Aryan: Difference between revisions
| (498 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|image = Indo-european migrations.jpeg | |||
|imagesize = 300px | |||
|imagecaption = Models of indo-european migrations hypothesizing the proto-language to pertain to a range between 7000 to 4000 BC | |||
|name = Aryan | |name = Aryan | ||
|nativename = * | |nativename = *Airás | ||
|pronunciation = əi̯ˈrəs | |||
|pronunciation = | |setting = Caucasus Mountains | ||
|setting | |era = {{gcl|c.|circa}}10,000–8,000 BC | ||
| | |familycolor = [[Pangaean Code]] | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|familycolor = Pangaean Code | |||
|ancestor = Transitional Dialect | |ancestor = Transitional Dialect | ||
|retrospection of = Indo-European Language Family | |||
|creator = Veno | |creator = Veno | ||
|script1 = Latn | |script1 = Latn | ||
|map = Aryan.jpg | |||
|mapcaption = Map of areas where Aryan is believed to have once been spoken | |||
|notice=IPA | |notice=IPA | ||
}} | }} | ||
{{Construction}} | |||
'''Aryan''' (''*Ai̯ri̯áh<sub>0</sub>'', [[w:Help:IPA|[əi̯ˈri̯əʔ]]]), also referred to as '''Pre-Proto-Indo-European,''' is an [[ab interiori language]] depicting the transition from [[Paleolithic Codes]] to [[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of [[Transitional Dialects]]. | |||
In most of known [[w:History|History]], indo-european speaking populations have been widespread in [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]], bearing fruits from civilizations such as those of the [[w:Roman empire|Roman Empire]], the [[w:Ancient Greece|Hellenistic City-States]], and the [[w:List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes|Rigvedic Tribes]]. Memorable personalities who spoke natively dialects from those areas include the roman general [[w:Gaius Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar]] (speaker of [[w:Latin|Latin]]), the macedonian king [[w:Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great]] (speaker of [[w:Ancient Greek|Ancient Greek]]), the nazi chancellor [[w:Adolf Hitler|Adolf Hitler]] (speaker of [[w:German language|German]]), the french emperor [[w:Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon Bonaparte]] (speaker of [[w:Corsican langugae|Corsican]]), the british physicist [[w:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] (speaker of [[w:English language|English]]), the italian renascentist [[w:Leonardo da Vinci|Leoanardo da Vinci]] (speaker of [[w:Tuscan dialect|Tuscan Italian]]), the indian ascetic [[w:Gautama Buddha|Gautama Buddha]] (speaker of [[w:Prakrit language|Prakrit]]), et cetera. Also, due the trajectory of the linguistic stock along the millenia, some of the most culturally influential works of Literature have been yielded, such as the [[w:Vulgate|Vulgate]], the [[w:Iliad|Iliad]], and the [[w:Vedas|Vedas]]. As of the [[w:21st Century|21<sup>st</sup> Century]], half of the world's population speaks 454 indo-european languages<ref>https://www.ethnologue.com/</ref>, with the [[w:Americas|Americas]], [[w:Europe|Europe]], [[w:Iran|Iran]], [[w:Pakistan|Pakistan]], and [[w:India|India]] being today the centers of native speakers due the [[w:Indo-European migrations|Indo-European Migrations]] and [[w:Colonial empires|European Colonialism]]. | |||
Naturally, the origin of the [[w:Indo-European languages|indo-european family]] has attracted the curiosity of thousands of researchers in the last centuries, since [[w:William Jones (philologist)|William Jones']] presidential discourse to the Asiatic Society in 1786<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language</ref>, which famously addressed the similarity between [[w:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] and [[w:Languages of Europe|european languages]]. '''Further works that [...]''' | |||
In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the [[w:Armenian hypothesis|Armenian Hypothesis]], which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the [[w:Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers]] (CHG)<ref name=Lazaridis>Lazaridis et alii (2022); ''The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe''</ref>, who would eventually contribute to the formation of the [[w:Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Culture]] and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the [[w:Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan Hypothesis]]. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of [[Linguistic Modernity]]. | |||
==Etymology== | |||
The word ''*Ai̯ri̯áh<sub>0</sub>'' is influenced but not based on the Indo-Iranian ethnonym ''*Áryas'' "Aryan", as the root ''*h<sub>5</sub>ir'' "member/comrade" comes from Pangaean ''ʕihr'' "racial person". | |||
==History== | ==History== | ||
===Development from Paleolithic Codes=== | ===Development from Paleolithic Codes=== | ||
The | The story of Aryan starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation, or from the [[Pangaean Code]] to Neolithic dialects (circa 12,000 BP). Noticeable is the influence of the [[Diluvian Code|Diluvian]] and [[Hyperborean Code|Hyperborean]] Codes, which triggered several sound changes: | ||
*Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.<br> | *Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.<br> | ||
| Line 29: | Line 41: | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Weak Voiceless Stop<br />before laryngeal | !Weak Voiceless Stop<br />before laryngeal | ||
!Strong Voiceless Stop<br />before laryngeal | |||
!Weak Voiced Stop<br />before laryngeal | !Weak Voiced Stop<br />before laryngeal | ||
!Strong Voiced Stop<br />before laryngeal | !Strong Voiced Stop<br />before laryngeal | ||
|- | |- | ||
|/kH/→/k<sup>h</sup>/ | |/kH/→/k<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/ | |/kʼH/→/k/ | ||
|/gH/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |/gH/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | ||
|/ɠH/→/g/ | |/ɠH/→/g/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|/pH/→/p<sup>h</sup>/ | |/pH/→/p<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/ | |/pʼH/→/p/ | ||
|/bH/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |/bH/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | ||
|/ɓH/→/b/ | |/ɓH/→/b/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|/tH/→/t<sup>h</sup>/ | |/tH/→/t<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/ | |/tʼH/→/t/ | ||
|/dH/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |/dH/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | ||
|/ɗH/→/d/ | |/ɗH/→/d/ | ||
|} | |} | ||
*The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of <small>WEAK</small> and <small>STRONG</small> are rearranged to accomodate [ | *The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of <small>WEAK</small> and <small>STRONG</small> are rearranged to accomodate [[w:Aspirated consonant|Aspiration]]/[[w:Breathy voice|Breathy Voice]] instead of [[w:Ejective consonant|Ejection]]/[[w:Implosive consonant|Implosion]].<br> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| Line 60: | Line 72: | ||
|/k/→/k/ | |/k/→/k/ | ||
|/g/→/g/ | |/g/→/g/ | ||
|/ | |/kʼ/→/k<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/ɠ/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |/ɠ/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|/p/→/p/ | |/p/→/p/ | ||
|/b/→/b/ | |/b/→/b/ | ||
|/ | |/pʼ/→/p<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/ɓ/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |/ɓ/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|/t/→/t/ | |/t/→/t/ | ||
|/d/→/d/ | |/d/→/d/ | ||
|/ | |/tʼ/→/t<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/ɗ/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |/ɗ/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | ||
|} | |} | ||
*[ | *[[w:Relative articulation|Relative articulated sounds]] when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.<br> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
!Retracted<br />before<br />Laryngeal | |||
!Retracted | !Retracted | ||
!Advanced<br />before<br />Laryngeal | |||
!Advanced | !Advanced | ||
|- | |- | ||
|/k̠/→/k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/ | |/k̠H/→/k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/ | |/k̠/→/kp/ | ||
|/k̟H/→/k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>/ | |||
|/k̟/→/kt/ | |||
|- | |||
|/p̠H/→/p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>/ | |||
|/p̠/→/pt/ | |||
|/p̟H/→/p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>/ | |||
|/p̟/→/pk/ | |||
|- | |||
|/t̠H/→/t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>/ | |||
|/t̠/→/tk/ | |||
|/t̟H/→/t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/ | |||
|/t̟/→/tp/ | |||
|- | |||
|/g̠H/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>b<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|/g̠/→/gb/ | |||
|/g̟H/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>d<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|/g̟/→/gd/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/ | |/b̠H/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>d<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | ||
|/ | |/b̠/→/bd/ | ||
|/b̟H/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>g<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|/b̟/→/bg/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/ | |/d̠H/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>g<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | ||
|/ | |/d̠/→/dg/ | ||
|/d̟H/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>b<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|/d̟/→/db/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/ | |/k̠ʼH/→/kp/ | ||
|/ | |/k̠ʼ/→/k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/k̟ʼH/→/kt/ | |||
|/k̟ʼ/→/k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/ | |/p̠ʼH/→/pt/ | ||
|/ | |/p̠ʼ/→/p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/p̟ʼH/→/pk/ | |||
|/p̟ʼ/→/p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/ | |/t̠ʼH/→/tk/ | ||
|/ | |/t̠ʼ/→/t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>/ | ||
|/t̟ʼH/→/tp/ | |||
|/t̟ʼ/→/t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/ | |||
|- | |||
|/ɠ̠H/→/gb/ | |||
|/ɠ̠/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>b<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|/ɠ̟H/→/gd/ | |||
|/ɠ̟/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>d<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|- | |||
|/ɓ̠H/→/bd/ | |||
|/ɓ̠/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>d<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|/ɓ̟H/→/bg/ | |||
|/ɓ̟/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>g<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|- | |||
|/ɗ̠H/→/dg/ | |||
|/ɗ̠/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>g<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|/ɗ̟H/→/db/ | |||
|/ɗ̟/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>b<sup>ɦ</sup>/ | |||
|} | |} | ||
*Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset; however, they collapse as voiced codas.<br> | |||
{| | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Voiceless<br />Sonorant(I) | ||
!Voiced<br />Sonorant(I) | |||
!Voiceless<br />Sonorant(II) | |||
!Voiced<br />Sonorant(II) | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/j̥/→/j̥/~/j/ | |||
| | |/j/→/j/ | ||
|/w̥/→/w̥/~/w/ | |||
|/w/→/w/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/n̥/→/n̥/~/n/ | |||
| | |/n/→/n/ | ||
|/m̥/→/m̥/~/m/ | |||
|/m/→/m/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/l̥/→/l̥/~/l/ | |||
| | |/l/→/l/ | ||
| | |/r̥/→/r̥/~/r/ | ||
|/r/→/r/ | |||
| | |} | ||
*The positive and negative forms of the sonorants still follow a Diluvian paradigm.<br> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !Retracted<br />Voiceless<br />Sonorant | ||
!Retracted<br />Voiced<br />Sonorant | |||
!Advanced<br />Voiceless<br />Sonorant | |||
!Advanced<br />Voiced<br />Sonorant | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/j̠̊/→/j̥/~/j/ | |||
| | |/j̠/→/j/ | ||
|/j̟̊/→/j̥/~/j/ | |||
|/j̟/→/j/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/n̠̊/→/kn/ | |||
| | |/n̠/→/kn | ||
|/n̟̊/→/pn/ | |||
|/n̊/→/pn/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/l̠̊/→/l̥/~/l/ | |||
| | |/l̠/→/l/ | ||
|/l̟̊/→/l̥/~/l/ | |||
|/l̟/→/l/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/ẘ̠/→/w̥/~/w/ | |||
| | |/w̠/→/w/ | ||
|/ẘ̟/→/w̥/~/w/ | |||
|/w̟/→/w/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/m̠̊/→/dm/ | |||
| | |/m̠/→/dm/ | ||
|/m̟̊/→/gm/ | |||
|/m̟/→/gm/ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/r̠̊/→/r̥/~/r/ | |||
| | |/r̠/→/r/ | ||
|/r̟̊/→/r̥/~/r/ | |||
|/r̟/→/r/ | |||
|} | |} | ||
*Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by plosive equivalents, and uvular laryngeals turn velar.<br> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
!Labiodental Click | |||
!Dental Click | |||
!Alveolar Click | |||
|- | |||
|/ʘ̪/→/dʷ/ | |||
|/ǀ/→/dʲ/ | |||
|/ǁ/→/t͡ɬ/ | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
!Voiceless Uvular Laryngeal | |||
!Voiced Uvular Laryngeal | |||
|- | |||
|/χ/→/x/ | |||
|/ʁ/→/ɣ/ | |||
|} | |||
*Complex and long vowels are reduced to their basic and short versions.<br> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
!Front | |||
!Central | |||
!Back | |||
|- | |||
|/i/→/i/ | |||
|/ɨ/→/i/ | |||
|/u/→/u/ | |||
|- | |||
|/y/→/u/ | |||
|/ʉ/→/u/ | |||
|/ɯ/→/i/ | |||
|- | |||
|/e/→/e/ | |||
|/ɪ/→/e/ | |||
|/o/→/o/ | |||
|- | |||
|/ø/→/o/ | |||
|/ʊ/→/o/ | |||
|/ɤ/→/e/ | |||
|- | |||
|/e̞/→/i/ | |||
|/ə/→/ə/ | |||
|/o̞/→/u/ | |||
|- | |||
|/ɛ/→/e/ | |||
|/ɐ/→/a/ | |||
|/ɔ/→/o/ | |||
|- | |||
|/æ/→/e/ | |||
|/a/→/a/ | |||
|/ɒ/→/o/ | |||
|} | |||
{| | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |||
! | !Special cases | ||
|- | |||
|HVHC > HVC | |||
|- | |||
|CHVHC > CVC | |||
|- | |||
|CHVH > CVH | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/ʕɨ̀ː/→/əi̯/ | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/V̰/→/Vː/~/aV/ | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|/V̤/ > /Vː/~/Va/ | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
In Morphology, Aryan introduced a series of innovations by mixing and developing peculiarities from different Paleolithic Codes. The Hyperborean nominative ''-s'' for example was probably borrowed via another caucasian substrate, which completely assumed the role of epenthetic root (next to Aryan ''*-ar'') in the construction "<small>ROOT</small><sub>1</sub> <small>ROOT</small><sub>2</sub>". Primordial ''[ˈn̠ʕih ˈə]'' "old" would therefore yield ''*knīás'' "old" (=*knih<sub>1</sub> *ás) [PIE ''*sénos'' "old"]. Furthermore, this development culminated into the Indo-European Ablaut. That is: when the accent falls into the epenthetic root, the first root suffers a phonetic change influenced by the interaction between laryngeals and vowels, which fuse into diphthongs or long vowels. This effect is considered a reflex of Umlaut in the Pangaean Code, where guttural fricatives can alternate between their vocalic equivalents and even modify the qualities of the nucleus.<br> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
!Stress in<br />first root | |||
!Stress in<br />second root | |||
|- | |||
|HV́C-R | |||
|VVC-Ŕ | |||
|- | |||
|CV́C-R | |||
|C∅C-Ŕ | |||
|- | |||
|CV́H-R | |||
|CVV-Ŕ | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
!Codex | |||
!Aryan | |||
!PIE | |||
|- | |||
|''ˈhuhd-ə'' "water" | |||
|''*h<sub>1</sub>úd-ar'' "water" | |||
|''*wód-r̥'' "water" | |||
|- | |||
|''ˈhuhd ˈə'' "water-like" | |||
|''*wid-rás'' "aquatic" | |||
|''*ud-rós'' "aquatic" | |||
|- | |||
|''ˈkhuħ-ə'' "sound" | |||
|''*kʰúh<sub>2</sub>-as'' "sound" | |||
|''*ḱléw-os'' "fame" | |||
|- | |||
|''ˈkhuħ ˈə'' "sound-like" | |||
|''*kʰaw-ás'' "sound-maker" | |||
|''*ḱlu-ós'' "famous" | |||
|} | |||
===Development into Indo-European Languages [...]=== | |||
Some tendences include the aspirated velars of Aryan becoming the PIE palatal series (*Kʰ ⇒ *Ḱ); .... | |||
https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Proto-Indo-European_roots&from=A | |||
*bʰeyh₂- | |||
{| class=wikitable style=" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
| | !Codex | ||
!Aryan | |||
!PIE | |||
!Samples | |||
|- | |||
| k̠- | |||
| *kʰpʰ- | |||
| *ǵʰ-d | |||
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰewd-|''*ǵʰewd-'']] "to pour", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰed-|''*ǵʰed-'']] "to defecate", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱh₂d-|''*ḱh₂d-'']] "to fall" | |||
|- | |||
| -k̠ | |||
| *-kp | |||
| *-k<sup>w</sup> | |||
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leykʷ-|''*leykʷ-'']] "to leave" | |||
|- | |||
| k- | |||
| *kʰ- | |||
| *ḱ | |||
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱe|''*ḱe'']] "this" | |||
|- | |||
| -k | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| k̟- | |||
| *kʰtʰ- | |||
| *ḱ-s | |||
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)ker-|''*(s)ker-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)kelH-|''*(s)kelH'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sek-|''*sek-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱes-|''*ḱes-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/kh₂eyd-|''*kh₂eyd-'']] "to cut"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gleyH-|''*gleyH-'']] "to stick", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰreyH-|''*bʰreyH-'']] "to cut" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| -k̟ | |||
| *-kt | |||
| *p-ḱ | |||
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/peh₂ḱ-|''*peh₂ḱ-'']] "to join", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/peh₂ǵ-|''*peh₂ǵ-'']] "to attach"; 2. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leyp-|''*leyp-'']] "to stick", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leyǵ-|''*leyǵ-'']] "to bind"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰendʰ-|''*bʰendʰ-'']] "to bind", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/deh₁-|''*deh₁-'']] "to bind" | |||
|- | |||
|- | | g̠- | ||
| *gʰbʰ- | |||
| *gʰ-bʰ | |||
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)pregʰ-|''*(s)pregʰ-'']] "sprinkle", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/glewbʰ-|''*glewbʰ-'']] "split", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeh₂g-|''*bʰeh₂g-'']] "to divide"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeyd-|''*bʰeyd-'']] "to split", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/deh₂-|''*deh₂-'']] "to divide" | |||
|- | |||
| -g̠ | |||
| -gb | |||
| | |||
|- | | *h₁éǵʰ "out" | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | g- | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | | | ||
|- | |||
| | | -g | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | g̟- | ||
| | | *gʰdʰ- | ||
| *gʰ-dʰ | |||
| | | [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʰedʰ-|''*gʰedʰ-'']] "to join", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰendʰ-|''*bʰendʰ-'']] "to bind" | ||
|- | |||
| -g̟ | |||
| *-gd | |||
| *ǵ/∅ | |||
| ''ʕihg̟'' ⇒ ''*h<sub>5</sub>igd-'' ⇒ ''*leǵ-'' "to gather" | |||
| | |- | ||
| k̠ʼ- | |||
| *kp- | |||
| *bʰ-g, *k-p | |||
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeg-|''*bʰeg-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰreg-|''*bʰreg-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰrew-|''*bʰrew-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰrews-|''*bʰrews-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/kelh₂-|''*kelh₂-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)kep-|''*(s)kep-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/Hrewp-|''*Hrewp-'']] "break" [may be from [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/Hrew-|''*Hrew-'']] "tear out"] | |||
|- | |||
| -k̠ʼ | |||
| | | *-kʰpʰ | ||
| | | *w-ǵ | ||
| | | ''*lewǵ-'' ~ ''*weh₂ǵ-'' ~ ''*wreh₁ǵ-'' "to break" | ||
| | |- | ||
|- | | kʼ- | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | -kʼ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |||
| k̟ʼ- | |||
| | | kt- | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |||
| -k̟ʼ | |||
| -kʰtʰ | |||
| *ǵʰ/dʰ ~ *∅/dʰ | |||
| | | ''ʕihk̟ʼ'' ⇒ ''*h<sub>5</sub>ikʰtʰ-'' ⇒ ''*dʰerǵʰ-'' "to be firm" ~ ''*dʰer-'' "to support" | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | ɠ̠- | ||
| | | *gb- | ||
|- | | *kʷ ~ *(s)k | ||
| ''ɠ̠ʕih'' ⇒ ''*gbih<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*kʷelh<sub>1</sub>-'' "to turn around"; ''ɠ̠ʕihr'' ⇒ ''*gbair-'' > ''*(s)ker-'' "to bend" [semantic transition from "shrink/wither" to "bend/turn around"] | |||
| | |- | ||
| | | -ɠ̠ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |||
|- | | ɠ- | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | -ɠ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |- | ||
| | | ɠ̟- | ||
|- | | *gd- | ||
| *gʰ/∅ ~ *ḱ/∅ | |||
| | | ''ɠ̟ʕih'' ⇒ ''*gdih<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*gʰreh<sub>1</sub>-'' "to grow (plants)"; ''ɠ̟ʕihr'' ⇒ ''*gdair-'' ⇒ *ḱer- "to grow" | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | -ɠ̟ | ||
| | | *-gʰdʰ | ||
| | | *gʰ/dʰ | ||
| | | ''hohɠ̟'' "growing fire" ⇒ ''*hogʰdʰ-'' ⇒ ''*dʰegʷʰ-'' "to burn" | ||
| | |- | ||
| p̠- | |||
| | | *pʰtʰ- | ||
| | | *bʰ/gʷ | ||
| | | [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰegʷ-|''*bʰegʷ-'']] "flee", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰewg-|''*bʰewg-'']] "flee" | ||
|- | |||
| -p̠ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| p- | |||
| *pʰ- | |||
| *bʰ- | |||
| | | [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰer-|''*bʰer-'']] "bear" | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | -p | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | | | ||
|- | |||
| | | p̟- | ||
| | | *pʰkʰ- | ||
| *bʰ/gʰ ~ *p/ḱ ~ *p/k | |||
| | | ''p̟ʕih'' ⇒ ''*pʰkʰih<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*gʰabʰ-'' ~ ''*gʰeh₁bʰ-'' ~ ''*kap-'' "to seize", ''*peḱ-'' "to pluck" | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | -p̟ | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | b̠- | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
|- | | -b̠ | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | b- | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | -b | ||
|- | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | b̟- | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | -b̟ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | | | ||
|- | |||
| | | p̠ʼ- | ||
| | | *pt- | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |- | ||
| -p̠ʼ | |||
| *-pʰtʰ | |||
| | | *bʰ-dʰ | ||
| | | [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰedʰ-|''*bʰedʰ-'']] "dig" | ||
| | |- | ||
| | | pʼ- | ||
| | | *p- | ||
|- | | *p | ||
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/per-|''*per-'']] "go through", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pel-|''*pel-'']] "drive", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pent-|''*pent-'']] "pass", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pes-|''*pes-'']] "penis" | |||
| | |- | ||
| -pʼ | |||
| *-pʰ | |||
| *bʰ | |||
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰerH-|''*bʰerH-'']] "pierce" | |||
|- | |||
|- | |||
| p̟ʼ- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -p̟ʼ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ɓ̠- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ɓ̠ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ɓ- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ɓ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|- | |||
| ɓ̟- | |||
| *bʰ- | |||
| *bʰ | |||
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰed-|''*bʰed-'']] "improve" | |||
|- | |||
| -ɓ̟ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| t̠- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -t̠ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| t- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -t | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| t̟- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -t̟ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| d̠- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -d̠ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| d- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -d | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|- | |||
| d̟- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -d̟ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| t̠ʼ- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -t̠ʼ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| tʼ- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -tʼ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| t̟ʼ- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -t̟ʼ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ɗ̠- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ɗ̠ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ɗ- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ɗ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|- | |||
| ɗ̟- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ɗ̟ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ʘ̠- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ʘ̠ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ʘ- | |||
| *dʷ- | |||
| *bʰ- | |||
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰed-|''*bʰed-'']] "improve", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰil-|''*bʰil-'']] "lovely" | |||
|- | |||
| -ʘ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ʘ̟- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ʘ̟ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ǀ̠- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ǀ̠ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| ǀ- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ǀ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeyh₂-|''*bʰeyh₂-'']] "to shake" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| ǀ̟- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| -ǀ̟ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| r- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰuH-|''*bʰuH-'']] "to be" | |||
|- | |||
| -r | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰerǵʰ-|''*bʰerǵʰ-'']] "ascend" | |||
: *bʰegʷ- "to flee" < *-pʰtʰ "to escape" < … | |||
: *bʰerǵʰ- "to rise up " < *pk- "to eject" (?) | |||
: *bʰil "good" < *dʷih<sub>1</sub> | |||
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰes-|''*ǵʰes-'']] "hand", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰey-|''*ǵʰey-'']] "winter" (earlier lexical transition from "autumn", with similar use of English "fall"), | |||
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʷʰer-|''*gʷʰer-'']] "warm" [from ''*gʰbʰōr-'' "glow"], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeh₃g-|''*bʰeh₃g-'']] "bake/roast" [from ''*gʰbʰor-'' "kindle"] | |||
*temh<sub>1</sub> | |||
kpih1 > bʰeg-; h5ikʰpʰ > weh2ǵ- ∅ | |||
r is added when the laryngeal is modified (h2 > h1) | |||
l is added when the laryngeal is erased (h1 > ∅) | |||
∅ (H) > r (H̥) > l (∅) | |||
*bʰewdʰ “to be awake” | |||
: *bʰeyd ~ *delh<sub>1</sub> “to split” | |||
: *deh<sub>2</sub>y- ~ *bʰeh<sub>2</sub>g- "to divide" | |||
: *deh<sub>3</sub> "to give" | |||
‘’’D lemmas’’’ | |||
dewh1 (*deh3) | |||
> | |||
daim "to build" (*dem) | |||
daik "to take" (*deḱ) | |||
daipʰkʰ "to lead" (*dewk) | |||
when two voiced consonants in a root, they becomes aspirated | |||
In a root with a cluster, if there is no consonant as coda except: | |||
-'''a laryngeal''', the laryngeal is erased and the second element of the cluster becomes the coda. | |||
:''*gʰedʰ-'' (PIE) < ''((*gʰed-))'' < ''*gʰdʰih<sub>1</sub>-'' (Aryan) < ''g̟ʕih'' (Codex) | |||
|- align | |||
! | -'''a liquid''', the liquid is incorporated and the first element of the cluster becomes the coda. | ||
| | :''*(s)pregʰ-'' ~ ''*sper-'' (PIE) < ''((*bregʰ-))'' < ''* gʰbʰair'' (Aryan) < ''g̠ʕihr'' (Codex) | ||
exception: roots with longs vowels | |||
[dʰuh2- < pʰtʰūh1- (**pʰūt)] | |||
h1egóM < aikṓm < aku | |||
ˈᴇːʔ > *ēh0 (Aryan) > *ih2 (PIE) | |||
uˈħihurk̟ʼ-a > *h<sub>2</sub>úrkʰtʰa > *h<sub>2</sub>ŕ̥tḱoes | |||
*i and *u disappear before sonorants | |||
mur, mrás > mer | |||
as PIE only accepts thorn clusters... | |||
! | The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek). | ||
mobile roots: | |||
-*r "quality" | |||
-*m "result" | |||
-*dʰ "fixation" | |||
NOTE: PIE neuter particle *-om derives from Aryan *(_)-am, which forms result nouns | |||
origin of PIE declensions: | |||
(_)-as Hysterokinetic: | |||
*kʰúh2as > (*ḱléwos) > *ḱléwos | |||
*kʰuh2ásyas > (*ḱlewésyos) > *ḱléwesos | |||
|- | (∅)-ás Hysterokinetic: | ||
! | *pdás > *pád∅s (*pods) > *pṓds | ||
| | *pdasyás > *padás∅s (*pedés) > *pedés | ||
| | *(á)-as Acrostatic: | ||
| | *pkáih1as > (*ǵʰéyos) > *ǵʰéyos | ||
| | *pkáih1asyas > (*ǵʰéyosyos) > *ǵʰéyosyo | ||
| | *(a)-ás Acrostatic: | ||
| | *pkaisás > (*ǵʰoysós) > *ǵʰoysós | ||
| | *pkaisásyas > (*ǵʰoysésyos) > *ǵʰoysósyo | ||
ptár > ph2tḗr | |||
ptsaryás > ptryás (pətrés)> ph2trés | |||
What marks a Transitional Dialect: | |||
*the presence of mobile roots | |||
''p̠hṵh'' "fume" > ''*pʰtʰawimás'' (''*pʰtʰūh<sub>1</sub>-*más'') "smoke" > ''*dʰuh<sub>2</sub>mós'' (''*dʰewh<sub>2</sub>-*mós'') | |||
*Hu, *u, *uH, *HuH > *we, *u, *ew, *we | |||
Inheritances: | |||
huhg̠ > *h1ugp > *wegʷ | |||
ɦuhd > *h4ud > *sweyd | |||
*ud > *úd | |||
p̟ʼhuh > *pkuh > *ǵʰew | |||
pʼhuh > *puh > *plew | |||
Borrowings: | |||
*h2ekʷ | |||
- | |||
*Hū, *ū, *ūH, *HūH> h2ew, ew, ewh2, h2ew | |||
Inheritances: | |||
p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰawi > *dʰewh2 | |||
krhṳh > *GRuia > *krewh2 | |||
Borrowings: | |||
-phu- [Diluvian] > *po > *peh3 | |||
- | |||
*Ho, o, oH, HoH > *h3e, e, *eh3, *Hew | |||
Inheritances: | |||
kʼhohr > *kohr > *kerh3 (variant *ker from *kor) | |||
hoħd > *h1od > *h3ed | |||
ħoħd > *h2od > *h3ed | |||
... > *poh2 > *peh3 (*puH) | |||
pʰol > bʰel "shine" | |||
*h1oh1 > *h1ews | |||
Borrowings: | |||
pohar [Diluvian] > *pawar (*paw-(a)-ar) > *péh2wr̥ (pew-r̥) | |||
*h1engʷ < *h1ew-ǵenh1-yéti | |||
- | |||
*Hō, ō, ōH, HōH > *h3u, h3, *uh3, *Hu | |||
Inheritances: | |||
Borrowings: | |||
- | |||
*Ha, *a, *aH, *HaH > *h2e, *h2, *eh2, *h2e | |||
Inheritances: | |||
phah > *pʰah > *bʰeh2 | |||
Borrowings: | |||
- | |||
*ā > ... | |||
Inheritances: | |||
Borrowings: | |||
- | |||
*a > *e/o | |||
Inheritances: | |||
ə > *(á)as > *(é)os | |||
Borrowings: | |||
- | |||
*He, *e, *eH, HeH > *h1e, *h1, *eh1, *h1e | |||
Inheritances: | |||
heħd > *h1ed > *h1ed | |||
Borrowings: | |||
- | |||
*Hē, *ē, *ēH, HēH > ... | |||
Inheritances: | |||
Borrowings: | |||
- | |||
*Hi, i, iH, HiH > *ye, *i, *ey, *ye | |||
Inheritances: | |||
Borrowings: | |||
- | |||
*Hī, ī, īH, HīH > h1ey, ey, eyh1, h1ey | |||
Inheritances: | |||
ʕii̯h > *ī > *h1ey | |||
Borrowings: | |||
+ | |||
*ew > eh3 [see: *gdew > deh3] | |||
*aw > ew [see: kʰaw-ás > ḱlew] | |||
+ | |||
h4- > s- | |||
heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis | |||
there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks. | |||
*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation] | |||
dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d | |||
dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di | |||
*h<sub>2</sub>oh<sub>2</sub>dʲ-, *h<sub>2</sub>óh<sub>2</sub>dʲam "hatred" | |||
? > *ak "sharp" borrowing | |||
*dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill" | |||
sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás) | |||
h2isṓm/aísmi, h2isṓmas/aísmas > *h1ésmi, *h1smós | |||
h2isḗs/aíssi, h2isḗtas/aístas > *h1ési, *h1sté (*h1stés 2P.DUAL) | |||
h2isī́t/aísti, h2isī́nt/aísant> *h1ésti, *h1sénti | |||
*/ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation] | |||
*/ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe) | |||
*/əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (''*gain-'' >''*g∅n-tás'' > ''*gnaitás'' > ''*gnātós'', as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός) | |||
*/ai̯/ > */ai̯/ | |||
*kʰpʰ- | |||
*kp- > *kʷʰ- | |||
*kn- > *sn- | |||
*h<sub>2</sub>i (TD) > *h<sub>1</sub>e (PIE) | |||
an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals: | |||
ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p | |||
an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals: | |||
heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d | |||
həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent | |||
When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls | |||
n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old" | |||
compare | |||
*sādú > *swādús "sweet" | |||
*sādú méh2dʷ | |||
*swādús médʰu~mélid | |||
Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles. | |||
*pʰrás | |||
laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa | |||
*mai > *meh1 | |||
?we are searching for a single voiceless plosive before a voiced one? | |||
?"Aryan doesn't accept initial voiced clusters of original implosives? As if **dbíoh1 > *díopʰ "? | |||
h1uC ~ h1oC > uj ~ oj | |||
h1aC ~ h1əC > aj ~ i | |||
h1iC ~ h1eC > ī ~ ej | |||
Cuh1 ~ Coh1 > uj ~ oj | |||
Cah1 ~ Cəh1 > aj ~ i | |||
Cih1 ~ Ceh1 > ī ~ ej | |||
- | |||
h2uC ~ h2oC > aw ~ ow | |||
h2aC ~ h2əC > ā ~ i | |||
h2iC ~ h2eC > aj ~ ej | |||
Cuh2 ~ Coh2 > aw ~ ow | |||
Cah2 ~ Cəh2 > ā ~ i | |||
Cih2 ~ Ceh2 > aj ~ ej | |||
- | |||
h3uC ~ h3oC > ū ~ ow | |||
h3aC ~ h3əC > wa ~ u | |||
h3iC ~ h3eC > ī ~ je | |||
Cuh3 ~ Coh3 > ū~ ow | |||
Cah3 ~ Cəh3 > wa ~ u | |||
Cih3 ~ Ceh3 > iw ~ ew | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;" | |||
! style="width: 66px; " | | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S. | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic | |||
|- | |||
! >*p | |||
| p; pʰ | |||
| p; f | |||
| p | |||
| p | |||
| p | |||
| h; w | |||
| p; pp | |||
| p | |||
| p / pt | |||
| p | |||
| ∅ | |||
| f; β | |||
|- | |||
! >*t | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| x x | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! >*k | |||
| | |||
| x x | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |||
! >*ḱ | |||
| | | | ||
| | | x x | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| Line 703: | Line 1,110: | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|} | |||
p pt p ∅ f; | |||
b [β] [C 6] f; | |||
v, f[C 2] | |||
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law... | |||
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;" | |||
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3"| PIE | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] | |||
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | ! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]] | ||
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] | |||
| | ! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] | ||
| | ! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]] | ||
| | ! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] | ||
| | ! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]] | ||
| | ! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]] | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
| <small>normal</small> | |||
| | | <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small> | ||
| <small>normal</small> | |||
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small> | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*p}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref> | ||
| | |{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref> | ||
|colspan=" | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref> | ||
| | |{{PIE|p}}, pp | ||
|colspan="2 | | colspan="2" |p | ||
| | |{{PIE|pt}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|p}} | ||
|{{PIE|f}} | |colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | ||
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*t}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/> | ||
| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref> | ||
| | |{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|t}} | ||
| | |rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|t}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| d | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ḱ}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref> | ||
| | |{{PIE|s}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk | ||
| | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} | ||
| | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br /> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*k}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref> | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}} | |||
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | |||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | ||
|rowspan=" | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*kʷ}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku | |||
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref> | |||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref> | ||
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br /> | |||
| | |{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | ||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*b}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | ||
|colspan=" | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}} | ||
| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}} | ||
| | | {{PIE|b}} | ||
|colspan="2" | | {{PIE|pt}} | ||
| {{PIE|b}} | |||
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}- | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*d}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | ||
|{{PIE| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}} | ||
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}} | |||
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | |||
|{{PIE|d}} | |||
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} | |||
|{{PIE|d}} | |||
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}- | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ǵ}} | ||
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | |||
|{{PIE| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}} | ||
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | |||
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}} | |||
|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|k | ||
| | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | ||
|{{ | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}- | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}} | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*g}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|g}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}} | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
| | !{{PIE|*gʷ}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
| | |ku | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}- | ||
| | |{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | ||
|{{PIE|qu}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|''*pʰ''}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref> | ||
| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| | | colspan="2"|p | ||
| | |{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|pt}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|''*tʰ''}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | ||
| | | colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}} | ||
| | |t | ||
| | |{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}} | ||
| | | rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref> | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}- | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}} | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ǵʰ}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|k | ||
| | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | ||
| | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}- | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*gʰ}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|g}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*gʷʰ}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
| | |ku | ||
| | |{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | ! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|s}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
| | | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
|rowspan=" | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}} | ||
|rowspan="2"| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}} | ||
|rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? --> | ||
|rowspan="2"| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}} | ||
|rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
|rowspan=" | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}- | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> | |||
| | |{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*m}} | ||
| | | colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}} | ||
| | | {{PIE|in}} | ||
| {{PIE|m}} | |||
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}- | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref> | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}} | ||
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} | |||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|∅}} | ||
|n | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}} | |||
| -- | |||
|{{PIE|m}} [˜] | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}} | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*n}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/> | ||
| | | colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|n}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|in}} | ||
| | | colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}} | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*l}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}}) | ||
| | | |{{PIE|r}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}} | ||
| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}} | ||
| | | {{PIE|il}} | ||
| | | colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}} | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*r}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref> | ||
| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}} | ||
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
| | | colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}} | ||
| | | {{PIE|ir}} | ||
| | | colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}} | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*y}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}} | ||
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} | |||
| | |{{PIE|∅}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} <ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| | |?{{PIE|i}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} <ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| | |colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|j}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|y}} | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*w}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|v}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|v}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|w > h / ∅}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|i}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}- | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}} | ||
| | |- | ||
| | ! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]] | ||
|- align=center | |} | ||
!{{PIE|* | |||
| | Notes for table 1: | ||
{{reflist|group=C}} | |||
| | |||
| | ===Consonant clusters=== | ||
| | |||
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray): | |||
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;" | |||
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3"| PIE | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] | |||
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] | |||
|- align=center | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]] | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]] | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]] | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]] | |||
|- align=center | |||
| <small>normal</small> | |||
| <small>C+[j]</small><!-- | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*}} | |||
| style="color:gray"| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |--> | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sr}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sr | ||
| š | | r | ||
| str | |||
| style="color:gray"| sr | |||
| rr {{IPA|[r]}} | |||
| (a)r | |||
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}} | |||
| | | | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| rh | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | ||
| fr-, -br- | |||
| style="color:gray"| sr | |||
| str | |||
| str | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*tw}} | |||
| style="color:gray"| tv | |||
| θβ | |||
| style="color:gray"| tv | |||
| style="color:gray"| tv | |||
| t | |||
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | |||
| ttu, ddu | |||
| | | | ||
| | | s-, -ss- | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | ||
| | | p? | ||
| | | t | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| þw | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| thw | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
| | !{{PIE|*dʰw}} | ||
|- align=center | | style="color:gray"| dhv | ||
!{{PIE|* | | rowspan="2"| ðβ | ||
| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv | ||
| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv | ||
| | | rowspan="2"| d | ||
| | | ? | ||
| | | tu, du | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | f | ||
| | | rowspan="2"| d | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| dw | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| dw | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*dw}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| dv | ||
| | | (e)rk | ||
| | | tu, du | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | b | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| tw | ||
| style="color:gray"| tw | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*tl}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| | ||
| | | | ||
| | | sl | ||
| | | kl, sl | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| tl | |||
| | |||
| kl | |||
| tl | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*dl}} | |||
| ll | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| Line 1,145: | Line 1,539: | ||
| | | | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*dn}} | ||
| | | nn, ṇṇ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*ḱw}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| śv | |||
| sp | |||
| style="color:gray"| sv | |||
| style="color:gray"| šv | |||
| s | |||
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | |||
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | |||
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | |||
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}} | |||
| style="color:gray"| wh | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ǵʰw}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| hv | |||
|rowspan=" | | | ||
| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv | ||
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv | |||
| rowspan="2"| z | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ǵw}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| jv | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | |||
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*sw}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| sv | |||
| | | xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sv | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sv | ||
| | | v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref> | ||
| | | kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | ||
| colspan="2" |normal dev. | |||
| style="color:gray"| h | |||
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | |||
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}} | |||
| s | |||
| style="color:gray"| sw | |||
| style="color:gray"| sw | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sp}} | ||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE| | | style="color:gray"| sp | ||
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref> | |||
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp | |||
|{{PIE|f}} | |||
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}} | |||
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | |||
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ? | |||
| style="color:gray"| sp | |||
|{{PIE|f}} | |||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*sbʰ}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| | |||
| | | spʰ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|-align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*sd}} | |||
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ | |||
| zd | |||
| zd | |||
| zd | |||
| | |||
| st | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| d | |||
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}} | |||
| st | |||
| st | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sdʰ}} | ||
| | | dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh | ||
| | | zd | ||
| | | zd | ||
| zd | |||
| | | | ||
|{{ | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| sth | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}} | |||
| zd | |||
| d | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*st}} | ||
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> | |||
| | | st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | ||
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st | |||
| | | style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}} | ||
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | |||
|{{PIE| | |colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | ||
| | | st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | ||
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref> | |||
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}} | |||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sḱ}} | ||
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}} | |{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|s}}? | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|sk}} | ||
|{{PIE|š}}? | |||
|{{PIE|h}} | |||
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/> | |||
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | |||
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref> | |||
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}} | |||
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}} | |||
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | |||
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*sk}} | |||
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref> | |||
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | |||
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | |||
|rowspan="2"|? | |||
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | |||
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*skʷ}} | ||
|{{PIE| | | style="color:gray"|norm. | ||
|{{PIE| | | style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}} | ||
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}} | ||
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref> | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|s}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|s}}? | ||
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|ss}}? | ||
|{{ | |{{PIE|st}} | ||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |||
|colspan=2|{{PIE| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sǵ}} | ||
| jj | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sgʰ}} | ||
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/> | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*dt}} | ||
| tt | |||
| | | st | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |st | ||
| | | st | ||
| | |||
| s | |||
| | |||
| ss | |||
| ss [s] | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ddʰ}} | ||
| | | ddʰ | ||
| | | zd | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| d | |||
| t | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*dʰt}} | ||
| | | ddʰ | ||
| zd, st | |||
| | |||
| st | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| st | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*pt}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| pt | |||
| | | ft | ||
|rowspan= | | t? | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| pt | ||
| | | rowspan="4"| t || || || | | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| pt || | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| pt | ||
| | |rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}} | ||
|{{ | |colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | ||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*ḱt}} | ||
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}} | |||
| | | št {{IPA|[ʃt]}} | ||
| | | st | ||
|rowspan= | | št {{IPA|[ʃt]}} | ||
|rowspan=2| | | | | ||
|rowspan=2| | |rowspan="3"| | ||
| | |rowspan="2"| | ||
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt | |||
|rowspan="2"| | |||
|rowspan=2|{{ | |rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}} | ||
|rowspan= | |rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | ||
|rowspan= | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*kt}} | ||
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt | |||
|{{ | |rowspan="2"| xt | ||
|{{PIE| | |rowspan="2"| t? | ||
| | |rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt | ||
|rowspan="2"| | |||
|- align=center | |||
! {{PIE|*kʷt}} | |||
| || style="color:gray"| pt || | |||
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
! {{PIE|*ps}} | |||
| ps | |||
| || || || || || || | |||
| style="color:gray"| ps || | |||
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ts}} | ||
| ts | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*ḱs}} | ||
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} || | |||
| | | || | ||
| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks | ||
| | | rowspan="2"| | ||
| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"| | ||
| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs | ||
| | | rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}} | ||
| | |||
|{{ | |||
|rowspan=2| | |||
|rowspan=2| | |||
|rowspan= | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*ks}} | ||
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/> | |||
|{{PIE| | |rowspan="2"| | ||
| | |rowspan="2"| | ||
| | |rowspan="2"| | ||
|rowspan="2"| | |||
| | | || (ks) | ||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*kʷs}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || || | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*gs}} | ||
| kṣ | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*gʷs}} | ||
| | | kṣ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ǵʰs}} | ||
| kṣ | |||
| | | ž | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| ks | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
|{{PIE| | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|*gʰs}} | |||
| kṣ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|{{PIE| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}} | |||
| kṣ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | ps | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*tḱ}} | ||
| kṣ | |||
| | | š | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | k | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | kt | ||
| | | | ||
| | | s | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|*tk}} | |||
| kṣ | |||
| xš | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
!{{PIE|* | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | kt | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}} | ||
| kṣ | |||
| | | z | ||
| | | | ||
| | | ž | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | tk | ||
| | | tk/k | ||
| | | khth | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}} | |||
| kṣ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| tk | |||
!{{PIE|* | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}} | ||
| kṣ | |||
| | | γž | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | kts | ||
| | | | ||
| | | phth | ||
| | | | ||
| | | s | ||
| | | | ||
|rowspan= | | | ||
|rowspan= | | | ||
|rowspan= | |- align=center| | ||
| | ! PIE | ||
!rowspan= | ! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] | ||
! | ! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]] | ||
|rowspan= | |} | ||
|rowspan= | |||
--> | |||
===Orthography=== | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | ! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref> | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*e}} | ||
|{{PIE| | !{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}} | ||
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}} | |||
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}} | |||
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|ä}} | |||
|e, ʔe, i | |||
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}} | |||
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''. Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*a}} | ||
!|{{PIE|* | !({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|a}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|ha, a}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|ā}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|ha, a}} | ||
| | |colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}} | ||
| | |rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/> | ||
|{{PIE| | |rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/> | ||
|{{PIE| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!|{{PIE|* | !rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}} | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*h₃e}} | ||
| | |rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}} | ||
|rowspan= | |rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}} | ||
| | |rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}} | ||
|rowspan= | |||
|rowspan= | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*o}} | ||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref> | ||
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/> | |||
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}} | |||
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | |||
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}} | |||
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}} | |||
|∅ | |||
|{{PIE|e}} | |||
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}} | |||
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/> | ||
|{{PIE| | |ḫ | ||
|{{PIE|a}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/> | ||
|∅ | |||
|{{PIE|o}} | |||
| | |||
|{{PIE| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}} | |||
! rowspan= | !{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref> | ||
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | |||
|{{PIE|e (a?)}} | |||
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | |||
|a, ∅ | |||
|{{PIE|e (o)}} | |||
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/> | |||
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}} | |||
|ḫa | |||
|{{PIE|a}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/> | |||
|{{PIE|a, ha}} | |||
|{{PIE|o}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*ē}} | |||
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}} | |||
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}} | |||
|{{PIE|ě}} | |||
|{{PIE|ė}} | |||
|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}} | |||
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}} | |||
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}} | |||
|{{PIE|ī}} | |||
|{{PIE|ē}} | |||
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*ā}} | |||
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}} | |||
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}} | |||
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}} | |||
|{{PIE|a}} | |||
|{{PIE|a/o}}? | |||
|{{PIE|a, ah}} | |||
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|ā}} | |||
|{{PIE|ā}} | |||
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}} | |||
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*ō}} | |||
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}} | |||
|{{PIE|uo}} | |||
|{{PIE|u}} | |||
|{{PIE|e}} | |||
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/> | |||
|{{PIE|a, ā}} | |||
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}} | |||
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/> | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*i}} | |||
!{{PIE|*i}} | |||
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|{{PIE|ь}} | |||
|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|ä}} | |||
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī | |||
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/> | |||
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}} | |||
!{{PIE|*ih₁}} | |||
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}} | |||
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}} | |||
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|{{PIE|i}} | |||
|{{PIE|ī}} | |||
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}} | |||
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}} | |||
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*ih₂}} | |||
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref> | |||
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|yā}} | |||
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/> | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*ih₃}} | |||
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/ | |||
_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb) | _(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb) | ||
The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276. | The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276. | ||
Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974) | Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974) | ||
morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) | morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) | ||
Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger | Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger | ||
-ōm/mi | |||
-āṓm/-mā | |||
*pʰaír- | |||
-ōm / *-mi (perfective) | |||
*-āṓm / *-āmi (perfective) | |||
í (animated nouns) | |||
ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent | |||
Aryan has a complex system of accent loss | |||
As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex) | |||
*paid- ... *p∅dás | |||
*p∅dás > páds > póds | |||
*p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς | |||
*p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός | |||
iacio ((H)yéh₁k-yoh₂) | |||
iaceo (*(H)ih₁k-éh₁yoh₂) | |||
aeykīōm > (H)yéh₁k-yoh₂ | |||
əi̯Hk > heyk /hei̯k/ > (H)yeh1(k) | |||
-éh₁- passive/stative (intransitive) suffix > -éh₁mi, -éh₁si, -éh₁ti | |||
-ye- transitive suffix > -yoh₁, -yesi, -yeti | |||
-éh₁-ye- passive/stative transitive suffix | |||
-é-ye- causative transitive suffix | |||
-eh₂- (nominal suffix) | |||
-yé- intransitive suffix > -yóh₂, -yési, -yéti | |||
-eh₂-yé- frequentative suffix | |||
- | |||
*h₂er-éh₁mi "I am arranging" > *h₂reh₁-yoh₁ "I am counting, thinking" | |||
Latin reor "I think" < PIE *h₂réh₁-yoh₁ "I count" | |||
*h₂er- "fix/put in order" | |||
*h₂reh₁ "think"< *h₂er- (“to join; to prepare”) + *-éh₁ | |||
==Syntax== | |||
It goes without saying that orthographic implications are disregarded. In French, for example, the past participle agrees in gender and number if the direct object precedes it (e.g. ''ils auraient hérité la maison'' "they would have inherited the house" et ''ils l'auraient héritée'' "they would have inherited it (the house)"), but the choice between ''-é'', ''-ée'', and ''-ées'' in the participle is ultimately irrelevant phonetically speaking. | |||
почему? | |||
I am still here | |||
Je suis encore ici | |||
Ich bin noch hier | |||
Я '''все''' ещё здесь | |||
Hic adhuc sum | |||
absolutive of "that" yields "if" | |||
Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte | |||
Я думал я один кто об этом подумал... | |||
sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen; ich, wer wusste nichts darüber | |||
ils disent que demain je veux travailler pour gagner d'argent; moi, qui n'y savais rien pas | |||
Subordinate clause... in German, Russian, Latin, and Greek: | |||
:''Sie sagen, dass morgen will ich arbeiten, um Geld zu verdienen.'' | |||
:''Они говорят, что завстра я хачу работат, чтобы зарабатывать деньге.'' | |||
:''Illi dicent me cras laborare volo ut pecuniam meream.'' | |||
:They say I want to work tomorrow in order to earn money. | |||
The hypothetical in French is marked by the imperfect indicative, whereas in Portuguese by the imperfect subjunctive; in German by an auxiliary verb linking the infinite form, while in English the bare preterite states the sense; and Russian applies a conditional/optative particle of subjunctive mood in conjunction with the past tense: | |||
: ''Il serait ennuyeux si ils nous '''reconnaissaient''''' [French] | |||
: ''Seria irritante se eles nos '''reconhecessem''''' [Portuguese] | |||
: ''Es wäre ärgerlich, wenn sie uns '''erkennen würden''''' [German] | |||
: ''It would be annoying if they '''recognized''' us'' [English] | |||
: ''было бы досадно, если '''бы''' они нас '''узнали''''' [Russian] | |||
Ancient indo-european languages, furthermore ... general use of imperfect subjunctive in Latin, while present and aorist optatives in Greek's protasis and apodasis respectively: | |||
: ''molestus esset si nos '''recognoscerent''''' [Latin] | |||
: ''εἴη ὀχληρός ἄν, εἰ ἡμᾶς '''ἐπιγνοῖεν''''' [Greek] | |||
: ... [Sanskrit] | |||
An areal feature of Standard Average Euroepan is the [...] The perfect in West Germanic Languages such as English and German requires a past participle to be modified by either the verb "to be" or "to have": | |||
: ''ich bin ins Haus '''gewesen''''' [German] | |||
: ''I have '''been''' in the house'' [English] | |||
What determines the use of "to be" or "to have" is the distinction between "motionless" and "motive" verbs, as seen in French and German: | |||
: ''je '''suis''' allé à la maison'' [French] | |||
: ''ich '''bin''' nach Hause gegangen'' [German] | |||
In German, the auxiliary ''werden'' is obligatory in the passive voice: | |||
''Ich werde gezwungen, die Wahrheit zu zählen'' [German] | |||
[...] | |||
: ''als ob du auf der Flucht gewesen wärst'' | |||
: ''as if you had been on the run'' | |||
[...] | |||
: ''er lehnte es ab, sich zu der sogennanten Affäre zu beschreiben'' | |||
===Implications of agreement=== | |||
There is a tendence for heavy agreement to lead to lax syntax. Vide the Latin sentence, wherein cases reprove ambiguity: | |||
: ''Maenala trānsieram latebrīs horrenda ferārum'' [Latin<ref name=Ovidius>Ovidius; [https://hypotactic.com/latin/index.html?Use%20Id=met1 Metamorphoses]; 1.216</ref>] | |||
:: "I had travelled over horrendous Maenalus, through the lairs of beasts" | |||
Oddities in agreement, on the other hand, reveal oddities in syntax. In Portuguese, for example, the relative determiner ''cujo/cuja'' necessarily precedes the noun, yet the equivalent genderles expression ''ao qual'' allows the noun to be farther away into the clause. Likewise, in French, the relative determiner ''dont'' doesn't agree with the noun, and therefore can be separated as well. Compare the translation of "the man whose existence I do not know" in both instances and languages: | |||
(1) ''o homem '''cuja existência''' eu não conheço'' [Portuguese] | |||
: ''l'homme '''dont''' '''l'existence''''' je ne connais pas [French] | |||
(2) ''o homem '''ao qual''' eu não conheço a '''existência''''' [Portuguese] | |||
: ''l'homme '''dont''' je ne connais pas '''l'existence''''' [French] | |||
===Enclitics=== | |||
[...] | |||
By examining a large corpus of hellenic texts, Jakob Wackernagel stated in his essay how enclitics in Greek sentences are mostly located in the second position<ref name=Wackernagel>Jakob Wackernagel (1892); [https://archive.org/details/indogermanischef01berluoft/page/332/mode/2up ''Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung'']</ref>. For example, he contrasted specifically the accusative of the first-person pronoun in the isolated (''ἐμέ'') and enclitic (''με'') forms: | |||
<blockquote>Besonders belehrend sind aber die paar Inschriften mit ''ἐμέ''. Zweimal steht dieses ''ἐμέ'' auch an zweiter Stelle: IGA. 20,8 (Korinth) ''᾿Απολλόδωρος ἐμὲ ἀνέθ[ηκε]'' und Gazette archéol. 1888 S. 168 ''Μεναΐδας ἐμ’ ἐποί(ϝ)εςε Χαρόπ(ι)''. Aber sechsmal steht ''ἐμέ'' anders: Klein S.39 ''Ἐξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀπόηςε ἐμέ'' (Vers?) 5. 40 ''Ἑξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀ(ι)ποίης᾽ ἐμέ'' (Vers?). S.''ΟῚ Χαριταῖος ἐποίηςεν ἔμ᾽ εὖ''. 8. 82 ''Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐμέ''. 8.85 ''Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐνέ'' (liess ''ἐμέ''). S. 85 ''Σακωνίδης ἔγραψεν ἐμέ''. Diese Stellen zeigen, dass die regelmässige Stellung von ''με'' hinter dem ersten Wort nicht zufällig und dass sie durch seine enklitische Natur bedingt ist. [Vgl. noch die Nachträge.]</blockquote> | |||
===?=== | |||
A riddle in German: | |||
: ''Der Vater ist noch nicht geboren,'' | |||
: ''der Sohn ist schon auf dem Dache.''<ref name=Aarne>Anti Aarne (1918-1920); [https://digitalisate.sub.uni-hamburg.de/recherche/detail?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=48996&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=32&tx_dlf_navigation%5Baction%5D=main&tx_dlf_navigation%5Bcontroller%5D=Navigation&cHash=7cd75d7f3224787416091debb4db9c9a Vergleichende Rätselforschungen]</ref> | |||
:: The father is not yet born, | |||
:: the son is already on the roof. | |||
A riddle in French: | |||
: ''Blanc est le champ,'' | |||
: ''noire est la semmence,'' | |||
: ''l'homme qui le semme,'' | |||
: ''est de très grand science.''<ref name=Aarne>Anti Aarne (1918-1920); [https://digitalisate.sub.uni-hamburg.de/recherche/detail?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=48996&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=32&tx_dlf_navigation%5Baction%5D=main&tx_dlf_navigation%5Bcontroller%5D=Navigation&cHash=7cd75d7f3224787416091debb4db9c9a Vergleichende Rätselforschungen]</ref> | |||
:: White is the field, | |||
:: black is the seed, | |||
:: the man who seeds it, | |||
:: is of great science. | |||
dd | |||
imperfect: I am running [action started but not halted, not necessarily intended to be completed] | |||
imperfective: I am running [action started but not halted, has yet to be completed] | |||
perfect: I have run [action started and halted, not necessarily completed] | |||
perfective: I have run [action started and completed] | |||
*the syntax of a language is marked by its idiosyncratic constructions | |||
il semblerait qu'ils se soient intensifiés | |||
parece (por hypóthese) que eles se intensificaram | |||
movement verbs and cases: cubitum ire *as French and German treat it in the european sprachbund | |||
eo domum | |||
end goal: accusative | |||
*h2iyṓm dámam | |||
[[w:Standard average european||europoid]] | |||
какой-то сказал | |||
in dem Anfang, hat Gott die Erde und den Himmel geschaffen | |||
Männer, deren Kinder gestorben haben, | |||
der Schicksal dessen, der gelitten habt | |||
der Schicksal derer, die gelitten haben | |||
Ja vot tut ... | |||
==Sample text== | |||
==References== | |||
Einleitung in die Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (Pott) | |||
hermann hirt Indogermanische Grammatik | |||
Franz Bopp | |||
Schleicher | |||
Calvert Watkins | |||
Jochem Schindler | |||
Helmut Rix | |||
Kuryłowicz | |||
Boisacq : É. Boisacq, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Heidelberg, 1916. | |||
Brugmann, Griech. Gram?: Griechische Grammatik, | |||
Chantraine, GH: Grammaire homérique. | |||
Chantraine, Morphologie : Morphologie historique du grec. 1947. 2nd ed. 1961. | |||
Chantraine, Formation ` La formation des noms en grec ancien | |||
CIL : Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. | |||
Collitz-Bechtel, D: Sammlung griechischer Dialektinschriften. 1884— 1915 | |||
Egli, Heteroklisie im Griechischen: J. Egli, Heteroklisie im Griechischen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Fälle von Gelenkheteroklisie. Dissert. Zürich | |||
Ehrlich, Betonung ` Untersuchungen über die Natur der griechischen Betonung. 1912 | |||
Ernout-Meillet, Dictionnaire étym.: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine | |||
Evidence for Laryngeals : Evidence for Laryngeals — Work papers of a conference in Indo—European linguistics on May 7 and 8, 1959. Edited by Werner Winter. Austin, Texas, 1960 | |||
Frisk, GEW ` Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg 1954 | |||
Kuryłowicz, A pophonie ` L'apophonie en indo-européen. 1956. | |||
Kuryłowicz, Accentuation *: L'accentuation des langues indo—européennes. 2nd ed. 1958. | |||
Leumann-Hofmann :M. Leumann-]. B. Hofmann, Lateinische Grammatik, 5th ed. 1926-8 | |||
Meillet, Zz£roduction 9: Introduction a l'étude comparative des langues indo-européennes. 8th ed. 1937 | |||
Pokorny : Pokorny, /wdogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. 1948- | |||
Wackernagel (-Debrunner), AzGr. : Altindische Grammatik | |||
Bergaige, Abel; Du Rôle de la dérivation dans la déclinaison indo-européenne: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57721099.texteImage# | |||
Bergaige, Abel; Essai sur la construction grammaticale considérée dans son développement historique, en sanscrit, en grec, en latin, dans les langues romanes et dans les langues germaniques: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5803410m/f6 | |||
> | |||
https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.322486/mode/2up | |||
https://archive.org/details/sanskritgrammari00whituoft/page/xx/mode/2up?view=theater | |||
https://archive.org/details/AGrammarOfModernIndo-european/page/n1/mode/2up?view=theater&q=determiner | |||
*Behaghel, Otto (1932), ''Deutsche Syntax'' | |||
*Brugmmann, Karl (1925), ''Die syntax des einfachen satzes im indogermanischen'' | |||
*Brugmmann; Delbrück (1889), ''Grundriss der vergleichenden grammatik der indogermanischen sprachen'' | |||
*Benveniste, Émile (1935), ''Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen'' | |||
*Collinge, N. E. (1985), ''The Laws of Indo-European'' | |||
*Jespersen , Otto (1924), ''The Philosophy Of Grammar'' | |||
*Priscianus (6th Century), ''Institutiones Grammaticae'' | |||
*Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), ''Die Lehre von der Lautbildung'' | |||
*Sommerstein, Alan (1973), ''Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek'' | |||
*Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), ''Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa'' | |||
*Kortlandt. Frederik H.H. (1983). “Proto-Indo-European Verbal Syntax”. In: Journal of Indo-European Studies 11, 307–324. | |||
*https://www.academia.edu/37684312/On_the_origin_of_grammatical_gender | |||
- | The Precursors of Proto-Indo-European (Kloekhorst, Pronk | ||
- | |||
Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon (Derksen) | |||
Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon (Kloekhorst) | |||
Etymological Dictionary of Latin (de Vaan) | |||
Etymological Dictionary of Greek (Beekes) | |||
Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic (Kroonen) | |||
A Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary (Mayrhofer) | |||
The Indo-European Languages (Kapović) | |||
Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics 1, 2, 3 (Klein, Joseph, Fritz) | |||
The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European (Mallory, Adams) | |||
https://www.academia.edu/117830047/Stop_Borrowing_Anatolian_Indo_European_Stops_Voice_and_Northwest_Semitic_Loans_With_Notes_on_Ugaritic_grd%C5%A1_ztr_d%C4%A1%E1%B9%AF_and_Other_Words | |||
https://archive.org/details/bomhardtheoriginsofprotoindoeuropean/page/n1/mode/2up | |||
https://www.academia.edu/40559059/The_Precursors_of_Proto_Indo_European_The_Indo_Anatolian_and_Indo_Uralic_Hypotheses_2019_ | |||
[https://www.sciencedirect.com/org/science/article/pii/S2212588416000028 The Origin of the Caland System and the Typology of Adjectives] | |||
https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/if-2024-0008/html | |||
[https://indo-european.info/WebHelp/2%20phonology.htm Indo-European Phonology] | |||