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==History==
* As a result of collapsing of the different gendered endings for case inflections, the case system became significantly more [[w:agglutination|agglutinative]], requiring the gender and case suffixes to be attached to the noun separately.
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Zoki possesses the following consonant phonemes:
Proto-Owina possessed the following consonants:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
!  |
!  |Labial
!  |Dental
!  |Alveolar
!  |Palatal-<br>alveolar
!  |Palatal
!  |Velar
!  |Glottal
|-
|-
! Nasal
! colspan="2" |
!  Labial
!  Alveolar
!  Palato-<br>alveolar
!  Velar
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| *'''m''' /m/
| *'''m''' /m/
| *'''n''' /n/
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plosive
! Voiceless
| *'''p''' /p/
| *'''t''' /t/
|
| *'''k''' /k/
|-
! Voiced
|
| *'''d''' /d/
|
|
| *'''n''' /n/
| *'''g''' /g/
|  
|-
| *'''ny''' /ɳ/
! Aspirated
| *'''ng''' /ŋ/
| *'''ph''' /pʰ/
| *'''th''' /tʰ/
|
|
| *'''kh''' /kʰ/
|-
|-
! Plosive
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
| *'''p''' /p/<br>*'''b''' /b/<br>*'''pp''' /pʰ/
! Voiceless
|
| *'''f''' /f/
| *'''t''' /t/<br>*'''d''' /d/<br>*'''tt''' /tʰ/
| *'''s''' /s/
| *'''sh''' /ʃ/
|  
|  
|-
! Voiced
| *'''v''' /v/
|
|
| *'''k''' /k/<br>*'''g''' /g/<br>*'''kk''' /kʰ/
| *'''j''' /ʒ/
|
|
|-
|-
! Fricative
! rowspan="3" | Affricate
| *'''f''' /f/<br>*'''v''' /v/
! Voiced
| *'''th''' /θ/<br>*'''dh''' /ð/
|
| *'''s''' /s/<br>*'''z''' /z/
| *'''sh''' /ʃ/<br>*'''zh''' /ʒ/
|
|
| *'''dj''' /d͡ʒ/
|
|
| *'''h''' /h/
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Voiceless
|
|
|
| *'''ch''' /t͡ʃ/
|
|-
! Aspirated
|
|
|
| *'''ch''' /tɕ/<br>*'''j''' /dʑ/
|
|
|
| *'''cch''' /t͡ʃʰ/
|
|
|-
|-
! Approximant
! colspan="2" | Approximant
| *'''w''' /w/
| *'''w''' /w/
| *'''l''' /l/
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Flap/Trill
|
|
| *'''l''' /l/<br>*'''r''' /ɹ/
| *'''r''' /r/
|
|
| *'''y''' /j/
|
|
|
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! High
! High
| '''i''' /i/<br>'''ì''' /iə/
| *'''i''' /i/
|
| *'''u''' /ʉ/
| '''u''' /u/<br>'''ù''' /uə/
|
|-
|-
! Mid-high
! Mid-high
| '''é''' /e/<br>'''è''' /eə/
| *'''e''' /e/
|
|  
| '''ó''' /o/<br>'''ò''' /oə/
| *'''o''' /o/
|-
|-
! Mid
! Mid
|
|
| '''û''' /ə/  
| *'''y''' /ə/
|
|
|-
|-
! Low-mid
! Mid-low
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|  
| *'''ø''' /ɔ/
|-
|-
! Low
! Low
| '''a''' /a/<br>('''ai''' /ai/)<br>('''au''' /au/)
|
|
| '''â''' /ɑ/<br>('''ấ''' /ɑə/)
| *'''a''' /a/
|
|}
|}
* The distinction between /ɑ/ and /ɑə/ is a remnant of the historical vowel length distinction in [[Old Zoki]]; vowel shifts since the Old Zoki period have diphthongized most instances of the historical long vowels, while the short vowels have altered in quality. However, in the case of short and long historical */ɔ/, most speakers have merged them to /ɑ/; the diphthongization of historical long */ɔ/ to /ɑə/ is now considered a dying feature.
* The diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ do not occur in native Zoki words except for a few interjections and onomatopoeic terms, such as ''hai'' ("haha") and ''hau'' ("ouch"). They occur in some loanwords, but speakers, especially less educated ones, often pronounce them variously as bisyllabic ''a-i'' and ''a-u'', as monophthongal ''a'', or as monophthongal ''i'' and ''u''.


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
As part of the [[w:Mainland Southeast Asian linguistic area|Southeast Asian sprachbund]], Zoki has lost most of the complex affixational morphology of [[Proto-Rttirrian]] and become highly [[w:analytic language|analytic]]. However, it retains parts of the (already simplified) affixational system of [[Old Zoki]]. Nevertheless, Zoki is no longer considered pro-drop, for example, as several verbal conjugation paradigms have merged together; pronouns are now generally used alongside verbs, except in some informal speech where they may be dropped. Similar processes have occurred in English and French.
===Pronouns===
 
The following pronouns were used:
===Nouns===
The following pronouns are used:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
!rowspan="3" |
!rowspan="4" |
|-
|-
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
!colspan="8" | 3rd
|-
! rowspan="2" | Sing.
! rowspan="2" | Pl.
! rowspan="2" | Sing.
! rowspan="2" | Pl.
! colspan="4" | Sing.
! colspan="4" | Pl.
|-
! Masc.
! Neut.
! Fem.
! Them.
! Masc.
! Neut.
! Fem.
! Them.
|-
! Nominative
| ''*shig''
| ''*e''
| ''*far''
| ''*ja''
| ''*su''
| rowspan="2" | ''*tud''
| ''*sir''
| ''*ris''
| ''*tuj''
| rowspan="2" | ''*tur''
| ''*tiraj''
| ''*rini''
|-
! Accusative
| ''*amí''
| ''*esmí''
| ''*fí''
| ''*vosí''
| ''*tum''
| ''*tir''
| ''*rim''
| ''*tuns''
| ''*tires''
| ''*rines''
|-
! Genitive
| ''*míne''
| ''*eso''
| ''*tíve''
| ''*shøso''
| colspan="2" | ''*søfó''
| ''*iser''
| ''*rincho''
| colspan="2" | ''*tisom''
| ''*tirom''
| ''*rinom''
|-
! Dative
| ''*mísho''
| ''*esmej''
| ''*phájo''
| ''*fasmej''
| colspan="2" | ''*smój''
| ''*rij''
| ''*rinej''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujmø''
| ''*timø''
| rowspan="2" | ''*rimos''
|-
! Ablative
| ''*míd''
| ''*esmed''
| ''*fíd''
| ''*fasmed''
| colspan="3" | ''*smód''
| ''*rind''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujos''
| ''*turos''
|-
! Locative
| rowspan="2" | ''*muáj''
| ''*esmaj''
| rowspan="2" | ''*tuáj''
| ''*fasmaj''
| colspan="2" | ''*smaj''
| ''*raj''
| ''*rinch''
| colspan="2" | ''*chø''
| ''*tichø''
| ''*rinchø''
|-
! Instrumental
| ''*esmáj''
| ''*fasmo''
| colspan="3" | ''*tuj''
| ''*rinar''
| colspan="2" | ''*tushphaj''
| ''*tiphaj''
| ''*rinash''
|-
! Comitative
| ''*amík''
| ''*esmík''
| ''*fík''
| ''*vosík''
| ''*tyrom''
| colspan="2" | ''*turom''
| ''*rimom''
| ''*tunsom''
| ''*turom''
| ''*tirsom''
| ''*rinsom''
|-
! Illative
| ''*míshor''
| ''*esmen''
| ''*phájor''
| ''*fasmen''
| colspan="2" | ''*smósh''
| ''*shin''
| ''*rinchar''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujman''
| ''*turon''
| ''*rinchen''
|}
 
====Case declension====
Nouns and adjectives were declined for case, number, and gender. The cases were identical for both the nouns and the adjectives.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="3" |
|-
! colspan="4" | Singular
! colspan="4" | Plural
|-
|-
! Sing.
! Masc.
! Pl.
! Neut.
! Sing.
! Fem.
! Pl.
! Them.
! Sing.
! Masc.
! Pl.
! Neut.
! Fem.
! Them.
|-
|-
! Nominative<br>(emphatic)
! Nominative
| ''nûk''
| ''*-(a)m''
| ''mo''
| ''*-∅/-y''
| ''at''
| ''*-(a)s''
| ''sûk''
| ''*-(a)sh''
| ''tù''
| ''*-∅/-y''
| ''âk''
| rowspan="2" | ''*-(a)r''
| ''*-(y)sh''
| ''*-∅/-y''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| ''né''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)m''
| ''me''
| ''*-(e)s''
| ''ké''
| colspan="2" | ''*-(e)s''
| ''se''
|-
| ''yo''
! Genitive (inalienable)
| ''gi''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)s''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(s)om''
|-
! Genitive (alienable)
| colspan="4" | ''*-sho''
| colspan="4" | ''*-shom''
|-
! Dative
| colspan="4" | ''*-(y)j''
| colspan="4" | ''*-mos''
|-
! Ablative
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)d''
| colspan="4" | ''*-dom''
|-
! Adessive
| colspan="4" | ''*-(j)ej''
| colspan="4" | ''*-sø''
|-
! Inessive
| colspan="4" | ''*-(j)aj''
| colspan="4" | ''*-jom''
|-
! Instrumental
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)r''
| colspan="4" | ''*-phaj''
|-
|-
! Possessive
! Comitative
| ''nû''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(i)k''
| ''mé''
| colspan="4" | ''*-kom''
| ''ûk''
|-
| ''sû''
! Illative
| ''â''
| colspan="4" | ''*-shar''
| ''e''
| colspan="4" | ''*-shen''
|}
|}


Two particles may come after the entire noun phrase. One is the non-obligatory plural particle ''mi''; the other is the diminutive ''ûzh''. When multiple diminutive objects are being referred to, the particles may come in either order, although ''mi ûzh'' is more typical.
Except for the plural in the accusative, cases were "stacked" on top of the nominative gender endings to explicitly indicate both gender, number, and case.
 
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>''pipi-sh-'''as'''''
:chick-THEM.SG-GEN.INAL.SG
:the chick's


===Verbs===
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>''pipi-∅-'''som'''
Verbs conjugate, vestigially, for person and number of the subject:
:chick-THEM.PL-GEN.INAL.PL
:the chicks'


===Verb phrases===
====Person/number conjugation====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
!rowspan="3" |
!rowspan="4" |
|-
!colspan="6" | Athematic
!colspan="6" | Thematic
|-
|-
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
|-
|-
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Sing.
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Pl.
Line 164: Line 366:
|-
|-
!Past
!Past
| ''o-''
| ''*-ø''
| ''o-''
| ''*-ømí''
| —
| ''*-as''
| —
| ''*-etí''
| —
| ''*-a''
| ''o-''
| ''*-and''
| ''*-om''
| ''*-ome''
| ''*-es''
| ''*-ete''
| ''*-ed''
| ''*-ond''
|-
|-
!Present
!Present
| —
| ''*-ma''
| —
| ''*-mos''
| —
| ''*-sa''
| —
| ''*-te''
| —
| ''*-ta''
| ''e-''
| ''*-ach''
|-
| ''*-o''
!Future
| ''*-om''
| —
| ''*-ash''
| —
| ''*-et''
| —
| ''*-omo''
| ''j(i)-''
| ''*-och''
| —
| ''j(i)-''
|}
|}
However, consonantal verb roots can fit a large number of verb patterns, each of which puts a different nuance on the action.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
|-
!colspan="6"|Forms
!colspan="2"|Examples
|-
!Form
!Past
!Present
!Future
!Gerund
!Meaning
!Biliteral roots, e.g. ''k-b'' (to stop)
!Triliteral roots, e.g. ''ṭ-j-ṇ'' (to bother)
|-
! I
| '''''shò'''1'''e'''2('''e'''3)''
| '''''shè'''1'''e'''2('''e'''3)''
| '''''shè'''1'''e'''2('''e'''3)''
| '''''nó'''1'''o'''2('''o'''3)''
| to do something<br>skillfully or carefully
|
|
|-
! II
| ''1'''ò'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''è'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''è'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''e'''2('''a'''3)''
| to undergo a process<br>emphatically or suddenly
| ''kēb'' – he stops suddenly
| ''ṭējeṇ'' – he goes crazy
|-
! III
| ''1'''a'''2('''û'''3)''
| ''1'''a'''2('''û'''3)''
| ''1'''e'''2('''é'''3)''
| ''1'''â'''2('''â'''3)''
| to undergo a process<br>weakly or gradually
| ''kāb'' – he slows to a halt
| ''ṭājaṇ'' – he hesitates
|-
! IV
| ''1'''é'''2'''ò'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''è'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''è'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''e'''(3'''a''')''
| to act on someone/something<br>emphatically or suddenly
| ''kibē'' – he causes to stop suddenly
| ''ṭijēṇe'' – he completely disrupts
|-
! V
| ''1'''é'''2'''a'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''a'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''ì'''(3'''é''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''â'''(3'''â''')''
| to act on someone/something<br>weakly or gradually
| ''kibā'' – he drags to a halt
| ''ṭijāṇa'' – he annoys
|}
The present tense of each verb form is syncretic with either the past or the future tense. This was also the case in Old Zoki, but in that stage of the language, the person/number affixes on the verb encoded unambiguous tense information, which is no longer the case in Modern Zoki. As a result, speakers often use ''mó'' (a truncation of ''mómó'', lit. "now", cognate to Rttirri ''mumu'') to specify that an action is taking place in the present. However, this word may come anywhere in the sentence, though it is found most frequently after the verb.
:<nowiki></nowiki>Tù né ttéjanyû.
:3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC annoy.Form_V
:He was/is annoying me.
:<nowiki></nowiki>Tù né ttéjanyû '''mó'''.
:3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC annoy.Form_V now
:He is annoying me.
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