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{{Construction}}
Aryan (Pre-Expansion: ''*Airáh''<sub>''0''</sub>, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: ''*Āryā́'', pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image            = Indo-european migrations.jpeg
|imagesize        = 300px
|imagecaption      = Models of indo-european migrations hypothesizing the proto-language to pertain to a range between 7000 to 4000 BC
|name              = Aryan
|name              = Aryan
|nativename        = *airáh<sub>0</sub>
|nativename        = *Airás
 
|pronunciation    = əi̯ˈrəs
|pronunciation    = əi̯ˈrəʔ
|setting           = Caucasus Mountains
|setting           = Caucasus Mountains
|era              = {{gcl|c.|circa}}10,000–8,000 BC
|speakers          = -
|familycolor      = [[Pangaean Code]]
|date              = 2024
|created          = 8000-6000 BP
|familycolor      = Pangaean Code
|ancestor          = Transitional Dialect
|ancestor          = Transitional Dialect
|retrospection of  = Indo-European Language Family
|creator          = Veno
|creator          = Veno
|script1          = Latn
|script1          = Latn
|map              = Aryan.jpg
|mapcaption        = Map of areas where Aryan is believed to have once been spoken
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


==Introduction==
{{Construction}}
[...]<br>
 
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
'''Aryan''' (''*Ai̯ri̯áh<sub>0</sub>'', [[w:Help:IPA|[əi̯ˈri̯əʔ]]]), also referred to as '''Pre-Proto-Indo-European,''' is an [[ab interiori language]] depicting the transition from [[Paleolithic Codes]] to [[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of [[Transitional Dialects]].
 
In most of known [[w:History|History]], indo-european speaking populations have been widespread in [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]], bearing fruits from civilizations such as those of the [[w:Roman empire|Roman Empire]], the [[w:Ancient Greece|Hellenistic City-States]], and the [[w:List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes|Rigvedic Tribes]]. Memorable personalities who spoke natively dialects from those areas include the roman general [[w:Gaius Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar]] (speaker of [[w:Latin|Latin]]), the macedonian king [[w:Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great]] (speaker of [[w:Ancient Greek|Ancient Greek]]), the nazi chancellor [[w:Adolf Hitler|Adolf Hitler]] (speaker of [[w:German language|German]]), the french emperor [[w:Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon Bonaparte]] (speaker of [[w:Corsican langugae|Corsican]]), the british physicist [[w:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] (speaker of [[w:English language|English]]), the italian renascentist [[w:Leonardo da Vinci|Leoanardo da Vinci]] (speaker of [[w:Tuscan dialect|Tuscan Italian]]), the indian ascetic [[w:Gautama Buddha|Gautama Buddha]] (speaker of [[w:Prakrit language|Prakrit]]), et cetera. Also, due the trajectory of the linguistic stock along the millenia, some of the most culturally influential works of Literature have been yielded, such as the [[w:Vulgate|Vulgate]], the [[w:Iliad|Iliad]], and the [[w:Vedas|Vedas]]. As of the [[w:21st Century|21<sup>st</sup> Century]], half of the world's population speaks 454 indo-european languages<ref>https://www.ethnologue.com/</ref>, with the [[w:Americas|Americas]], [[w:Europe|Europe]], [[w:Iran|Iran]], [[w:Pakistan|Pakistan]], and [[w:India|India]] being today the centers of native speakers due the [[w:Indo-European migrations|Indo-European Migrations]] and [[w:Colonial empires|European Colonialism]].
 
Naturally, the origin of the [[w:Indo-European languages|indo-european family]] has attracted the curiosity of thousands of researchers in the last centuries, since [[w:William Jones (philologist)|William Jones']] presidential discourse to the Asiatic Society in 1786<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language</ref>, which famously addressed the similarity between [[w:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] and [[w:Languages of Europe|european languages]]. '''Further works that [...]'''
 
In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the [[w:Armenian hypothesis|Armenian Hypothesis]], which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the [[w:Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers]] (CHG)<ref name=Lazaridis>Lazaridis et alii (2022); ''The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe''</ref>, who would eventually contribute to the formation of the [[w:Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Culture]] and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the [[w:Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan Hypothesis]]. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of [[Linguistic Modernity]].
 
==Etymology==
The word ''*Ai̯ri̯áh<sub>0</sub>'' is influenced but not based on the Indo-Iranian ethnonym ''*Áryas'' "Aryan", as the root ''*h<sub>5</sub>ir'' "member/comrade" comes from Pangaean ''ʕihr'' "racial person".
 
==History==
===Development from Paleolithic Codes===
 
The story of Aryan starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation, or from the [[Pangaean Code]] to Neolithic dialects (circa 12,000 BP). Noticeable is the influence of the [[Diluvian Code|Diluvian]] and [[Hyperborean Code|Hyperborean]] Codes, which triggered several sound changes:
 
*Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.<br>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Weak Voiceless Stop<br />before laryngeal
!Strong Voiceless  Stop<br />before laryngeal
!Weak Voiced Stop<br />before laryngeal
!Strong Voiced Stop<br />before laryngeal
|-
|/kH/→/k<sup>h</sup>/
|/kʼH/→/k/
|/gH/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/ɠH/→/g/
|-
|/pH/→/p<sup>h</sup>/
|/pʼH/→/p/
|/bH/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/ɓH/→/b/
|-
|/tH/→/t<sup>h</sup>/
|/tʼH/→/t/
|/dH/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/ɗH/→/d/
|}
 
*The production of aspirated/murmured series contaminates the regular sounds, whose qualities of <small>WEAK</small> and <small>STRONG</small> are rearranged to accomodate [[w:Aspirated consonant|Aspiration]]/[[w:Breathy voice|Breathy Voice]] instead of [[w:Ejective consonant|Ejection]]/[[w:Implosive consonant|Implosion]].<br>


==Transitional Tables==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Weak Voiceless Stop
!Weak Voiced Stop
!Strong Voiceless Stop
!Strong Voiced Stop
|-
|/k/→/k/
|/g/→/g/
|/kʼ/→/k<sup>h</sup>/
|/ɠ/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|-
|/p/→/p/
|/b/→/b/
|/pʼ/→/p<sup>h</sup>/
|/ɓ/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|-
|/t/→/t/
|/d/→/d/
|/tʼ/→/t<sup>h</sup>/
|/ɗ/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|}


===From the Codes to Aryan===
*[[w:Relative articulation|Relative articulated sounds]] when stops transform into Diluvian consonant clusters following former examples of aspiration/breathy voice.<br>


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 66px; " |
|-
! style="width: 66px; " |Aryan
!Retracted<br />before<br />Laryngeal
!Retracted
!Advanced<br />before<br />Laryngeal
!Advanced
|-
|-
! p
|/k̠H/→/k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/
| *p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *p<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup>
|/k̠/→/kp/
|/k̟H/→/k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>/
|/k̟/→/kt/
|-
|-
! t
|/p̠H/→/p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>/
| *t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *t<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>
|/p̠/→/pt/
|/p̟H/→/p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>/
|/p̟/→/pk/
|-
|-
! k
|/t̠H/→/t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>/
| *k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup> / *k<sup>h</sup>; *kʷ / *k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>
|/t̠/→/tk/
|/t̟H/→/t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/
|/t̟/→/tp/
|-
|-
! b
|/g̠H/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>b<sup>ɦ</sup>/
| *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
|/g̠/→/gb/
|/g̟H/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>d<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/g̟/→/gd/
|-
|-
! d  
|/b̠H/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>d<sup>ɦ</sup>/
| *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
|/b̠/→/bd/
|/b̟H/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>g<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/b̟/→/bg/
|-
|-
! g  
|/d̠H/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>g<sup>ɦ</sup>/
| *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
|/d̠/→/dg/
|/d̟H/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>b<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/d̟/→/db/
|-
|-
! pʼ
|/k̠ʼH/→/kp/
| *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
|/k̠ʼ/→/k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/
|/k̟ʼH/→/kt/
|/k̟ʼ/→/k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>/
|-
|-
! tʼ
|/p̠ʼH/→/pt/
| *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
|/p̠ʼ/→/p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>/
|/p̟ʼH/→/pk/
|/p̟ʼ/→/p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>/
|-
|-
! kʼ
|/t̠ʼH/→/tk/
| kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
|/t̠ʼ/→/t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>/
|/t̟ʼH/→/tp/
|/t̟ʼ/→/t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>/
|-
|-
! ɓ
|/ɠ̠H/→/gb/
| *b<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *b<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup>
|/ɠ̠/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>b<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/ɠ̟H/→/gd/
|/ɠ̟/→/g<sup>ɦ</sup>d<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|-
|-
! ɗ
|/ɓ̠H/→/bd/
| *d<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *d<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup>
|/ɓ̠/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>d<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/ɓ̟H/→/bg/
|/ɓ̟/→/b<sup>ɦ</sup>g<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|-
|-
! ɠ
|/ɗ̠H/→/dg/
| *g<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>; *gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup>
|/ɗ̠/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>g<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|/ɗ̟H/→/db/
|/ɗ̟/→/d<sup>ɦ</sup>b<sup>ɦ</sup>/
|}
|}


===From Aryan to Indo-Anatolian Languages===
*Sonorants, contrary to the stop series, remain conserved when onset; however, they collapse as voiced codas.<br>


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 66px; " |
|-
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit
!Voiceless<br />Sonorant(I)
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan
!Voiced<br />Sonorant(I)
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S.
!Voiceless<br />Sonorant(II)
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian
!Voiced<br />Sonorant(II)
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian
|-
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian
|/j̥/→/j̥/~/j/
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite
|/j/→/j/
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian
|/w̥/→/w̥/~/w/
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek
|/w/→/w/
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic
|-
|-
! >*p
|/n̥/→/n̥/~/n/
| p; pʰ
|/n/→/n/
| p; f
|/m̥/→/m̥/~/m/
| p
|/m/→/m/
| p
| p
| h; w
| p;  pp
| p
| p / pt
| p
| ∅
| f; β
|-
|-
! >*t
|/l̥/→/l̥/~/l/
|
|/l/→/l/
|
|/r̥/→/r̥/~/r/
|
|/r/→/r/
| x x
|}
|
 
|
*The positive and negative forms of the sonorants still follow a Diluvian paradigm.<br>
|
 
|
{| class="wikitable"
|
|-
|
!Retracted<br />Voiceless<br />Sonorant
|
!Retracted<br />Voiced<br />Sonorant
|
!Advanced<br />Voiceless<br />Sonorant
!Advanced<br />Voiced<br />Sonorant
|-
|/j̠̊/→/j̥/~/j/
|/j̠/→/j/
|/j̟̊/→/j̥/~/j/
|/j̟/→/j/
|-
|-
! >*k
|/n̠̊/→/kn/
|
|/n̠/→/kn
| x x
|/n̟̊/→/pn/
|
|/n̊/→/pn/
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! >*ḱ
|/l̠̊/→/l̥/~/l/
|  
|/l̠/→/l/
| x x
|/l̟̊/→/l̥/~/l/
|
|/l̟/→/l/
|
|-
|
|/ẘ̠/→/w̥/~/w/
|
|/w̠/→/w/
|
|/ẘ̟/→/w̥/~/w/
|
|/w̟/→/w/
|
|-
|
|/m̠̊/→/dm/
|
|/m̠/→/dm/
|
|/m̟̊/→/gm/
|/m̟/→/gm/
|-
|/r̠̊/→/r̥/~/r/
|/r̠/→/r/
|/r̟̊/→/r̥/~/r/
|/r̟/→/r/
|}
|}


p pt p ∅ f;
*Within the turbulents, clicks are exchanged by plosive equivalents, and uvular laryngeals turn velar.<br>
b [β] [C 6] f;
v, f[C 2]


{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Labiodental Click
!Dental Click
!Alveolar Click
|-
|/ʘ̪/→/dʷ/
|/ǀ/→/dʲ/
|/ǁ/→/t͡ɬ/
|}


{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Voiceless Uvular Laryngeal
!Voiced Uvular Laryngeal
|-
|/χ/→/x/
|/ʁ/→/ɣ/
|}


thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
*Complex and long vowels are reduced to their basic and short versions.<br>


{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
|-
!Front
!Central
!Back
|-
|/i/→/i/
|/ɨ/→/i/
|/u/→/u/
|-
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
|/y/→/u/
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|/ʉ/→/u/
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
|/ɯ/→/i/
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|-
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|/e/→/e/
|- align=center
|/ɪ/→/e/
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
|/o/→/o/
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
|-
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
|/ø/→/o/
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
|/ʊ/→/o/
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
|/ɤ/→/e/
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
|-
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|/e̞/→/i/
|- align=center
|/ə/→/ə/
| <small>normal</small>
|/o̞/→/u/
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
|-
| <small>normal</small>
|/ɛ/→/e/
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
|/ɐ/→/a/
|- align=center
|/ɔ/→/o/
!{{PIE|*p}}
|-
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
|/æ/→/e/
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
|/a/→/a/
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
|/ɒ/→/o/
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
|}
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
 
| colspan="2" |p
{| class="wikitable"
|{{PIE|pt}}
|-
|{{PIE|p}}
!Special cases
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|-
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
|HVHC > HVC
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|-
|- align=center
|CHVHC > CVC
!{{PIE|*t}}
|-
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|CHVH > CVH
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
|-
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
|/ʕɨ̀ː/→/əi̯/
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|-
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
|/V̰/→/Vː/~/aV/
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|-
|{{PIE|t}}
|/V̤/ > /Vː/~/Va/
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
|}
|{{PIE|t}}
 
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
In Morphology, Aryan introduced a series of innovations by mixing and developing peculiarities from different Paleolithic Codes. The Hyperborean nominative ''-s'' for example was probably borrowed via another caucasian substrate, which completely  assumed the role of epenthetic root (next to Aryan ''*-ar'') in the construction "<small>ROOT</small><sub>1</sub> <small>ROOT</small><sub>2</sub>". Primordial ''[ˈn̠ʕih ˈə]'' "old" would therefore yield ''*knīás'' "old" (=*knih<sub>1</sub> *ás) [PIE ''*sénos'' "old"]. Furthermore, this development culminated into the Indo-European Ablaut. That is: when the accent falls into the epenthetic root, the first root suffers a phonetic change influenced by the interaction between laryngeals and vowels, which fuse into diphthongs or long vowels. This effect is considered a reflex of Umlaut in the Pangaean Code, where guttural fricatives can alternate between their vocalic equivalents and even modify the qualities of the nucleus.<br>
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
 
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|- align=center
|-
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
!Stress in<br />first root
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
!Stress in<br />second root
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
|-
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|HV́C-R
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
|VVC-Ŕ
|{{PIE|s}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
|CV́C-R
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|C∅C-Ŕ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
|CV́H-R
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
|CVV-Ŕ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
 
|- align=center
{| class="wikitable"
!{{PIE|*k}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
!Codex
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
!Aryan
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
!PIE
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|-
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|''ˈhuhd-ə'' "water"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|''*h<sub>1</sub>úd-ar'' "water"
|- align=center
|''*wód-r̥'' "water"
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
|-
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|''ˈhuhd ˈə'' "water-like"
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
|''*wid-rás'' "aquatic"
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
|''*ud-rós'' "aquatic"
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
|-
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|''ˈkhuħ-ə'' "sound"
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|''*kʰúh<sub>2</sub>-as'' "sound"
|- align=center
|''*ḱléw-os'' "fame"  
!{{PIE|*b}}
|-
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|''ˈkhuħ ˈə'' "sound-like"
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|''*kʰaw-ás'' "sound-maker"
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|''*ḱlu-ós'' "famous"
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
|}
| {{PIE|b}}
 
| {{PIE|pt}}
===Development into Indo-European Languages [...]===
| {{PIE|b}}
 
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
Some tendences include the aspirated velars of Aryan becoming the PIE palatal series (*Kʰ ⇒ *Ḱ); ....
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
 
|- align=center
https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Proto-Indo-European_roots&from=A
!{{PIE|*d}}
 
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
*bʰeyh₂-
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
 
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
!Codex
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
!Aryan
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
!PIE
|{{PIE|d}}
!Samples
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
|-
|{{PIE|d}}
| k̠-
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| *kʰpʰ-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
| *ǵʰ-d
|- align=center
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰewd-|''*ǵʰewd-'']] "to pour", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰed-|''*ǵʰed-'']] "to defecate", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱh₂d-|''*ḱh₂d-'']] "to fall"
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
|-
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| -k̠
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
| *-kp
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| *-k<sup>w</sup>
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leykʷ-|''*leykʷ-'']] "to leave"
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|k
| k-
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| *kʰ-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| *ḱ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱe|''*ḱe'']] "this"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| -k
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|  
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*g}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| k̟-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| *kʰtʰ-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| *ḱ-s
|{{PIE|g}}
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)ker-|''*(s)ker-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)kelH-|''*(s)kelH'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sek-|''*sek-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱes-|''*ḱes-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/kh₂eyd-|''*kh₂eyd-'']] "to cut"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gleyH-|''*gleyH-'']] "to stick", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰreyH-|''*bʰreyH-'']] "to cut"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|-
|- align=center
| -k̟
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
| *-kt
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| *p-ḱ
|ku
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/peh₂ḱ-|''*peh₂ḱ-'']] "to join", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/peh₂ǵ-|''*peh₂ǵ-'']] "to attach"; 2. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leyp-|''*leyp-'']] "to stick", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leyǵ-|''*leyǵ-'']] "to bind"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰendʰ-|''*bʰendʰ-'']] "to bind", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/deh₁-|''*deh₁-'']] "to bind"
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|-
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
| g̠-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
| *gʰbʰ-
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| *gʰ-bʰ
|{{PIE|qu}}
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)pregʰ-|''*(s)pregʰ-'']] "sprinkle", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/glewbʰ-|''*glewbʰ-'']] "split", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeh₂g-|''*bʰeh₂g-'']] "to divide"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeyd-|''*bʰeyd-'']] "to split", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/deh₂-|''*deh₂-'']] "to divide"
|- align=center
|-
!{{PIE|''*pʰ''}}
| -g̠
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
| -gb
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
|  
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
| *h₁éǵʰ "out"
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|-
| colspan="2"|p
| g-
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|  
|{{PIE|pt}}
|
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|-
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
| -g
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|''*tʰ''}}
|  
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
|
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|-
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
| g̟-
|t
| *gʰdʰ-
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| *gʰ-dʰ
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʰedʰ-|''*gʰedʰ-'']] "to join", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰendʰ-|''*bʰendʰ-'']] "to bind"
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
|-
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
| -g̟
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| *-gd
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| *ǵ/∅
|{{PIE|d}}
| ''ʕihg̟'' ⇒ ''*h<sub>5</sub>igd-'' ⇒ ''*leǵ-'' "to gather"
|- align=center
|-
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
| k̠ʼ-
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| *kp-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
| *bʰ-g, *k-p
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeg-|''*bʰeg-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰreg-|''*bʰreg-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰrew-|''*bʰrew-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰrews-|''*bʰrews-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/kelh₂-|''*kelh₂-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)kep-|''*(s)kep-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/Hrewp-|''*Hrewp-'']] "break" [may be from [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/Hrew-|''*Hrew-'']] "tear out"]
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|-
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| -k̠ʼ
| rowspan="2"|k
| *-kʰpʰ
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| *w-ǵ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ''*lewǵ-'' ~ ''*weh₂ǵ-'' ~ ''*wreh₁ǵ-'' "to break"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|-
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| kʼ-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| -kʼ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|
|{{PIE|g}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| k̟ʼ-
|- align=center
| kt-
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
|
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|  
|ku
|-
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
| -k̟ʼ
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
| -kʰtʰ
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
| *ǵʰ/dʰ ~ *∅/dʰ
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| ''ʕihk̟ʼ'' ⇒ ''*h<sub>5</sub>ikʰtʰ-'' ⇒ ''*dʰerǵʰ-'' "to be firm" ~ ''*dʰer-'' "to support"
|- align=center
|-
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
| ɠ̠-
|{{PIE|s}}
| *gb-
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
| *kʷ ~ *(s)k
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| ''ɠ̠ʕih'' ⇒ ''*gbih<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*kʷelh<sub>1</sub>-'' "to turn around"; ''ɠ̠ʕihr'' ⇒ ''*gbair-'' > ''*(s)ker-'' "to bend" [semantic transition from "shrink/wither" to "bend/turn around"]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| -ɠ̠
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| ɠ-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|  
|- align=center
|-
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
| -ɠ
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|  
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|  
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|
|- align=center
|-
! {{PIE|*m}}
| ɠ̟-
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
| *gd-
| {{PIE|in}}
| *gʰ/∅ ~ *ḱ/∅
| {{PIE|m}}
| ''ɠ̟ʕih'' ⇒ ''*gdih<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*gʰreh<sub>1</sub>-'' "to grow (plants)"; ''ɠ̟ʕihr'' ⇒ ''*gdair-'' ⇒ *ḱer- "to grow"
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
|-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| -ɠ̟
|- align=center
| *-gʰdʰ
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
| *gʰ/dʰ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| ''hohɠ̟'' "growing fire" ⇒ ''*hogʰdʰ-'' ⇒ ''*dʰegʷʰ-'' "to burn"
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
|-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| p̠-
|{{PIE|∅}}
| *pʰtʰ-
|n
| *bʰ/gʷ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰegʷ-|''*bʰegʷ-'']] "flee", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰewg-|''*bʰewg-'']] "flee"
| --
|-
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
| -p̠
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|- align=center
|
! {{PIE|*n}}
|-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| p-
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| *pʰ-
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
| *bʰ-
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰer-|''*bʰer-'']] "bear"
|{{PIE|n}}
|-
|{{PIE|in}}
| -p
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
|  
|- align=center
|  
! {{PIE|*l}}
|
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
|-
|{{PIE|r}}
| p̟-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
| *pʰkʰ-
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| *bʰ/gʰ ~ *p/ḱ ~ *p/k
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
| ''p̟ʕih'' ⇒ ''*pʰkʰih<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*gʰabʰ-'' ~ ''*gʰeh₁bʰ-'' ~ ''*kap-'' "to seize", ''*peḱ-'' "to pluck"
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
|-
| {{PIE|il}}
| -p̟
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|  
|- align=center
|  
! {{PIE|*r}}
|  
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
|-
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
| b̠-
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
|
| {{PIE|ir}}
|  
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|-
|- align=center
| -b̠
! {{PIE|*y}}
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
|-
|{{PIE|∅}}
|-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| b-
|{{PIE|z}}  {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
|?{{PIE|i}}
|
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|-
|{{PIE|j}}
| -b
|{{PIE|y}}
|  
|- align=center
|  
! {{PIE|*w}}
|
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|-
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
|-
|{{PIE|v}}
| b̟-
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|
|{{PIE|v}}
|
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|-
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
| -b̟
|{{PIE|i}}
|  
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
|  
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|-
| p̠ʼ-
| *pt-
|  
|  
|-
| -p̠ʼ
| *-pʰtʰ
| *bʰ-dʰ
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰedʰ-|''*bʰedʰ-'']] "dig"
|-
| pʼ-
| *p-
| *p
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/per-|''*per-'']] "go through", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pel-|''*pel-'']] "drive", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pent-|''*pent-'']] "pass", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pes-|''*pes-'']] "penis"
|-
| -pʼ
| *-pʰ
| *bʰ
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰerH-|''*bʰerH-'']] "pierce"
|-
|-
| p̟ʼ-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -p̟ʼ
|  
|  
|
|-
| ɓ̠-
|
|
|
|-
| -ɓ̠
|  
|  
|
|-
| ɓ-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -ɓ
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| ɓ̟-
| *bʰ-
| *bʰ
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰed-|''*bʰed-'']] "improve"
|-
| -ɓ̟
|  
|  
|
|-
| t̠-
|  
|  
|  
|-
| -t̠
|  
|  
|
|-
| t-
|  
|  
|  
|-
| -t
|
|  
|  
|-
| t̟-
|  
|  
|  
|-
| -t̟
|  
|  
|  
|-
| d̠-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -d̠
|  
|  
|
|-
| d-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -d
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| d̟-
|
|
|  
|-
| -d̟
|  
|  
|
|-
| t̠ʼ-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -t̠ʼ
|  
|  
|
|-
| tʼ-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -tʼ
|  
|  
|
|-
| t̟ʼ-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -t̟ʼ
|
|  
|
|-
| ɗ̠-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -ɗ̠
|  
|  
|
|-
| ɗ-
|  
|
|  
|-
| -ɗ
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| ɗ̟-
|  
|
|  
|-
|-
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
| -ɗ̟
|}
|  
 
|  
Notes for table 1:
|
{{reflist|group=C}}
 
===Consonant clusters===
 
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
| ʘ̠-
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|  
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
|
|
|
|-
| -ʘ̠
|
|
|
|
|-
| ʘ-
| *dʷ-
| *bʰ-
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰed-|''*bʰed-'']] "improve", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰil-|''*bʰil-'']] "lovely"
|-
| -ʘ
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| ʘ̟-
|
|
|
|
|-
| -ʘ̟
|
|
|
|
|-
| ǀ̠-
|
|
|
|
|-
| -ǀ̠
|
|
|
|
|-
| ǀ-
|
|
|
|-
| -ǀ
|
|
|
|
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeyh₂-|''*bʰeyh₂-'']] "to shake"
|-
| ǀ̟-
|
|
|
|-->
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sr}}
| style="color:gray"| sr
| r
| str
| style="color:gray"| sr
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
| (a)r
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|  
|  
| style="color:gray"| rh
|-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| -ǀ̟
| fr-, -br-
|  
| style="color:gray"| sr
|  
| str
|
| str
|-
|- align=center
| r-
!{{PIE|*tw}}
|  
| style="color:gray"| tv
|
| θβ
| 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰuH-|''*bʰuH-'']] "to be"
| style="color:gray"| tv
|-
| style="color:gray"| tv
| -r
| t
|  
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|  
| ttu, ddu
|
|
| s-, -ss-
|}
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
 
| p?
 
| t
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰerǵʰ-|''*bʰerǵʰ-'']] "ascend"
| style="color:gray"| þw
 
| style="color:gray"| thw
: *bʰegʷ- "to flee" < *-pʰtʰ "to escape" < …
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
: *bʰerǵʰ- "to rise up " < *pk- "to eject" (?)
| style="color:gray"| dhv
 
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
: *bʰil "good" < *dʷih<sub>1</sub>
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
 
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰes-|''*ǵʰes-'']] "hand", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰey-|''*ǵʰey-'']] "winter" (earlier lexical transition from "autumn", with similar use of English "fall"),
| rowspan="2"| d
 
| ?
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʷʰer-|''*gʷʰer-'']] "warm" [from ''*gʰbʰōr-'' "glow"], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeh₃g-|''*bʰeh₃g-'']] "bake/roast" [from ''*gʰbʰor-'' "kindle"]
| tu, du
 
|
*temh<sub>1</sub>
|
 
|
kpih1 > bʰeg-; h5ikʰpʰ > weh2ǵ- ∅
| f
 
| rowspan="2"| d
r is added when the laryngeal is modified (h2 > h1)
| style="color:gray"| dw
 
| style="color:gray"| dw
l is added when the laryngeal is erased (h1 > ∅)
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*dw}}
∅ (H) > r (H̥) > l (∅)
| style="color:gray"| dv
 
| (e)rk
 
| tu, du
*bʰewdʰ “to be awake”
|
 
|
: *bʰeyd  ~ *delh<sub>1</sub> “to split”
|
 
| b
: *deh<sub>2</sub>y- ~ *bʰeh<sub>2</sub>g- "to divide"
| style="color:gray"| tw
 
| style="color:gray"| tw
: *deh<sub>3</sub> "to give"
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*tl}}
‘’’D lemmas’’’
| style="color:gray"|
 
|
 
| sl
dewh1 (*deh3)
| kl, sl
 
|
>
|
 
|
daim "to build" (*dem)
|
 
| tl
daik "to take" (*deḱ)
|
 
| kl
daipʰkʰ "to lead" (*dewk)
| tl
 
|
when two voiced consonants in a root, they becomes aspirated
|
 
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*dl}}
 
| ll
 
|
 
|
 
|
 
|
In a root with a cluster, if there is no consonant as coda except:
|
 
|
-'''a laryngeal''', the laryngeal is erased and the second element of the cluster becomes the coda.
|
 
|
:''*gʰedʰ-'' (PIE) < ''((*gʰed-))'' < ''*gʰdʰih<sub>1</sub>-'' (Aryan) < ''g̟ʕih'' (Codex)
|
 
|
-'''a liquid''', the liquid is incorporated and the first element of the cluster becomes the coda.
|
 
|
:''*(s)pregʰ-'' ~ ''*sper-'' (PIE) < ''((*bregʰ-))'' <  ''* gʰbʰair'' (Aryan)  < ''g̠ʕihr'' (Codex)
|
 
|- align=center
exception: roots with longs vowels
!{{PIE|*dn}}
[dʰuh2- < pʰtʰūh1- (**pʰūt)]
| nn, ṇṇ
 
|
h1egóM < aikṓm < aku
|
ˈᴇːʔ > *ēh0 (Aryan) > *ih2 (PIE)
|
uˈħihurk̟ʼ-a > *h<sub>2</sub>úrkʰtʰa > *h<sub>2</sub>ŕ̥tḱoes
|
*i and *u disappear before sonorants
|
mur, mrás > mer
|
as PIE only accepts thorn clusters...
|
 
|
 
|  
 
|  
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
|  
 
|  
 
|  
mobile roots:
|- align=center
-*r "quality"
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
-*m "result"
| style="color:gray"| śv
-*dʰ "fixation"
| sp
 
| style="color:gray"| sv
NOTE: PIE neuter particle *-om derives from Aryan *(_)-am, which forms result nouns
| style="color:gray"| šv
 
| s
origin of PIE declensions:
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
 
(_)-as Hysterokinetic:
*kʰúh2as > (*ḱléwos) > *ḱléwos
*kʰuh2ásyas > (*ḱlewésyos) > *ḱléwesos
(∅)-ás Hysterokinetic:
*pdás > *pád∅s (*pods) > *pṓds
*pdasyás > *padás∅s (*pedés) > *pedés
*(á)-as Acrostatic:
*pkáih1as > (*ǵʰéyos)  > *ǵʰéyos
*pkáih1asyas > (*ǵʰéyosyos) > *ǵʰéyosyo
*(a)-ás Acrostatic:
*pkaisás > (*ǵʰoysós) > *ǵʰoysós
*pkaisásyas > (*ǵʰoysésyos) > *ǵʰoysósyo
 
ptár > ph2tḗr
ptsaryás > ptryás (pətrés)> ph2trés
 
 
What marks a Transitional Dialect:
*the presence of mobile roots
 
 
''p̠hṵh'' "fume" > ''*pʰtʰawimás'' (''*pʰtʰūh<sub>1</sub>-*más'') "smoke" > ''*dʰuh<sub>2</sub>mós'' (''*dʰewh<sub>2</sub>-*mós'')
 
*Hu, *u, *uH, *HuH > *we, *u, *ew, *we
Inheritances:
huhg̠ > *h1ugp > *wegʷ
ɦuhd > *h4ud > *sweyd
*ud > *úd
p̟ʼhuh > *pkuh > *ǵʰew
pʼhuh > *puh > *plew
Borrowings:
*h2ekʷ
-
*Hū, *ū, *ūH, *HūH> h2ew, ew, ewh2, h2ew
Inheritances:
p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰawi > *dʰewh2
krhṳh > *GRuia > *krewh2
Borrowings:
-phu- [Diluvian] > *po > *peh3
-
*Ho, o, oH, HoH > *h3e, e, *eh3, *Hew
Inheritances:
kʼhohr > *kohr > *kerh3 (variant *ker from *kor)
hoħd > *h1od > *h3ed
ħoħd > *h2od > *h3ed
... > *poh2 > *peh3 (*puH)
pʰol > bʰel "shine"
*h1oh1 > *h1ews
Borrowings:
pohar [Diluvian] > *pawar (*paw-(a)-ar) > *péh2wr̥ (pew-r̥)
*h1engʷ < *h1ew-ǵenh1-yéti
-
*Hō, ō, ōH, HōH > *h3u, h3, *uh3, *Hu
Inheritances:
Borrowings:
-
*Ha, *a, *aH, *HaH > *h2e, *h2, *eh2, *h2e
Inheritances:
phah > *pʰah > *bʰeh2
Borrowings:
-
*ā > ...
Inheritances:
Borrowings:
-
*a > *e/o
Inheritances:
ə > *(á)as > *(é)os
Borrowings:
-
*He, *e, *eH, HeH > *h1e, *h1, *eh1, *h1e
Inheritances:
heħd > *h1ed > *h1ed
Borrowings:
-
*Hē, *ē, *ēH, HēH > ...
Inheritances:
Borrowings:
-
*Hi, i, iH, HiH > *ye, *i, *ey, *ye
Inheritances:
Borrowings:
-
*Hī, ī, īH, HīH > h1ey, ey, eyh1, h1ey
Inheritances:
ʕii̯h > *ī > *h1ey
Borrowings:
+
*ew > eh3 [see: *gdew > deh3]
*aw > ew [see: kʰaw-ás > ḱlew]
+
h4- > s-
 
heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis
there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.
*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]
dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d
dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di
*h<sub>2</sub>oh<sub>2</sub>dʲ-, *h<sub>2</sub>óh<sub>2</sub>dʲam "hatred"
? > *ak "sharp" borrowing
*dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"
sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)
 
h2isṓm/aísmi, h2isṓmas/aísmas > *h1ésmi, *h1smós
h2isḗs/aíssi, h2isḗtas/aístas  > *h1ési, *h1sté (*h1stés 2P.DUAL)
h2isī́t/aísti, h2isī́nt/aísant> *h1ésti, *h1sénti
 
*/ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
*/ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
*/əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (''*gain-'' >''*g∅n-tás'' > ''*gnaitás'' > ''*gnātós'', as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
*/ai̯/ > */ai̯/
*kʰpʰ-
*kp- > *kʷʰ-
*kn- > *sn-
*h<sub>2</sub>i (TD) > *h<sub>1</sub>e (PIE)
an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals:
ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p
an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals:
heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d
həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent
 
When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls
n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old"
compare
*sādú > *swādús "sweet"
*sādú méh2dʷ
*swādús médʰu~mélid
 
Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles.
 
*pʰrás
 
laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa
*mai > *meh1
 
?we are searching for a single voiceless plosive before a voiced one?
?"Aryan doesn't accept initial voiced clusters of original implosives? As if **dbíoh1 > *díopʰ "?
 
 
 
h1uC ~ h1oC > uj ~ oj
h1aC ~ h1əC > aj ~ i
h1iC ~ h1eC > ī ~ ej
Cuh1 ~ Coh1 > uj ~ oj
Cah1 ~ Cəh1 > aj ~ i
Cih1 ~ Ceh1 > ī ~ ej
-
h2uC ~ h2oC > aw ~ ow
h2aC ~ h2əC > ā ~ i
h2iC ~ h2eC > aj ~ ej
Cuh2 ~ Coh2 > aw ~ ow
Cah2 ~ Cəh2 > ā ~ i
Cih2 ~ Ceh2 > aj ~ ej
-
h3uC ~ h3oC > ū ~ ow
h3aC ~ h3əC > wa ~ u
h3iC ~ h3eC > ī ~ je
Cuh3 ~ Coh3 > ū~ ow
Cah3 ~ Cəh3 > wa ~ u
Cih3 ~ Ceh3 >  iw ~ ew
 
 
 
 
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 66px; " |
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S.
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic
|-
! >*p
| p; pʰ
| p; f
| p
| p
| p
| h; w
| p;  pp
| p
| p / pt
| p
| ∅
| f; β
|-
! >*t
|
|
|
| x x
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| wh
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| hv
|
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
| rowspan="2"| z
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! >*k
|
| x x
|
|
|
|
Line 616: Line 1,091:
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
| style="color:gray"| jv
|
|
|
|
Line 624: Line 1,096:
|
|
|
|
|-
! >*ḱ
|
| x x
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sw}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| sv
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
| style="color:gray"| h
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
| s
| style="color:gray"| sw
| style="color:gray"| sw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sp}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
| style="color:gray"|
| spʰ
|
|
|
|
Line 667: Line 1,110:
|
|
|
|
|
|}
|
 
|
p pt p ∅ f;
|
b [β] [C 6] f;
|
v, f[C 2]
|-align=center
 
!{{PIE|*sd}}
 
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
 
| zd
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
| zd
 
| zd
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|  
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
| st
|-
|
! rowspan="3"| PIE
|
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|  
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
|  
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
| d
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
|- align=center
| st
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
| st
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
| <small>normal</small>
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
| zd
| <small>normal</small>
| zd
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
| zd
|
|
|
|
| sth
|
|  
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| zd
| d
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*st}}
!{{PIE|*p}}
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| colspan="2" |p
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|{{PIE|pt}}
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|{{PIE|p}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
!{{PIE|*t}}
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
|{{PIE|sk}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|š}}?
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|{{PIE|h}}
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|{{PIE|t}}
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|{{PIE|t}}
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sk}}
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|rowspan="2"|?
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|{{PIE|s}}
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
|- align=center
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
!{{PIE|*k}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
|{{PIE|s}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
| jj
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|  
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
|
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
!{{PIE|*b}}
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|  
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|  
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
|  
| {{PIE|b}}
|
| {{PIE|pt}}
|
| {{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
|  
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*d}}
|  
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|  
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dt}}
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
| tt
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| st
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|  
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|  
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|  
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|k
|
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|st
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| st
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| s
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| ss
|- align=center
| ss [s]
!{{PIE|*g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
| ddʰ
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| zd
|ku
|  
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|  
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|
|{{PIE|qu}}
|
|  
|  
| d
| t
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
!{{PIE|''*pʰ''}}
| ddʰ
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
| zd, st
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
|  
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
| st
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
| colspan="2"|p
|
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|
|{{PIE|pt}}
|
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
| st
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|  
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*pt}}
!{{PIE|''*tʰ''}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
| ft
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| t?
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
|t
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
| st
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| |
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|rowspan="3"|
| rowspan="2"|k
|rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kt}}
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|rowspan="2"| xt
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|rowspan="2"| t?
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|rowspan="2"|
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|ku
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ps}}
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
| ps
|{{PIE|s}}
| || || || || || ||
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
!{{PIE|*ts}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
| ts
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| ||
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ks}}
! {{PIE|*m}}
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
|rowspan="2"|
| {{PIE|in}}
|rowspan="2"|
| {{PIE|m}}
|rowspan="2"|
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
|rowspan="2"|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| || (ks)
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|∅}}
|n
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| --
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gs}}
! {{PIE|*n}}
| kṣ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|  
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|  
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
|  
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
|  
|{{PIE|n}}
|
|{{PIE|in}}
|
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
! {{PIE|*l}}
| kṣ
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
|  
|{{PIE|r}}
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
|  
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
|
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
|
| {{PIE|il}}
|
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
! {{PIE|*r}}
| kṣ
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
| ž
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
|  
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
|  
| {{PIE|ir}}
|
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|
|
|  
| ks
|  
|  
|  
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
! {{PIE|*y}}
| kṣ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|  
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|{{PIE|z}}  {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
|?{{PIE|i}}
|
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|{{PIE|j}}
|  
|{{PIE|y}}
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
! {{PIE|*w}}
| kṣ
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|  
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
|  
|{{PIE|v}}
|  
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|  
|{{PIE|v}}
|
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
| ps
|{{PIE|i}}
|  
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
|  
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|  
|-
|  
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
|}
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
 
| kṣ
Notes for table 1:
| š
{{reflist|group=C}}
|  
 
|  
===Consonant clusters===
| k
 
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| kt
|
| s
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tk}}
| kṣ
| xš
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| kt
|-->
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
!{{PIE|*sr}}
| kṣ
| style="color:gray"| sr
| z
| r
|  
| str
| ž
| style="color:gray"| sr
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
| (a)r
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|  
|  
| style="color:gray"| rh
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| fr-, -br-
| style="color:gray"| sr
| str
| str
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tw}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
| θβ
| style="color:gray"| tv
| style="color:gray"| tv
| t
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ttu, ddu
|
|
| tk
| s-, -ss-
| tk/k
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| khth
| p?
|  
| t
|  
| style="color:gray"| þw
|  
| style="color:gray"| thw
|  
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
|- align=center
| style="color:gray"| dhv
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| kṣ
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
|  
| rowspan="2"| d
|  
| ?
|  
| tu, du
|
|
| tk
|
|
|
|
|
|  
| f
|  
| rowspan="2"| d
|  
| style="color:gray"| dw
|  
| style="color:gray"| dw
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
!{{PIE|*dw}}
| kṣ
| style="color:gray"| dv
| γž
| (e)rk
|  
| tu, du
|  
|
|  
|
|
| b
| style="color:gray"| tw
| style="color:gray"| tw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tl}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
| sl
| kl, sl
|
|
|
|
| tl
|
| kl
| tl
|
|
| kts
|
|
| phth
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dl}}
| ll
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
| s
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
-->
===Orthography===
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
!{{PIE|*dn}}
|- align=center
| nn, ṇṇ
!{{PIE|*e}}
|
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}
|  
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|  
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|ä}}
|
|e, ʔe, i
|
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*a}}
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
| sp
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|a}}
| style="color:gray"| šv
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
| s
|{{PIE|ā}}
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| wh
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
| style="color:gray"| hv
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
| rowspan="2"| z
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*o}}
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
| style="color:gray"| jv
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
!{{PIE|*sw}}
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
| style="color:gray"| sv
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
| xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|∅
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
|{{PIE|e}}
| style="color:gray"| h
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
| s
| style="color:gray"| sw
| style="color:gray"| sw
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!{{PIE|*sp}}
|ḫ
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|a}}
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
|∅
| style="color:gray"|
|{{PIE|o}}
| spʰ
|- align=center
|
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
|
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
|
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|a, ∅
|
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
|
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|
|
|
|-align=center
!{{PIE|*sd}}
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| zd
| zd
| zd
|  
| st
|
|
|  
|  
| d
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| st
| st
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
|ḫa
| zd
|{{PIE|a}}
| zd
| zd
|
|
|
|
| sth
|  
|  
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| zd
| d
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!{{PIE|*st}}
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
|{{PIE|o}}
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|- align=center
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
!{{PIE|*ē}}
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|{{PIE|ě}}
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|{{PIE|ė}}
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|{{PIE|i}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ā}}
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|{{PIE|sk}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|š}}?
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|{{PIE|h}}
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ō}}
!{{PIE|*sk}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
|{{PIE|uo}}
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|{{PIE|u}}
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan="2"|?
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*i}}
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
!{{PIE|*i}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
|{{PIE|ь}}
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|st}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
| jj
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|yā}}
|  
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|
|  
|  
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*ei}}
|
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
|
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|  
|{{PIE|ē}}
|  
|{{PIE|ei}}
|  
|{{PIE|ī}}
|  
|{{PIE|ē}}
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!{{PIE|*dt}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
| tt
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
| st
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress/>
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e}}
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|  
|rowspan=2|ē, ai
|
|{{PIE|oi}}
|
|{{PIE|ū}}
|st
|{{PIE|oi}}
| st
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
| s
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|  
| ss
| ss [s]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ai}}
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
!({{PIE|*ai}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂ei}}
| ddʰ
|{{PIE|ai}}
| zd
|{{PIE|ae}}
|  
|{{PIE|ai}}
|  
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}} > {{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}}; {{PIE|ā(i)}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|i}}
|  
|  
|
|
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|
|ē
|
|{{PIE|ēi}}
|  
|{{PIE|ī}}?
|
| d
| t
|  
|  
|  
|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōi}}
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
!{{PIE|*ōi (*oei)}}
| ddʰ
|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
| zd, st
|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ui}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|  
| st
|  
|
|
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|
|
|{{PIE|ai}}
| st
|{{PIE|ōi}}
|  
|{{PIE|ō}}
|  
|{{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*āi}}
!{{PIE|*eh₂ei}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|  
|  
|
|
|ai
|{{PIE|āi > ēi}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|ae}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*u}}
! {{PIE|*pt}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|u}}
| ft
|{{PIE|ъ}}
| t?
|{{PIE|u}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|y}}<ref group=V name=i>Before ''i'' in the following syllable.</ref>
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
|{{PIE|ä}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
|rowspan=7|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=wa>Before ''wa''.</ref>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|aú}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh>Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable ([[Germanic a-mutation|''a''-mutation]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ū}}
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
!{{PIE|*uh₁}}
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ū}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}
| st
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ū}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|i}}<ref group=V name=final/>
| |
|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan="3"|
|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan=3 colspan="4"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ȳ}}
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₂}}
! {{PIE|*kt}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|wā}}
|rowspan="2"| xt
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan="2"| t?
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₃}}
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*eu}}
! {{PIE|*ps}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}, {{PIE|*h₁eu}}
| ps
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|au}} > {{PIE|ō}}
| || || || || || ||
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ə̄u}}; {{PIE|ao}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
|{{PIE|ju}}
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|{{PIE|iau}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|oy}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|eu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ou}}
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|īe}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ou}}
!{{PIE|*ts}}
!{{PIE|*ou}},{{PIE|*h₃eu}}
| ts
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|au}}
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, au}}
|  
|{{PIE|ou}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|áu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*au}}
!({{PIE|*au}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂eu}}
|{{PIE|aw}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}} > {{PIE|au}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|
|
|{{PIE|e}}
|
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|ū}}?
|  
|  
|{{PIE|iu}}
|  
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| ||
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
| || (ks)
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|
|
|au
|
|{{PIE|ō}}
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
| kṣ
|
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|áu}}
|  
|{{PIE|ēa}}
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
| kṣ
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
| ž
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|  
|{{PIE|im̃}}; {{PIE|um̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel>In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|am}}
|  
|rowspan=10|{{PIE|a}}
|
|{{PIE|äm}}
|
|a, un
|
|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|{{PIE|em}}
| ks
|{{PIE|em, am}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ym}}
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*m̥̅}}
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
!{{PIE|*mh₁}}
| kṣ
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìm}}; {{PIE|ùm}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ama}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|mā}}
|  
|rowspan=3|
|
|{{PIE|mē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|mā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₂}}
|{{PIE|mā > mē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₃}}
|{{PIE|mō}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|ьm/ъm}}
|{{PIE|im}}; {{PIE|um}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|am}}
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|am}}
|  
|{{PIE|em}}
|  
|{{PIE|am}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
!{{PIE|*n̥}}
| kṣ
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|  
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|  
|{{PIE|an}}
|  
|{{PIE|än}}
|
|an
|
|{{PIE|a}}
|
|{{PIE|en}}
| ps
|{{PIE|en, an}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yn}}
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*n̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
!{{PIE|*nh₁}}
| kṣ
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
| š
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìn}}; {{PIE|ùn}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ana}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|nā}}
| k
|rowspan=3|
|
|{{PIE|nē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|nā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₂}}
|{{PIE|nā > nē}} <ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₃}}
|{{PIE|nō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|ьn/ъn}}
|{{PIE|iñ}}; {{PIE|uñ}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|an}}
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|an}}
| kt
|{{PIE|en}}
|  
|{{PIE|an}}
| s
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*l̥}}
!{{PIE|*tk}}
!{{PIE|*l̥}}
| kṣ
|{{PIE|r̥}}
| xš
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|  
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|lь/lъ}}
|  
|{{PIE|il̃}}; {{PIE|ul̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|  
|{{PIE|al}}
|
|{{PIE|il, li; ul, lu}}
|
|{{PIE|äl}}
|
|al
| kt
|{{PIE|la}}
|  
|{{PIE|ol}}
|  
|{{PIE|li}};<ref group=V name=VPM>Before a stop or ''m''.</ref> {{PIE|al}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul; ol}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yl}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*l̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
!{{PIE|*lh₁}}
| kṣ
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial>In the neighbourhood of labials.</ref>
| z
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìl}}; {{PIE|ùl}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
| ž
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ala}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|al}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|lā}}
| tk
|rowspan=3|
| tk/k
|{{PIE|lē}}
| khth
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|lā}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₂}}
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
|{{PIE|lā > lē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
| kṣ
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*lh₃}}
|  
|{{PIE|lō}}
|  
|- align=center
|  
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьl/ъl}}
|{{PIE|il}}; {{PIE|ul}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al, la}}
|
|
| tk
|
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|al}}
|  
|{{PIE|el}}
|  
|{{PIE|al}}
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥}}
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
!{{PIE|*r̥}}
| kṣ
|{{PIE|r̥}}
| γž
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|rь/rъ}}
|
|{{PIE|ir̃}}; {{PIE|ur̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|
|{{PIE|ar}}
|
|{{PIE|ir, ri; ur, ru}}
| kts
|{{PIE|är}}
|
|ar, ur
| phth
|{{PIE|ra}}
|
|{{PIE|or}}
| s
|{{PIE|ri}};<ref group=V name=VPM/> {{PIE|ar}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|aúr}} {{IPA|[ɔr]}}
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ur; or}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|  
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yr}}
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
 
-->
===Orthography===
 
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*r̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*e}}
!{{PIE|*rh₁}}
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìr}}; {{PIE|ùr}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ara}}
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ra}}
|e, ʔe, i
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|rā}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|{{PIE|rē}}
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|rā}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₂}}
!{{PIE|*a}}
|{{PIE|rā > rē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}  
|- align=center
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
!{{PIE|*rh₃}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|rō}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ьr/ъr}}
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
 
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial/> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal/> !! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut/>
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
!{{PIE|*o}}
|}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
 
|- align=center
==Phonology==
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
===Sounds===
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
====Consonants====
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 33 non-click main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
 
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
! style="width: 66px; " |
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
! style="width: 66px; " |
|∅
! style="width: 66px; " |Labial
|{{PIE|e}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Alveolar
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Palatal
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
! style="width: 66px; " colspan=2|Velar
|- align=center
! style="width: 66px; " |Pharyngeal
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Glottal
|ḫ
|-
|{{PIE|a}}
! rowspan=2 | Nasal
|- align=center
! Voiceless
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
| *m̥
|∅
| *n̥
|{{PIE|o}}
|
|- align=center
|
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
|
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
|-
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
! Voiced
|a, ∅
| *m
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
| *n
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|
|ḫa
|
|{{PIE|a}}
|-
|- align=center
! rowspan=5 | Plosive
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
! Voiceless
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
| *p
|{{PIE|o}}
| *t
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*ē}}
| *k
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
| *kʷ
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|
|{{PIE|ě}}
| *ʔ
|{{PIE|ė}}
|-
|{{PIE|i}}
! Voiced
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
| *b
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
| *d
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
|
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
| *g
|{{PIE|ī}}
| *gʷ
|{{PIE|ē}}
|
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|
|- align=center
|-
!{{PIE|*ā}}
! Aspirated-
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
| *p<sup>h</sup>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
| *t<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|
|{{PIE|a}}
| *k<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
| *kʷ<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|ā}}
|-
|{{PIE|ā}}
! Aspirated+
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
| *b<sup>h</sup>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
| *d<sup>h</sup>
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*ō}}
| *g<sup>h</sup>
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
| *gʷ<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|uo}}
|
|{{PIE|u}}
|
|{{PIE|e}}
|-
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
! Ejective
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
| *p’
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
| *t’
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|
|- align=center
| *k’
!{{PIE|*i}}
 
!{{PIE|*i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ь}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘''


''*kʰpʰain-'' "expelling" [n/v] (Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > ''*kʰpʰaínas'' [bare noun], ''*kʰpʰ∅nás'' "murderer" [adjective-noun], ''*kʰpʰánas'' "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")
''*h<sub>1</sub>ed-'' "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < ''*h<sub>1</sub>édōm'', ''*yédmi'') > ''*h<sub>1</sub>édas'' [bare noun], ''*yedás'' "eater" [adjective-noun], ''*h<sub>1</sub>ádas'' [result-noun]
In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law)
the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV
*the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
*absolute construction
*subject is ommitted
*na pʰaírīt mai
*pʰaírīt mai na?
h<sub>5</sub>ígōm, mayás, mai
_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)
The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.
Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)
morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996)
Szemerényi  1957:  119;  Kuryłowicz  1964:  233;  Rasmussen  1999: Meier-Brügger
-ōm/mi
-āṓm/-mā
*pʰaír-
-ōm / *-mi (perfective)
*-āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)
í (animated nouns)
ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent
Aryan has a complex system of accent loss
As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)
*paid- ... *p∅dás
*p∅dás > páds > póds
*p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
*p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός






*Sommerstein, Alan (1973), ''Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek''
*Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), ''Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa''
*Kortlandt. Frederik H.H. (1983). “Proto-Indo-European Verbal Syntax”. In: Journal of  Indo-European Studies 11, 307–324.


*https://www.academia.edu/37684312/On_the_origin_of_grammatical_gender


The Precursors of Proto-Indo-European  (Kloekhorst, Pronk


Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon (Derksen)
Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon (Kloekhorst)
Etymological Dictionary of Latin (de Vaan)
Etymological Dictionary of Greek (Beekes)
Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic (Kroonen)
A Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary (Mayrhofer)
The Indo-European Languages (Kapović)
Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics 1, 2, 3 (Klein, Joseph, Fritz)
The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European (Mallory, Adams)


*/ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
https://www.academia.edu/117830047/Stop_Borrowing_Anatolian_Indo_European_Stops_Voice_and_Northwest_Semitic_Loans_With_Notes_on_Ugaritic_grd%C5%A1_ztr_d%C4%A1%E1%B9%AF_and_Other_Words
*/ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
*/əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (''*gain-'' >''*g∅n-tás'' > ''*gnaitás'' > ''*gnātós'', as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
*/ai̯/ > */ai̯/


*pʰrás
https://archive.org/details/bomhardtheoriginsofprotoindoeuropean/page/n1/mode/2up


laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa
https://www.academia.edu/40559059/The_Precursors_of_Proto_Indo_European_The_Indo_Anatolian_and_Indo_Uralic_Hypotheses_2019_
*mai > *meh1


==Syntax==
[https://www.sciencedirect.com/org/science/article/pii/S2212588416000028 The Origin of the Caland System and the Typology of Adjectives]
Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte
Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...


==Prosody==
https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/if-2024-0008/html


[https://indo-european.info/WebHelp/2%20phonology.htm Indo-European Phonology]


==Sample text==


==References==
*Behaghel, Otto (1932), ''Deutsche Syntax''
*Benveniste, Émile (1935), ''Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen''
*Collinge, N. E. (1985), ''The Laws of Indo-European''
*Jespersen , Otto (1924), ''The Philosophy Of Grammar''
*Priscianus (6th Century), ''Institutiones Grammaticae''
*Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), ''Die Lehre von der Lautbildung''
*Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), ''Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft''
*Sommerstein, Alan (1973), ''Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek''
*Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), ''Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa''
*Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), ''Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung''




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