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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
| name = {{PAGENAME}}
| name = {{PAGENAME}}
| altname = Nauhu, Wuhu
| altname = Wuhu / Nauhu / Naufu
| image = WuhuIslandFlag.png
| image = WuhuIslandFlag.png
| imagecaption = Flag of the Wuhu Autonomous Zone
| imagecaption = Flag of the Wuhu Autonomous Zone
| nativename = na’a wúhu
| nativename = na’a wúhu
| pronunciation = ˀna.a ˈwu.ɦu
| pronunciation = na.a ˈwu.ɦu
| pronunciation_key = IPA for Nawuhu
| pronunciation_key = IPA for Nawuhu
| creator = User:Jukethatbox
| creator = User:Jukethatbox
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| notice = ipa
| notice = ipa
}}
}}
'''Nawuhu''' (''na’a wúhu'', <small>Nawuhu:</small> [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ˀna.a ˈwu.ɦu]]]), also called '''Wuhu''' or '''Nauhu''' is a language isolate that was once predominantly spoken by the inhabitants of Wuhu Island (''akka wúhu'' or ''Akka’a'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ak.ka.a]]]). It was spoken primarily by the civilisation that probably encompassed the entire island, the ruins of which can be seen on the southern half of the island.<ref>See [https://wuhugov.neocities.org/html/history].</ref> Today, it is only spoken by around 90 native speakers, and ''Ethnologue'' marks Nawuhu as a definitely endangered language.
'''Nawuhu''' (''na’a wúhu'', [[IPA for Nawuhu|[na.a ˈwu.ɦu]]]), also called '''Wuhu''', '''Nauhu''' or '''Naufu''' is a language isolate that was once predominantly spoken by the inhabitants of Wuhu Island (''akka wúhu'' or ''Akka’a'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[ak.ka.a]]]). It was spoken primarily by the civilisation that probably encompassed the entire island, the ruins of which can be seen on the southern half of the island.<ref>See [https://wuhugov.neocities.org/html/history].</ref> Today, it is only spoken by around 90 native speakers, and ''Ethnologue'' marks Nawuhu as a definitely endangered language.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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Indeed, the system itself was built quickly out of necessity by Mark Mii as a way to transliterate ancient Nawuhu writing, and he himself admitted he did not take verbal transcription into account when making the system. Nevertheless, it was the first serious attempt of its time, and thus it was rapidly adopted by most of the Wuhu Island archaeologist community, many members of which were personal friends or acquaintances of Mark Mii himself.
Indeed, the system itself was built quickly out of necessity by Mark Mii as a way to transliterate ancient Nawuhu writing, and he himself admitted he did not take verbal transcription into account when making the system. Nevertheless, it was the first serious attempt of its time, and thus it was rapidly adopted by most of the Wuhu Island archaeologist community, many members of which were personal friends or acquaintances of Mark Mii himself.


Since its establishment as the official romanisation of Nawuhu, some other systems have tried to replace the Mark Mii system. One strong competitor is the ''Apakäaka'' system.  This system, created by an actual native Nawuhu speaker, is quite different from the Mark Mii system; for example, /j/ is written ⟨j⟩, /ɕ ʑ/ are written ⟨ś ź⟩ and /e/ is written ⟨ä⟩, /ʉ/ is written ⟨ŭ⟩ and the identical vocalic syllable separation is unmarked instead of marked with an apostrophe, with a dash indicating [[Nawuhu#Glottalisation|phonemic pre-glottalisation]]. This system is mostly used by Nawuhu native political exiles, with its creator also being a political exile currently residing in Hawaii due to his opposition towards the Almondrian regime. Thus, this romanisation system is not used officially on the island, though it still appears overseas in research papers of the island.
Since its establishment as the official romanisation of Nawuhu, some other systems have tried to replace the Mark Mii system. One strong competitor is the ''Apakeaka'' system.  This system, created by an actual native Nawuhu speaker, is quite different from the Mark Mii system; for example, /ɕ ʑ/ are written ⟨sh zh⟩, /ʉ/ and /ʉ.ʉ/ are written ⟨ụ⟩ and ⟨ṳ⟩ and the identical vocalic syllable separation is marked with a [[w:Diaeresis|diaeresis]] on the second vowel with stress generally not being marked unless contrastive , so ''na'a wúhu'' becomes ''naä wuhu''. This system is mostly used by Nawuhu native political exiles, with its creator also being a political exile currently residing in Hawaii due to his opposition towards the Almondrian regime. Thus, this romanisation system is not used officially on the island, though it still appears overseas in research papers of the island.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
! colspan=2 | !! Bilabial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
! !! Bilabial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
|-
|-
! colspan=2 |Plosive
! Plosive
| p b || t d || || k g ||
| p b || t d || || k g ||
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Nasal
! Nasal
! pulmonic
| m || n || ɲ || ŋ ||  
| m || n || ɲ || ŋ ||  
|-
|-
! pre-glottalised
! Fricative
| ˀm || ˀn || || ˀŋ ||
|-
! colspan=2 |Fricative
| || s z || ɕ ʑ || || h (ɦ)
| || s z || ɕ ʑ || || h (ɦ)
|-
|-
! colspan=2 |Semivowel
! Semivowel
| w || || j || ||
| (ẅ) || || j || w ||
|-
|-
! colspan=2 |Lateral
! Lateral
| || l || ʎ || ||
| || l || ʎ || ||
|}
|}
/ɦ/ is an allophone of /h/ pronounced in intervocalic positions (between vowels), hence the /ɦ/ in ''[[Contionary:wúhu|wú'''h'''u]]''. However, when a /h/ is stressed, even in intervocalic positions, it is always pronounced /h/, hence the /h/ in ''[[Contionary:puhúno|pu'''h'''úno]]''.
/ɦ/ is an allophone of /h/ pronounced in intervocalic positions (between vowels), hence the /ɦ/ in ''[[Contionary:wúhu|wú'''h'''u]]''. However, when a /h/ is stressed, even in intervocalic positions, it is always pronounced /h/, hence the /h/ in ''[[Contionary:puhúno|pu'''h'''úno]]''.
====Glottalisation====
Though glottal stops do not occur phonemically in Nawuhu, some consonants are pre-glottalised at the beginning of a word, usually /n/, /m/ and /ŋ/. This glottalisation is not marked, mainly because Mark Mii, the creator of the Mark Mii romanisation system, never actually noticed the phonemic pre-glottalisation when researching the language. However, subsequent studies that interrogated actual native speakers did note the phonemic difference, with one research paper noting that one participant reportedly joked that a foreigner they had met greeted them with ''yenita’a ngala!'' [[IPA for Nawuhu|[jenita.a ŋala]]], meaning "Give the spider!", instead of what the participant believed the foreigner wanted to say, ''yenita’a *ngala!'' (The asterisk is a common unofficial way to note pre-glottalisation) [[IPA for Nawuhu|[jenita.a ˀŋala]]], meaning "Welcome [to my home]!".


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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===Negation===
===Negation===
The word for "no" in Nawuhu is ''agó''. When negating a verb, ''-ago'' is added at the end of the word. Thus, "I don't do that" would be ''ja nis kubuago'', or simply ''nis kubuago''.
The word for "no" in Nawuhu is ''nvki'' formally or ''ago'' informally. When negating a verb, ''-ago'' is added at the end of the word. Thus, "I don't do that" would be ''ja nis kubuago'', or simply ''nis kubuago''. The negative copula is also simply ''ago''.
 
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
====Number====
====Number====
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===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
====Personal====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Plural
! colspan=2 | !! Singular !! Dual !! Paucal !! Plural
|-
! rowspan=2 | First</br>person
! personal
| {{term|ja}} || {{term|jan}} || {{term|jvn}} || {{term|jon}}
|-
! possessive
| {{term|jo}} || {{term|janu}} || {{term|jun}} || {{term|jonu}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | Second</br>person
! personal
| {{term|ádo}} || {{term|ádon}} || {{term|wín}} || {{term|né}}
|-
|-
! First
! possessive
| ''ja'' || ''jan'' || ''jvn'' || ''jaon''
| {{term|ádu}} || {{term|ádun}} || {{term|ínu}} || {{term|néyu}}
|-
|-
! Second
! rowspan=2 | Third</br>person
| ''ádo'' || ''ádon'' || ''yuín'' || ''néyo''
! personal
| {{term|ain}} || {{term|aina}} || {{term|avni}} || {{term|enawe}}
|-
|-
! Third
! possessive
| ''ain'' || ''aina'' || ''avni'' || ''enawe''
| {{term|añu}} || {{term|año}} || {{term|avñu}} || {{term|enau}}
|}  
|}
There are no gendered third person pronouns in Nawuhu, though some older translations of excavated texts translated the third person pronoun as "he". Today, most translators translate the ''ain'' pronoun as "they".
There are no gendered third person pronouns in Nawuhu, though some older translations of excavated texts translated the third person pronoun as "he". Today, most translators translate the ''ain'' pronoun as "they".
Like adjectives, possessive pronouns are placed after the possessee, so "my car" is ''jido jo'' lit. "car my".


====Demonstrative====
====Demonstrative====
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|-
|-
! Proximal
! Proximal
| ''pa'' || ''pi’i'' || ''piwa'' || ''nimu''
| ''pa'' || ''pi’i'' || ''pwa'' || ''nimu''
|-
|-
! Medial
! Medial
| ''co'' || ''coi'' || ''nva'' || ''anca''
| ''co'' || ''coi'' || ''nva'' || ''aca''
|-
|-
! Distal
! Distal
| ''nis'' || ''eni'' || ''hua'' || ''miha’a''
| ''nis'' || ''eni'' || ''hua'' || ''mya''
|}
|}
'''Proximal''' refers to things near the speaker ("this thing"), '''medial''' refers to things near the addressee ("that thing near you"), and '''distal''' refers to things "over there", as in not near the speaker or the addressee.
'''Proximal''' refers to things near the speaker ("this thing"), '''medial''' refers to things near the addressee ("that thing near you"), and '''distal''' refers to things "over there", as in not near the speaker or the addressee.
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Interrogative pronouns in Nawuhu are quite distinct from demonstrative and personal pronouns. They do not agree with grammatical number, and instead mostly follow the English pattern of "what, why, who, when and how", although "when" has variations based on tense.
Interrogative pronouns in Nawuhu are quite distinct from demonstrative and personal pronouns. They do not agree with grammatical number, and instead mostly follow the English pattern of "what, why, who, when and how", although "when" has variations based on tense.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan=2 | What !! rowspan=2 | Why !! rowspan=2 | Who !! colspan=4 | When !! rowspan=2 | How
! rowspan=2 | What !! rowspan=2 | Where !! rowspan=2 | Why !! rowspan=2 | Who !! colspan=4 | When !! rowspan=2 | How
|-
|-
! Far Past !! Near Past !! Near Future !! General Future
! Far Past !! Near Past !! Near Future !! General Future
|-
|-
| ''lim'' || ''ley'' || ''lou'' || ''i’ilam'' || ''ilam'' || ''ewil'' || ''ewe’el'' || ''li’i''
| ''lim'' || ''lio'' || ''ley'' || ''lou'' || ''i’ilam'' || ''ilam'' || ''ewil'' || ''ewe’el'' || ''li’i''
|}
|}
Here are some examples on how to use the variations of 'when':
Here are some examples on how to use the variations of 'when':
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|}
|}
==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
===Swadesh list===
{{Swadesh
|language=Nawuhu
|nativename=na’a wúhu
|I=ja
|you (singular)=ádo
|he=ain
|we=jon
|you (plural)=né
|they=enawe
|this=pa
|that=nis
|here=papa
|there=nini
|who=lou
|what=lim
|where=lio
|when=ilam
|how=li’i
|not=ago
|all=ana
|many=ñeñe
|some=ñe
|few=ñago
|other=aya
|one=a
|two=an
|three=míneng
|four=ipo
|five=gámi
|big=di’i
|long=nabuta
|wide=teo
|thick=teote
|heavy=duku
|small=lhí
|short=lhí
|narrow=sisi
|thin=ehe
|woman=boi
|man (adult male)=bowa
|man (human being)=bo
|child=ota
|wife=jeki
|husband=jeki
|mother=mau
|father=hau
|animal=ñv
|fish=sempe
|bird=pina
|dog=bau
|louse=ñe’e
|snake=cangú
|worm=pimká
|tree=cvpa
|forest=cvpao
|stick=buta
|fruit=cvpong
|seed=ken
|leaf=gamá
|root=ñidoa
|bark=petin
|flower=hana
|grass=teca
|rope=iton
|skin=ma’a
|meat=cang
|blood=úsiko
|bone=nubun
|fat=ziza
|egg=zuna
|horn=tukó
|tail=pomo
|feather=sápina
|hair=teca
|head=gebu
|ear=ujebo
|eye=oanga
|nose=baho
|mouth=e’ehi
|tooth=kam
|tongue=nagu
|fingernail=dabáku
|foot=ape
|leg=ape
|knee=apéku
|hand=baga
|wing=pimbaga
|belly=deng
|guts=dengdeng
|neck=kuñu
|back=mihomá
|breast=nene
|heart=sulgi
|liver=omna
|drink=patik
|eat=patik
|bite=kam
|suck=ehi
|spit=kuci
|vomit=gogo
|blow=kvhv
|breathe=kvhv
|laugh=wala
|see=oanga
|hear=ujebo
|know=teke
|think=seke
|smell=bahu
|fear=megu
|sleep=azv
|live=janá
|die=tejá
|kill=tejáku
|fight=kudu
|hunt=maba
|hit=kudu
|cut=sekya
|split=sekya
|stab=ñopa
|scratch=kizi
|dig=bóku
|swim=wahe
|fly=pine
|walk=apá
|come=apá
|lie=azv
|sit=isú
|stand=na
|turn=kené
|fall=hoba
|give=du
|hold=de
|squeeze=dede
|rub=zitu
|wash=basvk
|wipe=vdu
|pull=tohok
|push=hok
|throw=hok
|tie=dede
|sew=zunki
|count=esakv
|say=nana
|sing=nañv
|play=tuku
|float=ogoh
|flow=pukdu
|freeze=lukut
|swell=dibo
|sun=tupi
|moon=píwu
|star=i’iki
|water=wahi
|rain=ihé
|river=waha
|lake=ewa
|sea=yalma
|salt=dozin
|stone=mon
|sand=samak
|dust=samak
|earth=tote
|cloud=nui
|fog=nuñui
|sky=paha
|wind=hez
|snow=lukuhéka
|ice=luku
|smoke=wumu
|fire=wuno
|ash=ho’ó
|burn=wuno
|road=dolo
|mountain=maka
|red=homi
|green=cvpa
|yellow=tupi
|white=haga
|black=kela
|night=kela
|day=tupi
|year=toci
|warm=ono
|cold=luku
|full=tengen
|new=pai
|old=alhá
|good=eme
|bad=doyo
|rotten=ubete
|dirty=beto
|straight=hepí
|round=zoko
|sharp=ceci
|dull=cecago
|smooth=melhao
|wet=wahia
|dry=siuk
|correct=kenelé
|near=papao
|far=nipao
|right=svnga
|left=hvmpopo
|at=o
|in=ya
|with=nuku
|and=te
|if=neá
|because=wa
|name=suhu
}}
===Conversation===
===Conversation===
{| class=wikitable
{| class=wikitable
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| Yes || ''Pi'' || [pi]
| Yes || ''Pi'' || [pi]
|-
|-
| No || ''Nvki'' || [ˈnʉki]
| No || ''Nvki'', ''Ago'' || [ˈnʉki], [ago]
|-
|-
| Of course! || ''Tiéma!'' || [tiˈema]
| Of course! || ''Tiéma!'' || [tiˈema]
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| Good evening! || ''Pi tupi'iyáki!''<ref>This greeting is rarely used; one would typically use ''Pi tupi!'' instead.</ref> || [pi tupi.iˈjaki]
| Good evening! || ''Pi tupi'iyáki!''<ref>This greeting is rarely used; one would typically use ''Pi tupi!'' instead.</ref> || [pi tupi.iˈjaki]
|}
|}
==Dialects==
==Dialects==
===Historical===
===Historical===


==References==
==References==
 
<references />
[[Category:Nawuhu]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Nawuhu]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Conlangs]] [[Category:A priori]]
Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Nawuhu"