Carnian grammar: Difference between revisions

(7 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)

Line 3:

* Uninflected predicative form in adjectives and participles

* The past tense formation continues Slavic perfect with L-participles with the auxiliary verb in preposition

* Reduction in the -ovati conjugation class (*''milovati'' > ''milat''; ''milujem'' > ''~~miliem~~'')

* Reduction in the -ovati conjugation class (*''milovati'' > ''milat''; ''milujem'' > ''milem'')

* Mix of Western and Southern forms

Line 10:

Carnian is not the only Slavic language with articles (others are Bulgarian, Macedonian, and to some extent Sorbian languages), but is the only one with both definite and indefinite articles in preposition. They are inflected by case, gender, and number (except for the indefinite, which is absent in plural). The definite article is consistently used, while the indefinite is in practice often omitted.

Both articles undergo shortening in certain contexts, i.e. the feminine and neuter definite ''ta'' and ''to'' become ''t' '' before words starting with ''a''- and ''o''-, respectively (''t'ant'' instead of ''ta ant'' 'the duck'; ''t'oco'' instead of ''to oco'' 'the eye'). Indefinite article preceded by ''je'' (third person singular ''bœt'' 'to be') merges with it into one form (e.g., ''To je jen pies'' becomes ''To jen pies'', 'It's a dog'), although this is restricted to informal speech and is never used in official writings.

Both articles undergo shortening in certain contexts, i.e. the feminine and neuter definite ''ta'' and ''to'' become ''t' '' before words starting with ''a''- and ''o''-, respectively (''t'ant'' instead of ''ta [[Contionary:ant#Carnian|ant]]'' 'the duck'; ''t'oco'' instead of ''to oco'' 'the eye'). Indefinite article preceded by ''je'' (third person singular ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' 'to be') merges with it into one form (e.g., ''To je jen [[Contionary:pies#Carnian|pies]]'' becomes ''To jen pies'', 'It's a dog'), although this is restricted to informal speech and is never used in official writings.

'''Indefinite ''jen'' inflection'''

Line 78:

| te

| tega

|colspan=3| ~~tech~~

|colspan=3| te

|-

! colspan=2| Dative

Line 93:

=== Masculine Declension ===

Masculine nouns are declined according to hard, soft, or a-stem patterns. The majority of masculine nouns follow the hard or soft declension, whereas the a-stem declension is reserved for a small category of words and is identical to the feminine a-stem declension. While Carnian preserves the hard-soft stem distinction, these two declension patterns have merged to some extent, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages.

Masculine nouns are declined according to hard, soft, or a-stem patterns. The majority of masculine nouns follow the hard or soft declension, whereas the a-stem declension is reserved for a small category of words and is identical to the feminine a-stem declension. Nouns belonging to the hard-stem declension typically have stems ending in a consonant, although a group of nouns which used to have a stem ending in /h/ now end in a vowel. While Carnian preserves the hard-soft stem distinction, these two declension patterns have merged to some extent, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages.

Masculine nouns are further divided between animate and inanimate nouns:

* For inanimate nouns, the accusative singular is identical to the nominative singular

* For animate nouns, the accusative singular is identical to the genitive singular

* In plural, the distinction is significant for hard stems ending in velar consonant /k, g~~, x~~/, which are palatalized to /s/ ~~(for /k, x/)~~ and /z/ ~~(for /g/~~) in animate nouns and remain unchanged in inanimate nouns. This is not true for a great part of Carniolan dialects, which always preserve the hard velar consonant (as in Slovene)

* In plural, the distinction is significant for hard stems ending in velar consonant /k, g/ (which are palatalized to /s/ and /z/, respectively) in animate nouns and remain unchanged in inanimate nouns. This is not true for a great part of Carniolan dialects, which always preserve the hard velar consonant (as in Slovene)

* a-stems are not differentiated by animacy

Line 149:

=== Feminine Declension ===

Feminine nouns are declined according to four patterns. Majority of them belong to the a-stem declension, which is further divided into hard and soft. Carnian differs from Slovene and Serbo-Croatian in preserving this distinction although the differences ~~between~~ have been leveled, just as in masculine nouns.

Feminine nouns are declined according to four patterns. Majority of them belong to the a-stem declension, which is further divided into hard and soft. Carnian differs from Slovene and Serbo-Croatian in preserving this distinction although the differences have been leveled, just as in masculine nouns.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

Line 263:

Some Carniolan dialects experience '''masculinization''' of neuter nouns to varying extents, especially in the singular. A small subgroup of eastern Carinthian dialects experiences '''feminization''' of neuter nouns.

Littoral and some Kvarner dialects, on the other hand, tend to merge neuter and masculine genders into one, which is most prominent in the presence of the neuter -o or -e ending in the singular nominative of masculine nouns (cf. ''leabo'' 'bread', ''~~mangie~~'' '~~man~~' vs. standard ''leab'', ''~~manġ~~'') and entirely masculine endings in plural. This phenomenon is most common in areas with the strongest influence of Romance languages, which usually finish their nouns with a vowel.

Littoral and some Kvarner dialects, on the other hand, tend to merge neuter and masculine genders into one, which is most prominent in the presence of the neuter -o or -e ending in the singular nominative of masculine nouns (cf. ''leabo'' 'bread', ''jegie'' 'hedgehog' vs. standard ''leab'', ''jeġ'') and entirely masculine endings in plural. This phenomenon is most common in areas with the strongest influence of Romance languages, which usually finish their nouns with a vowel.

== Adjectives ==

Line 308:

| e

| ega

|colspan=3| ~~ich~~

|colspan=3| i

|-

! colspan=2| Dative

Line 323:

=== Comparison ===

Comparative and superlative formations follow analytical construction with the use of adverbs ''vent'' 'more' and ''nai'' (rarely also ''naivent'') 'most', respectively, followed by the adjective in positive form. A few irregular adjectives, especially old and basic ones, have fossilized the old affix formation, such as ''miens'' 'smaller', ''ventz'' 'bigger', ''gors'' 'worse', and ''bols'' 'better'. These irregular adjectives use the comparative forms to form the superlative.

Comparative and superlative formations follow analytical construction with the use of adverbs ''[[Contionary:vent#Carnian|vent]]'' 'more' and ''[[Contionary:nai#Carnian|nai]]'' (rarely also ''naivent'') 'most', respectively, followed by the adjective in positive form. A few irregular adjectives, especially old and basic ones, have fossilized the old affix formation, such as ''[[Contionary:miens#Carnian|miens]]'' 'smaller', ''[[Contionary:ventz#Carnian|ventz]]'' 'bigger', ''[[Contionary:gors#Carnian|gors]]'' 'worse', and ''[[Contionary:bols#Carnian|bols]]'' 'better'. These irregular adjectives use the comparative forms to form the superlative.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

Line 338:

!rowspan=4| Regular

! Predicative

| barz

| [[Contionary:barz#Carnian|barz]]

| vent barz

| nai barz

Line 427:

* Three moods: indicative, imperative, and conditional

* Two aspects: perfective and imperfective

=== Aspect ===

As in other Slavic languages, Carnian inherited a verbal system based on the opposition between perfective and imperfective aspect. Perfective verbs present an event as a bounded whole, while imperfective verbs are used for ongoing, incomplete, habitual, or otherwise unbounded situations (e.g. ''pisat'' 'to be writing' vs. ''napisat'' 'to write'). The present indicative of imperfective verbs expresses present time reference, whereas the present indicative of perfective verbs typically has future reference. Past participles of both imperfective and perfective verbs are used in analytic past and future constructions; the interpretation of these forms depends on the aspectual properties of the lexical verb and, where applicable, on aspectual particles.

==== Formation of Aspectual Pairs ====

Aspectual pairs are traditionally formed in several ways:

* by adding the imperfectivizing suffix ''[[Contionary:-at#Carnian|-at]]'' to perfective verbs

* by adding the perfectivizing suffix ''[[Contionary:-nant#Carnian|-nant]]'' to imperfective verbs

* by adding perfectivizing prefixes (most commonly ''na''- and ''po''-) to imperfective verbs

In contrast to most Slavic languages, the inherited aspect-forming suffixes remained productive in Carnian for a considerably longer period and historically constituted the primary means of deriving aspectual counterparts. In the modern language, however, these traditional (im)perfectivizing suffixes are no longer productive. While Carnian still employs a range of verbal prefixes, these are now used primarily for lexical derivation and semantic modification rather than for purely aspectual opposition; prefixes that serve only to mark perfectivity are increasingly marginal.

==== Biaspectual verbs ====

A relatively large and growing group of verbs in Carnian are biaspectual, that is, they can function with either perfective or imperfective interpretation. This group consists mainly of loanwords, newer verb formations, and older inherited verbs whose original aspectual counterpart has been lost. Biaspectual verbs may be accompanied by the perfectivizing particle ''[[Contionary:œr#Carnian|œr]]'' or the imperfectivizing particle ''[[Contionary:sien#Carnian|sien]]'', both of which are highly productive in the modern language and serve exclusively as aspectual markers.

Unmarked biaspectual forms tend to be interpreted as imperfective in most contexts; consequently, the perfectivizing particle ''œr'' is more frequently used to explicitly mark event completion. The particle ''sien'' is employed either to reinforce imperfective interpretation or to imperfectivize verbs with an inherently perfective or resultative reading, effectively replacing the older imperfectivizing suffix -''ivat'', which is no longer productive.

Examples:

* ''Jem œr to deau'' – I did it (''[[Contionary:deat#Carnian|deat]]'' 'to do', biaspectual)

* ''Jes œr ċitau ta kengà?'' – Did you read the book? (''[[Contionary:ċitat#Carnian|ċitat]]'' 'to read'; historically imperfective, now biaspectual; cf. Serbo-Croatian imperfective ''čitati'' vs. perfective ''pročitati'')

* ''Jem sien perpisau to due ori'' – I was copying it for two hours (example usage of ''sien'' with a perfective verb ''perpisat'' 'to copy')

The number of biaspectual verbs in Carnian continues to increase, as newly introduced verbs generally do not develop distinct aspectual counterparts. As a result, biaspectuality is expected to become characteristic of an increasing proportion of the verbal lexicon. This development is especially advanced in the ''Fyn'' dialect, where analytic particle constructions frequently replace the older inherited aspectual distinctions.

=== Conjugation ===

Line 609:

Line 635:

==== Past participle ====

The past participle is used mainly to form the past and future tense and is formed by ~~adding~~ -''u̯'' ~~to the infinitive~~ stem. It appears in analytical forms and therefore exists primarily in predicative (although some fossilized forms of non-predicative use exist, for example in ''dobrosli'' 'welcome') and must be preceded by an auxiliary verb. ~~As with all~~ predicative ~~adjectival~~ expressions, it receives ultimate accent ~~unless it contains an old spurious vowel in the final syllable (compare ''reckeu'' [rɛ̌ːkɛʊ̯], ''ċitau'' [dɐʋǎʊ̯])~~.

The past participle is used mainly to form the past and future tense and is formed by extending the infinitive stem with -''u̯'' (when stem ends in a vowel) or with -ø (when stem ends in a consonant); compare ''davau'' [dɐʋǎʊ̯], ''rec'' [rɛ̌k].

It appears in analytical forms and therefore exists primarily in predicative (although some fossilized forms of non-predicative use exist, for example in ''dobrosli'' 'welcome') and must be preceded by an auxiliary verb. Like other predicative expressions, it receives ultimate accent.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

Line 628:

Line 656:

|-

! C-t

|rowspan=2| -eu

|rowspan=2| -ø

|-

! -ø-it

Line 644:

Line 672:

==== Past indicative ====

The past indicative is used to indicate events that occurred in the past. It is formed with the auxiliary verb ''bœt'' ('to be') in the present tense, followed by the predicative past participle of the verb, for example ''jem videu'' 'I saw'.

The past indicative is used to indicate events that occurred in the past. It is formed with the auxiliary verb ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' ('to be') in the present tense, followed by the predicative past participle of the verb, for example ''jem videu'' 'I saw'.

==== Pluperfect indicative ====

Line 970:

Line 998:

==== Irregular verbs ====

Conjugation of the verb ''bœt'' 'to be':

Conjugation of the verb ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' 'to be':

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

Line 1,166:

Line 1,194:

|-

! Nominative

| jaz~~, ja~~

| [[Contionary:ja#Carnian|ja, jaz]]

| ty

| [[Contionary:ty#Carnian|ty]]

| vy

| [[Contionary:vy#Carnian|vy]]

| on

| [[Contionary:on#Carnian|on]]

| ona

| [[Contionary:ona#Carnian|ona]]

| ono

| [[Contionary:ono#Carnian|ono]]

| mœ

| [[Contionary:mœ#Carnian|mœ]]

| vœ

| [[Contionary:vœ#Carnian|vœ]]

| oni

| one

Line 1,188:

Line 1,216:

| rowspan=2 | nas

| rowspan=2 | vas

| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | ~~ich~~

| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | i

| rowspan=2 | se

|-

Line 1,207:

Line 1,235:

! Possesive

| moi

| ~~tuoi~~

| toi

| ~~vuoi~~

| voi

| niega

| nie

Line 1,214:

Line 1,242:

| naṡ

| vaṡ

| colspan=3| ~~nich~~

| colspan=3| ni

| ~~suoi~~

| soi

|-

|}

Line 1,257:

Line 1,285:

! colspan=2| Genitive

| tiene

| colspan=3| ~~tienech~~

| colspan=3| tiene

|-

! colspan=2| Dative

Line 1,300:

Line 1,328:

! colspan=2| Genitive

| ove

| colspan=3| ~~ovech~~

| colspan=3| ove

|-

! colspan=2| Dative

Line 1,311:

Line 1,339:

=== Interrogative pronouns ===

The interrogative pronouns introduce direct and indirect questions. There are two nominative forms: ''co'' 'who' and ''kei'' 'what'.

The interrogative pronouns introduce direct and indirect questions. There are two nominative forms: ''co'' 'who' and ''[[Contionary:kei#Carnian|kei]]'' 'what'.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 * Uninflected predicative form in adjectives and participles
 * The past tense formation continues Slavic perfect with L-participles with the auxiliary verb in preposition
-* Reduction in the -ovati conjugation class (*''milovati'' > ''milat''; ''milujem'' > ''miliem'')
+* Reduction in the -ovati conjugation class (*''milovati'' > ''milat''; ''milujem'' > ''milem'')
 * Mix of Western and Southern forms
@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 Carnian is not the only Slavic language with articles (others are Bulgarian, Macedonian, and to some extent Sorbian languages), but is the only one with both definite and indefinite articles in preposition. They are inflected by case, gender, and number (except for the indefinite, which is absent in plural). The definite article is consistently used, while the indefinite is in practice often omitted.
-Both articles undergo shortening in certain contexts, i.e. the feminine and neuter definite ''ta'' and ''to'' become ''t' '' before words starting with ''a''- and ''o''-, respectively (''t'ant'' instead of ''ta ant'' 'the duck'; ''t'oco'' instead of ''to oco'' 'the eye'). Indefinite article preceded by ''je'' (third person singular ''bœt'' 'to be') merges with it into one form (e.g., ''To je jen pies'' becomes ''To jen pies'', 'It's a dog'), although this is restricted to informal speech and is never used in official writings.
+Both articles undergo shortening in certain contexts, i.e. the feminine and neuter definite ''ta'' and ''to'' become ''t' '' before words starting with ''a''- and ''o''-, respectively (''t'ant'' instead of ''ta [[Contionary:ant#Carnian|ant]]'' 'the duck'; ''t'oco'' instead of ''to oco'' 'the eye'). Indefinite article preceded by ''je'' (third person singular ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' 'to be') merges with it into one form (e.g., ''To je jen [[Contionary:pies#Carnian|pies]]'' becomes ''To jen pies'', 'It's a dog'), although this is restricted to informal speech and is never used in official writings.
 '''Indefinite ''jen'' inflection'''
@@ Line 78: / Line 78: @@
 | te
 | tega
-|colspan=3| tech
+|colspan=3| te
 |-
 ! colspan=2| Dative
@@ Line 93: / Line 93: @@
 === Masculine Declension ===
-Masculine nouns are declined according to hard, soft, or a-stem patterns. The majority of masculine nouns follow the hard or soft declension, whereas the a-stem declension is reserved for a small category of words and is identical to the feminine a-stem declension. While Carnian preserves the hard-soft stem distinction, these two declension patterns have merged to some extent, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages.
+Masculine nouns are declined according to hard, soft, or a-stem patterns. The majority of masculine nouns follow the hard or soft declension, whereas the a-stem declension is reserved for a small category of words and is identical to the feminine a-stem declension. Nouns belonging to the hard-stem declension typically have stems ending in a consonant, although a group of nouns which used to have a stem ending in /h/ now end in a vowel. While Carnian preserves the hard-soft stem distinction, these two declension patterns have merged to some extent, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages.
 Masculine nouns are further divided between animate and inanimate nouns:
 * For inanimate nouns, the accusative singular is identical to the nominative singular
 * For animate nouns, the accusative singular is identical to the genitive singular
-* In plural, the distinction is significant for hard stems ending in velar consonant /k, g, x/, which are palatalized to /s/ (for /k, x/) and /z/ (for /g/) in animate nouns and remain unchanged in inanimate nouns. This is not true for a great part of Carniolan dialects, which always preserve the hard velar consonant (as in Slovene)
+* In plural, the distinction is significant for hard stems ending in velar consonant /k, g/ (which are palatalized to /s/ and /z/, respectively) in animate nouns and remain unchanged in inanimate nouns. This is not true for a great part of Carniolan dialects, which always preserve the hard velar consonant (as in Slovene)
 * a-stems are not differentiated by animacy
@@ Line 149: / Line 149: @@
 === Feminine Declension ===
-Feminine nouns are declined according to four patterns. Majority of them belong to the a-stem declension, which is further divided into hard and soft. Carnian differs from Slovene and Serbo-Croatian in preserving this distinction although the differences between have been leveled, just as in masculine nouns.
+Feminine nouns are declined according to four patterns. Majority of them belong to the a-stem declension, which is further divided into hard and soft. Carnian differs from Slovene and Serbo-Croatian in preserving this distinction although the differences have been leveled, just as in masculine nouns.
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
@@ Line 263: / Line 263: @@
 Some Carniolan dialects experience '''masculinization''' of neuter nouns to varying extents, especially in the singular. A small subgroup of eastern Carinthian dialects experiences '''feminization''' of neuter nouns.
-Littoral and some Kvarner dialects, on the other hand, tend to merge neuter and masculine genders into one, which is most prominent in the presence of the neuter -o or -e ending in the singular nominative of masculine nouns (cf. ''leabo'' 'bread', ''mangie'' 'man' vs. standard ''leab'', ''manġ'') and entirely masculine endings in plural. This phenomenon is most common in areas with the strongest influence of Romance languages, which usually finish their nouns with a vowel.
+Littoral and some Kvarner dialects, on the other hand, tend to merge neuter and masculine genders into one, which is most prominent in the presence of the neuter -o or -e ending in the singular nominative of masculine nouns (cf. ''leabo'' 'bread', ''jegie'' 'hedgehog' vs. standard ''leab'', ''jeġ'') and entirely masculine endings in plural. This phenomenon is most common in areas with the strongest influence of Romance languages, which usually finish their nouns with a vowel.
 == Adjectives ==
@@ Line 308: / Line 308: @@
 | e
 | ega
-|colspan=3| ich
+|colspan=3| i
 |-
 ! colspan=2| Dative
@@ Line 323: / Line 323: @@
 === Comparison ===
-Comparative and superlative formations follow analytical construction with the use of adverbs ''vent'' 'more' and ''nai'' (rarely also ''naivent'') 'most', respectively, followed by the adjective in positive form. A few irregular adjectives, especially old and basic ones, have fossilized the old affix formation, such as ''miens'' 'smaller', ''ventz'' 'bigger', ''gors'' 'worse', and ''bols'' 'better'. These irregular adjectives use the comparative forms to form the superlative.
+Comparative and superlative formations follow analytical construction with the use of adverbs ''[[Contionary:vent#Carnian|vent]]'' 'more' and ''[[Contionary:nai#Carnian|nai]]'' (rarely also ''naivent'') 'most', respectively, followed by the adjective in positive form. A few irregular adjectives, especially old and basic ones, have fossilized the old affix formation, such as ''[[Contionary:miens#Carnian|miens]]'' 'smaller', ''[[Contionary:ventz#Carnian|ventz]]'' 'bigger', ''[[Contionary:gors#Carnian|gors]]'' 'worse', and ''[[Contionary:bols#Carnian|bols]]'' 'better'. These irregular adjectives use the comparative forms to form the superlative.
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
@@ Line 338: / Line 338: @@
 !rowspan=4| Regular
 ! Predicative
-| barz
+| [[Contionary:barz#Carnian|barz]]
 | vent barz
 | nai barz
@@ Line 427: / Line 427: @@
 * Three moods: indicative, imperative, and conditional
 * Two aspects: perfective and imperfective
+=== Aspect ===
+As in other Slavic languages, Carnian inherited a verbal system based on the opposition between perfective and imperfective aspect. Perfective verbs present an event as a bounded whole, while imperfective verbs are used for ongoing, incomplete, habitual, or otherwise unbounded situations (e.g. ''pisat'' 'to be writing' vs. ''napisat'' 'to write'). The present indicative of imperfective verbs expresses present time reference, whereas the present indicative of perfective verbs typically has future reference. Past participles of both imperfective and perfective verbs are used in analytic past and future constructions; the interpretation of these forms depends on the aspectual properties of the lexical verb and, where applicable, on aspectual particles.
+==== Formation of Aspectual Pairs ====
+Aspectual pairs are traditionally formed in several ways:
+* by adding the imperfectivizing suffix ''[[Contionary:-at#Carnian|-at]]'' to perfective verbs
+* by adding the perfectivizing suffix ''[[Contionary:-nant#Carnian|-nant]]'' to imperfective verbs
+* by adding perfectivizing prefixes (most commonly ''na''- and ''po''-) to imperfective verbs
+In contrast to most Slavic languages, the inherited aspect-forming suffixes remained productive in Carnian for a considerably longer period and historically constituted the primary means of deriving aspectual counterparts. In the modern language, however, these traditional (im)perfectivizing suffixes are no longer productive. While Carnian still employs a range of verbal prefixes, these are now used primarily for lexical derivation and semantic modification rather than for purely aspectual opposition; prefixes that serve only to mark perfectivity are increasingly marginal.
+==== Biaspectual verbs ====
+A relatively large and growing group of verbs in Carnian are biaspectual, that is, they can function with either perfective or imperfective interpretation. This group consists mainly of loanwords, newer verb formations, and older inherited verbs whose original aspectual counterpart has been lost. Biaspectual verbs may be accompanied by the perfectivizing particle ''[[Contionary:œr#Carnian|œr]]'' or the imperfectivizing particle ''[[Contionary:sien#Carnian|sien]]'', both of which are highly productive in the modern language and serve exclusively as aspectual markers.
+Unmarked biaspectual forms tend to be interpreted as imperfective in most contexts; consequently, the perfectivizing particle ''œr'' is more frequently used to explicitly mark event completion. The particle ''sien'' is employed either to reinforce imperfective interpretation or to imperfectivize verbs with an inherently perfective or resultative reading, effectively replacing the older imperfectivizing suffix -''ivat'', which is no longer productive.
+Examples:
+* ''Jem œr to deau'' – I did it (''[[Contionary:deat#Carnian|deat]]'' 'to do', biaspectual)
+* ''Jes œr ċitau ta kengà?'' – Did you read the book? (''[[Contionary:ċitat#Carnian|ċitat]]'' 'to read'; historically imperfective, now biaspectual; cf. Serbo-Croatian imperfective ''čitati'' vs. perfective ''pročitati'')
+* ''Jem sien perpisau to due ori'' – I was copying it for two hours (example usage of ''sien'' with a perfective verb ''perpisat'' 'to copy')
+The number of biaspectual verbs in Carnian continues to increase, as newly introduced verbs generally do not develop distinct aspectual counterparts. As a result, biaspectuality is expected to become characteristic of an increasing proportion of the verbal lexicon. This development is especially advanced in the ''Fyn'' dialect, where analytic particle constructions frequently replace the older inherited aspectual distinctions.
 === Conjugation ===
@@ Line 609: / Line 635: @@
 ==== Past participle ====
-The past participle is used mainly to form the past and future tense and is formed by adding -''u̯'' to the infinitive stem. It appears in analytical forms and therefore exists primarily in predicative (although some fossilized forms of non-predicative use exist, for example in ''dobrosli'' 'welcome') and must be preceded by an auxiliary verb. As with all predicative adjectival expressions, it receives ultimate accent unless it contains an old spurious vowel in the final syllable (compare ''reckeu'' [rɛ̌ːkɛʊ̯], ''ċitau'' [dɐʋǎʊ̯]).
+The past participle is used mainly to form the past and future tense and is formed by extending the infinitive stem with -''u̯'' (when stem ends in a vowel) or with -ø (when stem ends in a consonant); compare ''davau'' [dɐʋǎʊ̯], ''rec'' [rɛ̌k].
+It appears in analytical forms and therefore exists primarily in predicative (although some fossilized forms of non-predicative use exist, for example in ''dobrosli'' 'welcome') and must be preceded by an auxiliary verb. Like other predicative expressions, it receives ultimate accent.
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
@@ Line 628: / Line 656: @@
 |-
 ! C-t
-|rowspan=2| -eu
+|rowspan=2| -ø
 |-
 ! -ø-it
@@ Line 644: / Line 672: @@
 ==== Past indicative ====
-The past indicative is used to indicate events that occurred in the past. It is formed with the auxiliary verb ''bœt'' ('to be') in the present tense, followed by the predicative past participle of the verb, for example ''jem videu'' 'I saw'.
+The past indicative is used to indicate events that occurred in the past. It is formed with the auxiliary verb ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' ('to be') in the present tense, followed by the predicative past participle of the verb, for example ''jem videu'' 'I saw'.
 ==== Pluperfect indicative ====
@@ Line 970: / Line 998: @@
 ==== Irregular verbs ====
-Conjugation of the verb ''bœt'' 'to be':
+Conjugation of the verb ''[[Contionary:bœt#Carnian|bœt]]'' 'to be':
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
@@ Line 1,166: / Line 1,194: @@
 |-
 ! Nominative
-| jaz, ja
+| [[Contionary:ja#Carnian|ja, jaz]]
-| ty
+| [[Contionary:ty#Carnian|ty]]
-| vy
+| [[Contionary:vy#Carnian|vy]]
-| on
+| [[Contionary:on#Carnian|on]]
-| ona
+| [[Contionary:ona#Carnian|ona]]
-| ono
+| [[Contionary:ono#Carnian|ono]]
-| mœ
+| [[Contionary:mœ#Carnian|mœ]]
-| vœ
+| [[Contionary:vœ#Carnian|vœ]]
 | oni
 | one
@@ Line 1,188: / Line 1,216: @@
 | rowspan=2 | nas
 | rowspan=2 | vas
-| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | ich
+| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | i
 | rowspan=2 | se
 |-
@@ Line 1,207: / Line 1,235: @@
 ! Possesive
 | moi
-| tuoi
+| toi
-| vuoi
+| voi
 | niega
 | nie
@@ Line 1,214: / Line 1,242: @@
 | naṡ
 | vaṡ
-| colspan=3| nich
+| colspan=3| ni
-| suoi
+| soi
 |-
 |}
@@ Line 1,257: / Line 1,285: @@
 ! colspan=2| Genitive
 | tiene
-| colspan=3| tienech
+| colspan=3| tiene
 |-
 ! colspan=2| Dative
@@ Line 1,300: / Line 1,328: @@
 ! colspan=2| Genitive
 | ove
-| colspan=3| ovech
+| colspan=3| ove
 |-
 ! colspan=2| Dative
@@ Line 1,311: / Line 1,339: @@
 === Interrogative pronouns ===
-The interrogative pronouns introduce direct and indirect questions. There are two nominative forms: ''co'' 'who' and ''kei'' 'what'.
+The interrogative pronouns introduce direct and indirect questions. There are two nominative forms: ''co'' 'who' and ''[[Contionary:kei#Carnian|kei]]'' 'what'.
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"