperfect mood, just like english 'had'. Therefore, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv ɑĭ means 'I had eaten'.

======Perfective and Imperfective======

There is also ĭk, which occurs at the end of many Shaj sentences. It is used to make the meaning of a sentence apply to all or any instance in time. Confused? It kind of means 'usually' or 'always'. When used in the past tense, it has a similar meaning to Spanish's imperfecto. However, unlike Spanish, Shaj can use ĭk in sentences of any tense. For example, nɑ ĭovɑ! means 'She is angry [because of something that just happened]', but Na ĭovɑ ĭk! means 'She is angry' as in 'she is an angry person'.

@@ Line 18: / Line 18: @@
 ==Phonology==
 ===Orthography===
 ===Consonants===
 ====Nasals====
 Velshaj has three nasals: /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. The sequence /n/ + /ĭ/ yields a palatal nasal [ɲ], but this is not regarded as a separate phoneme.
 ====Fricatives====
-Velshaj has five voiced fricatives /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /ɣ/. Although they each appear in complimentary distribution with their voiceless counterparts (/f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, and /x/), they are often regarded as separate phonemes.
+Velshaj has five voiced fricatives /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /ɣ/. Although they each appear in complimentary distribution with their voiceless counterparts ([f], [θ], [s], and [x]), they are often regarded as separate phonemes. The voiceless postalveolar fricative (/ʃ/) is unique in that it clearly exists in contrastive distribution with /ʒ/, especially in syllable-initial position.
 ====Plosives====
-Velshaj has four plosives /p/, /t̪/, /t/, /k/, and one affricate /tʃ/. There are very few minimal pairs between /t̪/ and /t/. One such pair is /t̪e/ "know", and /te/ "turned".
+Velshaj has four plosives /p/, /t̪/, /t/, /k/, and one affricate /tʃ/. There are very few minimal pairs between dental /t̪/ and alveolar /t/. One such pair is t̪e "know", and te "turned". Also, alveolar /t/ can only occur in CV syllables (where C is /t/ and V is any vowel or diphthong), but /t̪/ may occur in consonant clusters or at the end of a syllable. The affricate /tʃ/ is also slightly restricted. It cannot occur before another consonant in the same syllable, but it can end a syllable.
 ====Liquids====
 Velshaj has one lateral /l/, and one rhotic /r/. Like its nasal counterpart, the sequence /l/ + /ĭ/ yields a lateral palatal approximant [ʎ], but this is not regarded as a separate phoneme. Semivowels /ŭ/ and /ĭ/ exist, but are not regarded as consonants.
+====Summary Chart====
+{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 442px; text-align:center;"
+!  style="width: 68px; "|
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Labial
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Dental
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Alveolar
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Postalveolar
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Velar
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Nasal
+| m
+| n
+|
+|
+| ŋ
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Fricative
+| v
+| ð
+| z
+| ʒ, ʃ
+| ɣ
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Plosive
+| p
+| t̪
+| t
+| tʃ
+| k
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Lateral
+|
+| l
+|
+|
+|
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Rhotic
+|
+|
+| r
+|
+|
+|}
 ===Vowels===
-Shaj has five cardinal vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/, and two semivowels /ĭ/ and /ŭ/. Semivowels form rising diphthongs /eĭ/, /aĭ/, /oĭ/, /ŭĭ/, /aŭ/; and falling diphthongs /ĭə/, /ĭe/, /ĭa/, /ĭo/, /ĭu/. Any time /u/ or /ŭ/ precedes /i/ or /ĭ/, the result is /ŭĭ/. There are also two rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/, one open front vowel /æ/, a homogenous diphthong /ĭĭ/, and a schwa /ə/. There is no length distinction in Velshaj, but there used to be in its parent languages.
+Shaj has five cardinal vowels /i/, /e/, /ɑ/, /o/, /u/, and two semivowels /ĭ/ and /ŭ/. Semivowels form closing diphthongs /eĭ/, /ɑĭ/, /oĭ/, /ŭĭ/, /aŭ/; and opening diphthongs /ĭə/, /ĭe/, /ĭɑ/, /ĭo/, /ĭu/. Any time /u/ or /ŭ/ precedes /i/ or /ĭ/, the result is /ŭĭ/. There are also two rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/, one open front vowel /æ/, a homogenous diphthong /ĭĭ/, and a schwa /ə/. There is no length distinction in Velshaj, but there used to be in its parent languages.
-===Prosody===
+====Summary Chart====
-====Stress====
+{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 442px; text-align:center;"
-====Intonation====
+!  style="width: 68px; "|
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Front Unround
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Front Round
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Central Unround
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Back Unround
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Back Round
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Semivowel
+| ĭ
+|
+|
+|
+| ŭ
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|High
+| i
+| y
+|
+|
+| u
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Mid
+| e
+| ø
+| ə
+|
+| o
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Low
+| æ
+|
+|
+| ɑ
+|
+|}
-===Phonotactics===
+===Phonotactics and Prosody===
 Syllable structure can be as large as CCCVC and as small as V (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong). Every word needs a vowel, and no word may end in more than one consonant. Typically, stress is on the first syllable of the root, or the penultimate syllable of a word. Morphemes with two syllables rarely end in a vowel.
 ====Mutations and Assimilations====
@@ Line 45: / Line 126: @@
 Dental obstruents /t/ and /ð/ may not precede /l/. Thus /l/ changes to /ŭ/ in this context.
 =====Epenthesis=====
-In most registers of Shaj, sequences of VV (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong) are prohibited anywhere within a word, or across word boundaries. Thus /l/ (or /ŭ/ if the first vowel is either /u/ or /aŭ/) becomes inserted between the vowels. For example, /ʒɑɣ namvɑllet ɑĭ ĭk/ → /ʒɑɣ namvɑllet ɑĭ lĭk/ "I have red hair". Sequences of /uŭ/ or /ŭŭ/ reduce to /ŭ/. Since epenthesis is an aesthetic rule that makes no semantic difference, it is inconsistently ignored both in speech and in writing. More recently, VV sequences are seen more often, where /l/ or /ŭ/ would need to be inserted.
+In most registers of Shaj, sequences of VV (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong) are prohibited anywhere within a word, or across word boundaries. Thus /l/ (or /ŭ/ if the first vowel is either /u/ or /ɑŭ/) becomes inserted between the vowels. For example, /ʒɑɣ nɑmvɑllet ɑĭ ĭk/ → /ʒɑɣ nɑmvɑllet ɑĭ lĭk/ "I have red hair". Sequences of /uŭ/ or /ŭŭ/ reduce to /ŭ/. Since epenthesis is an aesthetic rule that makes no semantic difference, it is inconsistently ignored both in speech and in writing. More recently, VV sequences are seen more often, where /l/ or /ŭ/ would need to be inserted.
 =====Alternations=====
@@ Line 62: / Line 143: @@
 The postalveolar consonants /ʒ/, /ʃ/, and /tʃ/ may alternatively be realized as retroflex, or apico-palatal consonants. The sequences /nĭ/, /lĭ/, and /ŭĭ/, may be realized as true dorso-palatal consonants [ɲ], [ʎ], and [ɥ], respectively before vowels.
 ====Velars and Uvualrs====
-The velar fricative /ɣ/ becomes pharyngeal [ʕ] between any two non-high back vowels. Additionally, a sequence of /ɣ/ + /r/ may yield a uvular fricative [ʁ] or trill [ʀ]. For example, /ɣroɣa/ "royal" → [ʁoʕa]. A geminated voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħː] occurs in rare cases (e.g. /ɣroɣɣa/ "the queen" → [ʁoħːa]).
+The velar fricative /ɣ/ becomes pharyngeal [ʕ] between any two non-high back vowels. Additionally, a sequence of /ɣ/ + /r/ may yield a uvular fricative [ʁ] or trill [ʀ]. For example, /ɣroɣɑ/ "royal" → [ʁoʕɑ]. A geminated voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħː] occurs in rare cases (e.g. /ɣroɣɣɑ/ "the queen" → [ʁoħːɑ]).
 ====Voiced Stops====
 Although voiced stops disappeared as phonemes early in the history of Shaj, they appear as allophones of other phonemes. Voiced stops are in free variation with their voiceless counterparts, except when beginning a word, or following /l/ or a nasal, in which case they are voiceless, and maybe aspirated. Voiced stops also occur in free variation with their voiced fricative counterparts when beginning a word, or following /l/ or a nasal. Otherwise, they are fricative. Voiced stops in loanwords are substituted by voiceless plosives.
 =====Examples of Voiced Stops=====
-/velʃaĭ/ = [βelʃaĭ] or [belʃaĭ]
+/velʃɑĭ/ = [βelʃɑĭ] or [belʃɑĭ]
-/namvellet/ = [namβellet] or [nambellet]
+/nɑmvellet̪/ = [nɑmβellet] or [nɑmbellet̪]
-/panðriʒen/ = [panðriʒen] or [pandriʒen], but not [banðridʒen]
+/pɑnðriʒen/ = [pɑnðriʒen] or [pɑndriʒen], but not [bɑnðridʒen]
 /ʒaɣ/ = [ʒax] or [dʒax]
-/tʃarpel/ = [tʃarpel] or [tʃarbel], but not [dʒarpel] or [dʒarbel]
+/tʃɑrpel/ = [tʃɑrpel] or [tʃɑrbel], but not [dʒɑrpel] or [dʒɑrbel]
-/ɣaləm/ = [ɣaləm] or [ɡaləm]
+/ɣɑləm/ = [ɣɑləm] or [ɡɑləm]
-/kampel/ = [kampel], but not [ɡambel]
+/kɑmpel/ = [kɑmpel], but not [ɡɑmbel]
 ====Gemination====
 When two of the same consonant are next to each other, they are geminated. Obstruents are voiceless and sonorants are voiced. The phoneme /ɾ/ becomes a trill [r(ː)] when geminated.
+====Summary Chart (WOP)====
+{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable article-table" style="width: 442px; text-align:center;"
+!  style="width: 68px; "|
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Labial
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Dental
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Alveolar
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Postalveolar
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Palatal
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Velar
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Uvular
+!  style="width: 68px; "|Pharyngeal
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Nasal
+| /m/
+| /n/
+|
+|
+| [ɲ]
+| /ŋ/
+|
+|
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Voiced Fricative
+| /v/
+| /ð/
+| /z/
+| /ʒ/
+|
+| /ɣ/
+| [ʁ]
+| [ʕ]
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Voiceless Fricative
+| [f]
+| [θ]
+| [s]
+| /ʃ/
+|
+| [x]
+| [χ]
+| [ħ]
+|-
+! style="text-align: center; "|Lateral
+|
+| /l/
+|
+|
+| [ʎ]
+|
+|
+|
+|}
 ===Vowels and Semivowels===
 ====Open Vowels====
@@ Line 192: / Line 326: @@
 dog -POS- friend -POS- 1SG
 my friend's dog
 ====Adjuncts====
 Adjectives typically prefix the noun that they modify. Otherwise, they take the suffix -ɑ and follow the noun phrase. Adverbs follow the verb, adjective, or adverb that they modify, and take the suffix -tɑ. Postpositions that do not have objects also take the suffix -tɑ.
@@ Line 205: / Line 340: @@
 ====Lexical Verbs====
 =====Tense=====
-Unlike most Indo-European languages, verbs are not conjugated. Instead, the verb appears uninflected near the end of a clause, and all information about tense, aspect, or mood follow the verb as separate words. For example ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ur means, 'I'm going to go to the castle', but ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ɑĭ means 'I went to the castle'.
+Verbs are not conjugated. Instead, the verb appears uninflected near the end of a clause, and all information about tense, aspect, or mood follow the verb as separate words. For example ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ur means, 'I'm going to go to the castle', but ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ɑĭ means 'I went to the castle'.
+======Past======
 Usually, the past tense is marked with the word ɑĭ after the verb. However, t̪rɑ is used in rare cases where the speaker is describing an event they have never experienced. Therefore, t̪rɑ is called the historic past, and is often used when telling stories.
+======Present======
 Usually, the present tense is left unmarked, but in younger, vernacular varieties of Shaj, u has come to mean present tense.
+======Future======
 Shaj splits the future into three parts: far, near, and imminent. The far future corresponds mostly with English's use of 'will', and describes an action that has not yet happened, but is sure to happen sometime. The near future corresponds mostly with English's 'going to', and describes an action that will happen soon, or within a relatively short period of time. The imminent future can be thought of as a subset of the near future, and is used to describe and event that is about to happen imminently or immediately. They are marked vi, ur, and tʃĭ, respectively.
 =====Aspect=====
 ======Perfect and Imperfect======
-Shaj distinguishes many aspects buy using one of the following words between the verb and the tense. There is ɑv, which indicates perfect mood, just like english 'have'. For example, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv means 'I have eaten'. There is also ɑv ɑĭ, which indicates pluperfect mood, just like english 'had'. Therefore, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv ɑĭ means 'I had eaten'.
+Shaj distinguishes many aspects by using one of the following words between the verb and the tense. There is ɑv, which indicates perfect mood, just like english 'have'. For example, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv means 'I have eaten'. There is also ɑv ɑĭ, which indicates pluperfect mood, just like english 'had'. Therefore, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv ɑĭ means 'I had eaten'.
 ======Perfective and Imperfective======
 There is also ĭk, which occurs at the end of many Shaj sentences. It is used to make the meaning of a sentence apply to all or any instance in time. Confused? It kind of means 'usually' or 'always'. When used in the past tense, it has a similar meaning to Spanish's imperfecto. However, unlike Spanish, Shaj can use ĭk in sentences of any tense. For example, nɑ ĭovɑ! means 'She is angry [because of something that just happened]', but Na ĭovɑ ĭk! means 'She is angry' as in 'she is an angry person'.