Pre-Húsnorsk: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name={{PAGENAME}}
|name={{PAGENAME}}
|nativename=*hūsanorþka
|nativename=*hūsanorzka
|pronunciation=*ˈxuː.sɑ.ˌnorθ.kɑ
|image= [[File:phus runic "hūsanorzka".jpg|303x79px|class=skin-invert]]
|imagecaption=*hūsanorzka in early Húsnorsk runes, note the bound "ᛏᛋ" for "z", and the straightened shape of "k".
|pronunciation=*ˈxuː.sɑ.ˌnort͡s.kɑ
|states=Northern Kievan Rus
|states=Northern Kievan Rus
|era=Evolved from Proto-Norse in the 8th century, developed into [[Old Húsnorsk]] by the 12th century.
|era=Evolved from Proto-Norse in the 8th century, developed into [[Old Húsnorsk]] by the 12th century.
Line 19: Line 21:
}}
}}


{{PAGENAME}} was the North Germanic language ancestral to the Húsnorsk language(s), it is extremely notable for its archaic state, often noted as being "hyper-archaic", consistently preserving Proto-Germanic *z as distinct in ''all'' positions, even where lost in Old Norse, such as in ''*foglăʀ'', vs. Old Norse ''fogl''. (note that "ă" was historically written without the diacritic, and signifies a syllabic consonant.)
{{PAGENAME}} was the North Germanic language ancestral to the Húsnorsk language(s), it is extremely notable for its archaic state, often noted as being "hyper-archaic", consistently preserving Proto-Germanic *z as distinct in ''all'' positions, even where lost in the other dialects of Old Norse, such as in ''*foglăʀ'', vs. Old Norse ''fogl''. As mentioned before, Pre-Húsnorsk is a dialect of Old Norse, though whether divergent or conservative is difficult to determine.
 
Húsnorsk split early on, in the 8th century, as the Rus' began migrating around, due to this historic speaker population, Pre-Húsnorsk is also called Rus' Norse. It is hard to determine when exactly Húsnorsk became a distinct dialect, though it was certainly so by the mid 10th century. The difficulty of dating is largely due to spelling issues in the Younger Futhark, mostly from the small character inventory but a large phoneme inventory. Some independent developments resolve a few of the issues, but many remained. (see the orthography section)


==History==
==History==
Line 32: Line 36:
*Nasals are definitively lost before /s/, nasalizing the preceding the vowel. This seems to also affect nasals before *z
*Nasals are definitively lost before /s/, nasalizing the preceding the vowel. This seems to also affect nasals before *z
*-Vn develops into a nasal vowel (eg. *habjan > *habją (Pre-Húsnorsk ''hæfą''))
*-Vn develops into a nasal vowel (eg. *habjan > *habją (Pre-Húsnorsk ''hæfą''))
*Word final ē in Proto-Norse develops into ī in Pre-Húsnorsk, but remains as ē elsewhere.
*stressed e breaks into ja, unless following w or r
*stressed e breaks into ja, unless following w or r
*j lost word initially, and w lost before round vowels
*j lost word initially, and w lost before round vowels
Line 40: Line 43:
**with i and u: /e, ɛ, a, o/ > /y, ø, œ, y/
**with i and u: /e, ɛ, a, o/ > /y, ø, œ, y/
**A unique feature of Húsnorsk is i-umlauted /i/ and u-umlauted /u/, these undergo breaking to /je/ and /wo/,  
**A unique feature of Húsnorsk is i-umlauted /i/ and u-umlauted /u/, these undergo breaking to /je/ and /wo/,  
*Word final ē in Proto-Norse develops into ī in Pre-Húsnorsk, but remains as ē elsewhere. It also becomes ī before ʀ.
*/au/ and /øy/ merge to /øy/
*/au/ and /øy/ merge to /øy/
*coda /l/ had likely developed into /ʟ/ by Old Húsnorsk
*coda /l/ had likely developed into /ʟ/ by Old Húsnorsk
Line 130: Line 134:


Every vowel has a nasal counterpart, as well as a long form. It seems when nasal, there is no distinction between mid-high and mid-low, the qualities here were likely true mid ([ẽ̞, ø̞̃, õ̞]), or at least transitioning towards such, though they were most certainly not mid-high by the time of Old Húsnorsk.
Every vowel has a nasal counterpart, as well as a long form. It seems when nasal, there is no distinction between mid-high and mid-low, the qualities here were likely true mid ([ẽ̞, ø̞̃, õ̞]), or at least transitioning towards such, though they were most certainly not mid-high by the time of Old Húsnorsk.
==Orthography==
The historic orthography of Pre-Húsnorsk is notoriously difficult to read, as it is with all historic texts in Old Norse. There are two main issues that contribute to this:
*Letter forms often differ greatly from their modern counterparts, as well as the extensive use of ligatures, shorthand, and abbreviations.
*
Early Pre-Húsnorsk (Pre-10th century) was mainly written in a variant of the Elder Futhark. This alphabet had many of the same problems as Old Norse in the Younger Futhark, especially regarding vowels, though it did create a distinction between oral and nasal vowels. This distinction was achieved through "binding" (ligaturing) the n rune (ᚾ, which was often written with a horizontal branch rather than the diagonal one) to the appropriate vowel rune, as in "[[File:phus an rune.jpg|24x20px|class=skin-invert]]" (modern example handwritten on paper), the rune used for "ą".


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
Line 170: Line 181:


====Neuter patterns====
====Neuter patterns====
{{Jugsnorsk nouns n-a|1l=mó|mál}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk nouns n-a|māl|1u=mꜵ̄l|1i=mǣl}}
{{Jugsnorsk nouns n-a|ísladd|notes=forms where -g isn't followed by a vowel are occasionally seen as -gi}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk nouns n-a|īsladd|1u=īslꜵdd|1i=islædd}}


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Line 180: Line 191:


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
(Most of these need updating, I gotta finish evolving them all from Proto-Norse)
Húsnorsk has begun using {{term|-at}} far more often, generalizing it into the negative affix for all verbs, though typically appearing as ''-t''.
Húsnorsk has begun using {{term|-at}} far more often, generalizing it into the negative affix for all verbs, though typically appearing as ''-t''.


Line 189: Line 202:


=====Class 1=====
=====Class 1=====
Class 1 is characterized by ''-ē-'' in the present and ''-i-'' in the past.
Class 1 is characterized by ''-ī-'' in the present and ''-i-'' in the past.
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=grīpa|type=1|grīp|grip}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=grīpą|type=1|grīp|grip}}


=====Class 2=====
=====Class 2=====
Class 2 is characterized by ''-jō-'' in the present and ''-u-'' in the past.
Class 2 is characterized by ''-jō-'' in the present and ''-u-'' in the past.
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=ljūga|type=2|ljūg|lug}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=ljūgą|type=2|ljūg|lug}}
=====Class 3=====
=====Class 3=====
Class 3 is split into several sub-classes, as there's multiple patterns contained in it. All patterns have ''-u-'' in the indicative past and ''-y-'' in the subjunctive past.
Class 3 is split into several sub-classes, as there's multiple patterns contained in it. All patterns have ''-u-'' in the indicative past and ''-y-'' in the subjunctive past.
======Class 3-i======
======Class 3-i======
Characterized by ''-i-'' in the present. This ''-e-'' is cognate to Old Norse ''-i-'', the value is likely through a-umlaut, though this is debated.
Characterized by ''-i-'' in the present. This ''-e-'' is cognate to Old Norse ''-i-'', the value is likely through a-umlaut, though this is debated.
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=widda|type=3-i|widd|udd|ydd}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=widdą|type=3-i|widd|udd|ydd}}




{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=winna|type=3-i|winn|unn|ynn}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=winną|type=3-i|winn|unn|ynn}}


======Class 3-ja======
======Class 3-ja======
Characterized by ''-ja-'' in the present.
Characterized by ''-ja-'' in the present.


{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=bjarga|type=3-ja|bjarg|burg|byrg}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=bjargą|type=3-ja|bjarg|burg|byrg}}


======Class 3-y======
======Class 3-y======
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This first verb is cognate to Old Norse ''þryngva''.
This first verb is cognate to Old Norse ''þryngva''.
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=þrȳgga|type=3-y|þrȳgg|þrugg|þrygg}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=þrȳggą|type=3-y|þrȳgg|þrugg|þrygg}}


This next verb is cognate with Old Norse ''søkkva''. The expected form is ''sykka'', but the present was analogized to ''-ȳ-'' to help distinguish the past subjunctive.
This next verb is cognate with Old Norse ''søkkva''. The expected form is ''sykka'', but the present was analogized to ''-ȳ-'' to help distinguish the past subjunctive.
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=sȳkka|type=3-y|sȳkk|sukk|sykk}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=sȳkką|type=3-y|sȳkk|sukk|sykk}}


=====Class 4=====
=====Class 4=====
=====Class 5=====
=====Class 5=====
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=gjata|paspar=t|type=5|gjat|gāt}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=gjatą|paspar=t|type=5|gjat|gāt}}
Variously appears as ''gjata''~''gæta''
Variously appears as ''gjata''~''gæta''
=====Class 6=====
=====Class 6=====
=====Class 7=====
=====Class 7=====
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=gagga|type=7|gagg|gjagg|1i=gjagg}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs s|lem=gaggą|type=7|gagg|gjagg|1i=gjagg}}


====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
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This next verb, ''hafa'', is a plain weak.
This next verb, ''hafa'', is a plain weak.
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs w|lem=hafa|haf|hafþ|2s=hafz|2t=haft}}
{{Pre-Húsnorsk verbs w|lem=hæfą|haf|hafþ|1i=hæf|2i=hæfþ|2u=hꜵfþ|2t=hafz}}
 
 
In Late Pre-Húsnorsk, the conjugations begin shifting further. The most major shift is the collapse of person in the positive active plural.
{{Late Pre-Húsnorsk verbs w|lem=-a|-|-þ|2t=-t|2s=-z}}


====Suppletive verbs====
====Suppletive verbs====

Revision as of 17:55, 2 April 2026


(still adjusting from the copied Jugsnorsk article)

Pre-Húsnorsk
*hūsanorzka
*hūsanorzka in early Húsnorsk runes, note the bound "ᛏᛋ" for "z", and the straightened shape of "k".
Pronunciation[*ˈxuː.sɑ.ˌnort͡s.kɑ]
Created byMelinoë
Native toNorthern Kievan Rus
EraEvolved from Proto-Norse in the 8th century, developed into Old Húsnorsk by the 12th century.
Indo-European
  • Germanic
    • North Germanic
      • Pre-Húsnorsk
Early form
Proto-Norse
Language codes
ISO 639-3phus
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Pre-Húsnorsk was the North Germanic language ancestral to the Húsnorsk language(s), it is extremely notable for its archaic state, often noted as being "hyper-archaic", consistently preserving Proto-Germanic *z as distinct in all positions, even where lost in the other dialects of Old Norse, such as in *foglăʀ, vs. Old Norse fogl. As mentioned before, Pre-Húsnorsk is a dialect of Old Norse, though whether divergent or conservative is difficult to determine.

Húsnorsk split early on, in the 8th century, as the Rus' began migrating around, due to this historic speaker population, Pre-Húsnorsk is also called Rus' Norse. It is hard to determine when exactly Húsnorsk became a distinct dialect, though it was certainly so by the mid 10th century. The difficulty of dating is largely due to spelling issues in the Younger Futhark, mostly from the small character inventory but a large phoneme inventory. Some independent developments resolve a few of the issues, but many remained. (see the orthography section)

History

Name

"Húsnorsk" is believed to originate from Pre-Húsnorsk as *hūsanorþka, a term for all the vernacular dialects spoken in the period (roughly 750AD-1100AD), eventually coming to refer to the vernacular dialect of the region specifically.

Development

The development of Pre-Húsnorsk is not entirely understood, and it's doubtful that it ever will be, as it seems several of the changes went unwritten, leaving linguists only to conjecture over possibilities. The major sound changes are listed below.

From Proto-Norse:

  • ʀ begun assimilating with neighboring sonorants, but not with other consonants (*-inʀ > -inn)
  • Nasals are definitively lost before /s/, nasalizing the preceding the vowel. This seems to also affect nasals before *z
  • -Vn develops into a nasal vowel (eg. *habjan > *habją (Pre-Húsnorsk hæfą))
  • stressed e breaks into ja, unless following w or r
  • j lost word initially, and w lost before round vowels
  • I and U umlaut begin: (causes the loss of /i, u/, and the shortening of /iː, uː/)
    • with i: /e, ɛ, a, u, o/ > /i, e, ɛ, y, ø/
    • with u: /i, e, ɛ, a, o/ > /y, ø, œ, ɔ, u/
    • with i and u: /e, ɛ, a, o/ > /y, ø, œ, y/
    • A unique feature of Húsnorsk is i-umlauted /i/ and u-umlauted /u/, these undergo breaking to /je/ and /wo/,
  • Word final ē in Proto-Norse develops into ī in Pre-Húsnorsk, but remains as ē elsewhere. It also becomes ī before ʀ.
  • /au/ and /øy/ merge to /øy/
  • coda /l/ had likely developed into /ʟ/ by Old Húsnorsk
  • At some point, /NC/ becomes /CC/ (eg. mp, mb, nt, nd, nk, ng > pp, bb, tt, dd, kk, gg)
  • A notable feature is the seeming initial devoicing of approximants, thus losing the distinction between r/hr, l/hl, and w/hw. It's believed to be devoicing due to early descriptions by Swedish scholars. ("A people who cannot pronounce their initial Rs, Ls, and Ws without breath")

Phonology

Labial Dental Alveolar Velar
Nasal m n
Stop Unvoiced p t k
Voiced b d g
Fricative Unvoiced f~v ⟨f⟩ θ~ð ⟨þ⟩ s x ⟨h⟩
Voiced ʀ¹
Approximant w² r², l², ³ j²
  1. probably [ɹ̠˔].
  2. Devoiced word-initially, probably [ʍ, r̥, l̥, ç]
  3. likely [ʟ] in coda position.
Front Back
Unround Round
High i y u
Mid-High e ø o
Mid-Low ɛ ⟨æ⟩ œ¹ ɔ ⟨ꜵ⟩
Low a
  1. This sound was almost certainly distinct from /ø/ in Pre-Húsnorsk. (/ø/ was written "ꜷ", while /œ/ was written "œ", the consistency between the two seems to point towards a strong distinction)

Every vowel has a nasal counterpart, as well as a long form. It seems when nasal, there is no distinction between mid-high and mid-low, the qualities here were likely true mid ([ẽ̞, ø̞̃, õ̞]), or at least transitioning towards such, though they were most certainly not mid-high by the time of Old Húsnorsk.

Orthography

The historic orthography of Pre-Húsnorsk is notoriously difficult to read, as it is with all historic texts in Old Norse. There are two main issues that contribute to this:

  • Letter forms often differ greatly from their modern counterparts, as well as the extensive use of ligatures, shorthand, and abbreviations.

Early Pre-Húsnorsk (Pre-10th century) was mainly written in a variant of the Elder Futhark. This alphabet had many of the same problems as Old Norse in the Younger Futhark, especially regarding vowels, though it did create a distinction between oral and nasal vowels. This distinction was achieved through "binding" (ligaturing) the n rune (ᚾ, which was often written with a horizontal branch rather than the diagonal one) to the appropriate vowel rune, as in "" (modern example handwritten on paper), the rune used for "ą".

Morphology

Umlaut

Umlaut is a series of alternations in the stressed vowel. It arises as a historic vowel change, a kind of regressive harmony through which the stressed vowel becomes more similar to the vowel(s) in the following syllable, as in OWN "ǫlkur" (nominative plural of "alka"), from Proto-Germanic *alkōniz (nominative plural of *alkǭ). Umlaut was a pervasive feature of Old Norse, especially Old West Norse, appearing in almost every aspect of the language, but it is not nearly as so in Húsnorsk, u-umlaut having been largely analogized out (it remains in some words where the u-umlaut occurred through enough forms for the umlauted root to be used rather than the basic one), this greatly simplifies the language's morphology, but leads to many mergers, largely between different forms of a word (see the neuter a-stem nom/acc singular and plural, eg. mál and mál). i-umlaut, however, is largely preserved, even extended at times. An odd phenomena occurs wherein words where the stressed vowel is i, when undergoing i-umlaut, instead exhibit u-umlaut (eg. i > y), the cause for this is entirely unknown.

The later vowel alternations from l-vocalization have yet to occur, as l seemingly had not yet to vocalize.

Nouns

Pre-Húsnorsk seems to exhibit the beginnings of the masculine/feminine collapsing into the common, though it had not been completed yet, this being one of the main distinctions between Pre-Húsnorsk (a dialect of Old Norse) from Varhúsnorsk (a distinct language).

The strong/weak distinction for nouns is largely unused in Húsnorsk linguistics.

Near the end of the Pre-Húsnorsk, the vocative begins appearing, this is one of the first major cracks in the phonemic spelling system to show up (the retention of root spellings in verbs is considered inconsequential)

Masculine patterns

Inflection of ablăʀ (masculine a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative ablăʀ ablăʀin ablaʀ ablaʀniʀ
accusative abl ablin ablą abląna
dative abli ablinum ꜵblum ꜵblunum
genitive abls ablsins ablą abląnna
Inflection of olfăʀ (masculine a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative olfăʀ olfăʀin ulfaʀ ulfaʀniʀ
accusative olf olfin ulfą ulfąna
dative ulfi ulfinum wolfum wolfunum
genitive olfs olfsins ulfą ulfąnna


Inflection of ælăʀ (Masculine i-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative ælăʀ ælăʀinn æliʀ æliʀniʀ
accusative æl ælin ælį ælįną
dative æli ælini ꜵlum ꜵlunum
genitive ælaʀ ælaʀįs ælą æląnną


Inflection of ásj (common u-stem)
neutral singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative ásj ásjī æsí æsíní
accusative ás ásī ási ásina
vocative j'ás j'ásī j'ási j'ásina
dative ási ásinū ásū ásunū
genitive ásis ásinūs ásūs ásunūs
laudative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative ássj ássjī æssí æssíní
accusative áss ássī ássi ássina
vocative j'áss j'ássī j'ássi j'ássina
dative ássi ássinū ássū ássunū
genitive ássis ássinūs ássūs ássunūs
pejorative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative áskj áskjī æskí æskíní
accusative ásk áskī áski áskina
vocative j'ásk j'áskī j'áski j'áskina
dative áski áskinū áskū áskunū
genitive áskis áskinūs áskūs áskunūs

The u-stem has largely become identical to the i-stem, the only difference being the i-umlaut in the nominative plural.


Inflection of najlj (common consonant-stem)
neutral singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative najlj najljī najl najliní
accusative najl najlī najl najlina
vocative j'najl j'najlī j'najl j'najlina
dative najli najlinū najlū najlunū
genitive najlis najlinūs najlūs najlunūs
laudative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative najlsj najlsjī najls najlsiní
accusative najls najlsī najls najlsina
vocative j'najls j'najlsī j'najls j'najlsina
dative najlsi najlsinū najlsū najlsunū
genitive najlsis najlsinūs najlsūs najlsunūs
pejorative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative najlgj najlgjī najlg najlginí
accusative najlg najlgī najlg najlgina
vocative j'najlg j'najlgī j'najlg j'najlgina
dative najlgi najlginū najlgū najlgunū
genitive najlgis najlginūs najlgūs najlgunūs

In najlj, you see how historic sound shifts occasionally flatten umlaut variations, such as here with the old /a/-/ɛ/ dynamic, where in Jugsnorsk /ɛ/ has merged with /a/. This should not be thought of as the removal of umlaut, but rather the loss of the distinction, as the umlaut variations can still be seen in other words, such as the following word:

Inflection of figgj (common consonant-stem)
neutral singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative figgj figgjī fygg fygginí
accusative figg figgī fygg fyggina
vocative j'figg j'figgī j'fygg j'fyggina
dative figgi figginū figgū figgunū
genitive figgis figginūs figgūs figgunūs
laudative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative figgsj figgsjī fyggs fyggsiní
accusative figgs figgsī fyggs fyggsina
vocative j'figgs j'figgsī j'fyggs j'fyggsina
dative figgsi figgsinū figgsū figgsunū
genitive figgsis figgsinūs figgsūs figgsunūs
pejorative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative figgj figgjjī fyggj fyggjiní
accusative figgj figgjī fyggj fyggjina
vocative j'figgj j'figgjī j'fyggj j'fyggjina
dative figgji figgjinū figgjū figgjunū
genitive figgjis figgjinūs figgjūs figgjunūs

Here in figgj you see how i-umlauted i becomes y, instead of the expected outcome of being unaffected.

Feminine patterns

By the end of the Pre-Húsnorsk era, the masculine/feminine distinction had collapsed, leading to a common gender instead.

feminine ō-stem:

Inflection of nasi (common a-stem)
neutral singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative nasi nasjī nasæ nasæní
accusative nas nasī nasa nasana
vocative j'nas j'nasī j'nasa j'nasana
dative nasi nasinū nasū nasunū
genitive nasis nasinūs nasūs nasunūs
laudative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative nassi nassjī nassæ nassæní
accusative nass nassī nassa nassana
vocative j'nass j'nassī j'nassa j'nassana
dative nassi nassinū nassū nassunū
genitive nassis nassinūs nassūs nassunūs
pejorative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative naski naskjī naskæ naskæní
accusative nask naskī naska naskana
vocative j'nask j'naskī j'naska j'naskana
dative naski naskinū naskū naskunū
genitive naskis naskinūs naskūs naskunūs

feminine ōn-stem

Inflection of akka (common ōn-stem)
neutral singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative akka akkā akký akkýní
accusative akku akkū akký akkýna
vocative j'akku j'akkū j'akký j'akkýna
dative akki akkinū akkū akkunū
genitive akkis akkinūs akkūs akkunūs
laudative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative akksa akksā akksý akksýní
accusative akksu akksū akksý akksýna
vocative j'akksu j'akksū j'akksý j'akksýna
dative akksi akksinū akksū akksunū
genitive akksis akksinūs akksūs akksunūs
pejorative singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative akkja akkjā akkjý akkjýní
accusative akkju akkjū akkjý akkjýna
vocative j'akkju j'akkjū j'akkjý j'akkjýna
dative akkji akkjinū akkjū akkjunū
genitive akkjis akkjinūs akkjūs akkjunūs

Neuter patterns

Inflection of māl (neuter a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative māl mālit mꜵ̄l mꜵ̄lin
accusative māl mālit mꜵ̄l mꜵ̄lin
dative mǣli mǣlini mꜵ̄lum mꜵ̄lunum
genitive māls mālsįs mālą māląnną
Inflection of īsladd (neuter a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative īsladd īsladdit īslꜵdd īslꜵddin
accusative īsladd īsladdit īslꜵdd īslꜵddin
dative islæddi islæddini īslꜵddum īslꜵddunum
genitive īsladds īsladdsįs īsladdą īsladdąnną

Adjectives

Positive inflection of sý
indefinite singular plural
common neuter common neuter
nominative sý sǿt sélí sǿ
accusative sélā sǿt séla sǿ
dative séli séli sélū sélū
genitive sélis sélis sélūs sélūs
definite singular plural
common neuter common neuter
nominative sǿjī sǿtit sélíní sélī
accusative sélī sǿtit sélana sélī
dative sélinū sélinū sélunū sélunū
genitive sélinūs sélinūs sélunūs sélunūs
Comparative inflection of sý
indefinite singular plural
common neuter common neuter
nominative sélé sélat sélarí séla
accusative sélarā sélat sélara séla
dative sélari sélari sélū sélū
genitive sélaris sélaris sélūs sélūs
definite singular plural
common neuter common neuter
nominative sélajī sélatit sélaríní sélarī
accusative sélarī sélatit sélarana sélarī
dative sélarinū sélarinū sélarunū sélarunū
genitive sélarinūs sélarinūs sélarunūs sélarunūs
Superlative inflection of sý
indefinite singular plural
common neuter common neuter
nominative sélastj sélast sélastí sélast
accusative sélastā sélast sélasta sélast
dative sélasti sélasti sélustū sélustū
genitive sélastis sélastis sélustūs sélustūs
definite singular plural
common neuter common neuter
nominative sélastjī sélastit sélastíní sélastī
accusative sélastī sélastit sélastana sélastī
dative sélastinū sélastinū sélustunū sélustunū
genitive sélastinūs sélastinūs sélustunūs sélustunūs

Pronouns

Jugsnorsk personal pronouns
singular 1st 2nd reflexive 3rd
common neuter
nominative ak, a(h)¹, k', a' þú, þ', u' — hán þat, þan²
accusative mik, mi(h)¹ þik, þi(h)¹ sik, si(h)¹
dative mí þí sí háni þati, þani¹, þwí³
genitive mínj þínj sínj hánj þatj, þanj¹
plural 1st 2nd reflexive 3rd
common neuter
nominative ví, ý í — þí þò
accusative os i, í sik, si(h)¹ þé, þí
dative osj í sí þè
genitive ork ivé sinj þéja

1: colloquial
2: analogized with hán
3: archaic

Verbs

(Most of these need updating, I gotta finish evolving them all from Proto-Norse)

Húsnorsk has begun using -at far more often, generalizing it into the negative affix for all verbs, though typically appearing as -t.

The plural imperative is usually -ið, but it's occasionally seen as -að, the origin of this new suffix is unknown, but likely comes from differentiating it from the subjunctive.

Strong verbs

Strong verbs are characterized by ablaut in the past tense forms, rather than the dental suffix of the weak verbs. The different classes exist as each has a different characteristic ablaut pattern.


Class 1

Class 1 is characterized by -ī- in the present and -i- in the past.

Positive conjugation of grīpą — (strong class 1)
present past
infinitive grīpa gripa
participle grīpaddi gripþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ grīpuʀ grīpiʀ gripu gripi
wīʀ grīpum grīpim gripum gripim
īʀ grīpuþ grīpiþ gripuþ gripiþ
þæiʀ grīpun grīpin gripun gripin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular grīpusk grīpisk gripusk gripisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ grīpuzk grīpizk gripuzk gripizk
Negative conjugation of grīpą — (strong class 1)
present past
infinitive grīpat gripat
participle grīpaddit gripzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ grīpust grīpist griput gripit
plural grīputt grīpitt griputt gripitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular grīpuszk grīpiszk gripuzk gripizk
plural grīputzk grīpitzk griputzk gripitzk
Class 2

Class 2 is characterized by -jō- in the present and -u- in the past.

Positive conjugation of ljūgą — (strong class 2)
present past
infinitive ljūga luga
participle ljūgaddi lugþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ ljūguʀ ljūgiʀ lugu lugi
wīʀ ljūgum ljūgim lugum lugim
īʀ ljūguþ ljūgiþ luguþ lugiþ
þæiʀ ljūgun ljūgin lugun lugin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular ljūgusk ljūgisk lugusk lugisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ ljūguzk ljūgizk luguzk lugizk
Negative conjugation of ljūgą — (strong class 2)
present past
infinitive ljūgat lugat
participle ljūgaddit lugzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ ljūgust ljūgist lugut lugit
plural ljūgutt ljūgitt lugutt lugitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular ljūguszk ljūgiszk luguzk lugizk
plural ljūgutzk ljūgitzk lugutzk lugitzk
Class 3

Class 3 is split into several sub-classes, as there's multiple patterns contained in it. All patterns have -u- in the indicative past and -y- in the subjunctive past.

Class 3-i

Characterized by -i- in the present. This -e- is cognate to Old Norse -i-, the value is likely through a-umlaut, though this is debated.

Positive conjugation of widdą — (strong class 3-i)
present past
infinitive widda udda
participle widdaddi uddþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ widduʀ widdiʀ uddu yddi
wīʀ widdum widdim uddum yddim
īʀ widduþ widdiþ udduþ yddiþ
þæiʀ widdun widdin uddun yddin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular widdusk widdisk uddusk yddisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ widduzk widdizk udduzk yddizk
Negative conjugation of widdą — (strong class 3-i)
present past
infinitive widdat uddat
participle widdaddit uddzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ widdust widdist uddut yddit
plural widdutt widditt uddutt ydditt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular widduszk widdiszk udduzk yddizk
plural widdutzk widditzk uddutzk ydditzk


Positive conjugation of winną — (strong class 3-i)
present past
infinitive winna unna
participle winnaddi unnþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ winnuʀ winniʀ unnu ynni
wīʀ winnum winnim unnum ynnim
īʀ winnuþ winniþ unnuþ ynniþ
þæiʀ winnun winnin unnun ynnin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular winnusk winnisk unnusk ynnisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ winnuzk winnizk unnuzk ynnizk
Negative conjugation of winną — (strong class 3-i)
present past
infinitive winnat unnat
participle winnaddit unnzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ winnust winnist unnut ynnit
plural winnutt winnitt unnutt ynnitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular winnuszk winniszk unnuzk ynnizk
plural winnutzk winnitzk unnutzk ynnitzk
Class 3-ja

Characterized by -ja- in the present.

Positive conjugation of bjargą — (strong class 3-ja)
present past
infinitive bjarga burga
participle bjargaddi burgþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ bjarguʀ bjargiʀ burgu byrgi
wīʀ bjargum bjargim burgum byrgim
īʀ bjarguþ bjargiþ burguþ byrgiþ
þæiʀ bjargun bjargin burgun byrgin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular bjargusk bjargisk burgusk byrgisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ bjarguzk bjargizk burguzk byrgizk
Negative conjugation of bjargą — (strong class 3-ja)
present past
infinitive bjargat burgat
participle bjargaddit burgzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ bjargust bjargist burgut byrgit
plural bjargutt bjargitt burgutt byrgitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular bjarguszk bjargiszk burguzk byrgizk
plural bjargutzk bjargitzk burgutzk byrgitzk
Class 3-y

Characterized by -ȳ- in the present. -ȳ- is cognate to Old Norse -ø- and -y-.

This first verb is cognate to Old Norse þryngva.

Positive conjugation of þrȳggą — (strong class 3-y)
present past
infinitive þrȳgga þrugga
participle þrȳggaddi þruggþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ þrȳgguʀ þrȳggiʀ þruggu þryggi
wīʀ þrȳggum þrȳggim þruggum þryggim
īʀ þrȳgguþ þrȳggiþ þrugguþ þryggiþ
þæiʀ þrȳggun þrȳggin þruggun þryggin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular þrȳggusk þrȳggisk þruggusk þryggisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ þrȳgguzk þrȳggizk þrugguzk þryggizk
Negative conjugation of þrȳggą — (strong class 3-y)
present past
infinitive þrȳggat þruggat
participle þrȳggaddit þruggzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ þrȳggust þrȳggist þruggut þryggit
plural þrȳggutt þrȳggitt þruggutt þryggitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular þrȳgguszk þrȳggiszk þrugguzk þryggizk
plural þrȳggutzk þrȳggitzk þruggutzk þryggitzk

This next verb is cognate with Old Norse søkkva. The expected form is sykka, but the present was analogized to -ȳ- to help distinguish the past subjunctive.

Positive conjugation of sȳkką — (strong class 3-y)
present past
infinitive sȳkka sukka
participle sȳkkaddi sukkþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ sȳkkuʀ sȳkkiʀ sukku sykki
wīʀ sȳkkum sȳkkim sukkum sykkim
īʀ sȳkkuþ sȳkkiþ sukkuþ sykkiþ
þæiʀ sȳkkun sȳkkin sukkun sykkin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular sȳkkusk sȳkkisk sukkusk sykkisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ sȳkkuzk sȳkkizk sukkuzk sykkizk
Negative conjugation of sȳkką — (strong class 3-y)
present past
infinitive sȳkkat sukkat
participle sȳkkaddit sukkzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ sȳkkust sȳkkist sukkut sykkit
plural sȳkkutt sȳkkitt sukkutt sykkitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular sȳkkuszk sȳkkiszk sukkuzk sykkizk
plural sȳkkutzk sȳkkitzk sukkutzk sykkitzk
Class 4
Class 5
Positive conjugation of gjatą — (strong class 5)
present past
infinitive gjata gāta
participle gjataddi gāttăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ gjatuʀ gjatiʀ gātu gāti
wīʀ gjatum gjatim gātum gātim
īʀ gjatuþ gjatiþ gātuþ gātiþ
þæiʀ gjatun gjatin gātun gātin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular gjatusk gjatisk gātusk gātisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ gjatuzk gjatizk gātuzk gātizk
Negative conjugation of gjatą — (strong class 5)
present past
infinitive gjatat gātat
participle gjataddit gātzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ gjatust gjatist gātut gātit
plural gjatutt gjatitt gātutt gātitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular gjatuszk gjatiszk gātuzk gātizk
plural gjatutzk gjatitzk gātutzk gātitzk

Variously appears as gjata~gæta

Class 6
Class 7
Positive conjugation of gaggą — (strong class 7)
present past
infinitive gagga gjagga
participle gaggaddi gjaggþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ gjagguʀ gaggiʀ gjaggu gjaggi
wīʀ gaggum gaggim gjaggum gjaggim
īʀ gagguþ gaggiþ gjagguþ gjaggiþ
þæiʀ gaggun gaggin gjaggun gjaggin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular gaggusk gaggisk gjaggusk gjaggisk
wīʀ {{{mp_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_sub_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_ind_1pl}}} {{{mp_pa_sub_1pl}}}
īʀ/þæiʀ gagguzk gaggizk gjagguzk gjaggizk
Negative conjugation of gaggą — (strong class 7)
present past
infinitive gaggat gjaggat
participle gaggaddit gjaggzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ gjaggust gaggist gjaggut gjaggit
plural gaggutt gaggitt gjaggutt gjaggitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular gagguszk gaggiszk gjagguzk gjaggizk
plural gaggutzk gaggitzk gjaggutzk gjaggitzk

Weak verbs

Weak verbs are defined by a -þ- in the past tense, with the forms otherwise identical to the present.

weak verbs have largely been leveled to two patterns, now called weak and j-weak. This first verb, bøygja, is a j-weak.

Positive conjugation of bøygą — (weak)
present past
infinitive bøygą bøygþą
participle bøygaddăʀ bøygþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak bøygi bøygą bøygþą bøygþį
þū/hānăʀ bøygiʀ bøygiʀ bøygþiʀ bøygþiʀ
wīʀ bøygum bøygim bøygþum bøygþim
īʀ bøyguþ bøygiþ bøygþuþ bøygþiþ
þæiʀ bøygų bøygį bøygþų bøygþį
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular bøygisk bøygisk bøygþisk bøygþisk
wīʀ bøygumsk bøygimsk bøygþuzk bøygþimsk
īʀ/þæiʀ bøyguzk bøygizk bøygþuzk bøygþizk
Negative conjugation of bøygą — (weak)
present past
infinitive bøygąt bøygþąt
participle bøygatzt bøygtt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak bøygit bøygąt bøygþąt bøygþįt
þū/hānăʀ bøygist bøygist bøygþist bøygþist
plural bøygutt bøygitt bøygþutt bøygþitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular bøygizk bøygizk bøygþizk bøygþizk
plural bøygutzk bøygitzk bøygþutzk bøygþitzk

This next verb, hafa, is a plain weak.

Positive conjugation of hæfą — (weak)
present past
infinitive hæfą hafþą
participle hæfaddăʀ hafþăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak hæfi hafą hæfþą hæfþį
þū/hānăʀ hæfiʀ hafiʀ hæfþiʀ hæfþiʀ
wīʀ hæfum hafim hꜵfþum hæfþim
īʀ hæfuþ hafiþ hꜵfþuþ hæfþiþ
þæiʀ hæfų hafį hꜵfþų hæfþį
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular hæfisk hafisk hæfþisk hæfþisk
wīʀ hæfumsk hafimsk hꜵfþuzk hæfþimsk
īʀ/þæiʀ hæfuzk hafizk hꜵfþuzk hæfþizk
Negative conjugation of hæfą — (weak)
present past
infinitive hæfąt hafþąt
participle hæfatzt hafzt
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak hæfit hafąt hæfþąt hæfþįt
þū/hānăʀ hæfist hafist hæfþist hæfþist
plural hæfutt hafitt hꜵfþutt hæfþitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular hæfizk hafizk hæfþizk hæfþizk
plural hæfutzk hafitzk hꜵfþutzk hæfþitzk

Suppletive verbs

Jugsnorsk has a few suppletive verbs in which some forms were replaced by another verb's forms.

This first verb is the main copula. Though the tables presented here are fully regular as a strong 5 verb, forms exist which aren't, the Contionary page should be seen for these.

Positive conjugation of wæsa — active only (suppletive, or irregular strong class 5)
present past
infinitive wæsa wāʀa, wāsa⁴
participle wæsaddi wāstăʀ
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{ind_1sg}}} {{{sub_1sg}}} {{{pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ (w)æsuʀ² wæsiʀ wāʀu, wās⁴ wāʀi
wīʀ (w)æsum³ wæsim wāʀum wāʀim
īʀ (w)æsuþ³ wæsiþ wāʀuþ wāʀiþ
þæiʀ (w)æsun³ wæsin wāʀun wāʀin
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular — — — —
wīʀ — — — —
īʀ/þæiʀ — — — —

2: regularized to the root wæs-
3: see note 2; -s- is younger, originally had -ʀ-
4: older

Negative conjugation of wæsa — active only (suppletive, or irregular strong class 5)
present past
infinitive wæsat wāʀat
participle wæsaddit wāstast
active indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
jak {{{neg_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_sub_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_ind_1sg}}} {{{neg_pa_sub_1sg}}}
þū/hānăʀ (w)æsust wæsist wāʀut wāʀit
plural (w)æsutt wæsitt wāʀutt wāʀitt
mediopassive indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive
singular — — — —
plural — — — —

2: regularized to the root wæs-
3: see note 2; -s- is younger, originally had -ʀ-
4: older

Numerals

The following table will present the cardinal 1-10.

Number Pre-Húsnorsk
1 æinaʀ (/æinăʀ/)
2 twæi(ʀ)
3 þrīʀ
4 fæþwiʀ
5 *fæmf
6 sæks
7 *sævu(n)
8 *āhtu(n)?
9 *n(j)u(n)
10 *t(j)u(n)
Positive inflection of énj
indefinite singular plural
common neuter common neuter
nominative énj étt éní én
accusative énā étt éna én
dative éni éni énū énū
genitive énis énis énūs énūs
definite singular plural
common neuter common neuter
nominative — — — —
accusative — — — —
dative — — — —
genitive — — — —

This next table is the ordinal 1-10, these were largely regularized to variants of -ði in Pre-Húsnorsk.

Number Pre-Húsnorsk
1 æinþi
2 twæiþi
3 þrīþi
4 fæþþi (< *fæþwiþi)
5 fæddi (< *fæmdi)
6 sæhti
7 *sæfti
8 atti (/ātti/), *āhti?
9 *ny(n)þi
10 *ty(n)þi

Syntax

Pre-Húsnorsk syntax is relatively the same as Old Norse, and incredibly well preserved by Jugsnorsk, having relatively free word order, outside of requiring V2, allowing nouns to appear anywhere in the sentence as long as they're marked correctly.

These following examples will serve to illustrate sentence construction in Pre-Húsnorsk. (subject in yellow, verb in blue, object in red).

maðpjoldin wāʀ 1.500 —The population was 1,500

In this example, the word order matches English relatively well, and we see "wą" ("was") in the second position.

In this next example, we see it break away from English order, with the verb still occupying V2 position.

ārit 2000 wāʀ maðpjoldin 1.500—In 2000, the population was 1,500 (lit. The year 2000 was the population 1,500)

The prepositional phrase "ārit 2000" (in green) counts as a single unit, thus the verb must come after 2000 rather than ārit.

V2 order seemingly has no exceptions, as SV inversion isn't used for yes/no questions. In the following examples, you'll see the different methods that were used for question marking:

Ari wæsi soltin — Ari is hungry (lit. Ari has hungry)

and as a question:

Ari wæsi soltin? — Is Ari hungry? (lit. Ari has hungry?)

Here you see the most common form of question, one without grammatical change, these use a rising vocal intonation as their marking (or a question mark in writing).

Another method is SO inversion, as in:

soltin wæsi Ari? — Is Ari hungry? (lit. Hungry has Ari?)

Lexical comparison

  1. cognate to Old Norse "spá" ("to foretell")
  2. a form with a-umlaut.
  3. a continuation of -nþ- from Proto-Germanic.
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