Linguifex

Luthic: Difference between revisions

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{{Featured
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|featured banner= Esto arteghio è ‘na rasda ascritta. Grazze þamma sina livella qaletadi, piosevoletadi gio capacitadi utilizza, fú gia ascritta votata.}}
|featured banner= Esto arteghio è ‘na rasda ascritta. Grazze þamma sina livella qaletadi, piosevoletadi gio capacitadi utilizza, fú gia ascritta votata.}}
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* (space) essa tazza è þina? → Is that cup (near the listener) yours?
* (space) essa tazza è þina? → Is that cup (near the listener) yours?
* (time) esso domnico garraggio. → I’m going this Sunday.
* (time) esso domnico andraggio. → I’m going this Sunday.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:35%; table-layout:fixed;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:35%; table-layout:fixed;"
Line 2,042: Line 2,041:
| -arano || -erano || -orano || -irano
| -arano || -erano || -orano || -irano
|}
|}
Like the perfect, pluperfect has an optional analytic counterpart. This alternative form is constructed with the imperfect indicative of the auxiliary verb ‘to have’ combined with the past participle of the main verb.
====Future====
The future tense expresses an action that will take place at a point subsequent to the moment of speaking. It can also be used to convey probability or conjecture about the present.
Its endings are a historical development from the agglutination of the verb’s full infinitive form with the present tense endings of the auxiliary verb ‘to have’, a process common throughout the Romance languages. This has resulted in a single, unified set of endings that attaches to the infinitive for all regular verbs.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:40%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Indicative active
! style="width:20%;" | Indicative active
! style="width:20%;" | -are
! style="width:20%;" | -ere
! style="width:20%;" | -ore
! style="width:20%;" | -ire
|-
! ec
| -eraggio || -eraggio || -oraggio || -iraggio
|-
! þú
| -erái || -erái || -orái || -irái
|-
! e
| -erá || -erá || -orá || -irá
|-
! ve
| -erí || -erí || -orí || -irí
|-
! gio
| -ereze || -ereze || -oreze || -ireze
|-
! vi
| -eremu || -eremu || -oremu || -iremu
|-
! giu
| -erete || -erete || -orete || -irete
|-
! i
| -erano || -erano || -orano || -irano
|}
Passive forms follow the regular analytical construction:
* (active) dregcheraggio þata vino. → I will drink the wine.
* (passive) þata vino sará dregcatu mina. → The wine will be drunk by me.
In addition, Luthic has a modal future formed with the present tense of the modal auxiliary verb scolare followed by the main verb’s infinitive. It is used to express a higher degree of certainty, obligation, or determination about a future event. It carries a sense of inevitability or obligation (deontic modality):
* (future) bugiraggio. → I will buy (forecast).
* (deontic) schio bugire. → I shall buy (obligation).
It is often accompanied by a temporal adverb:
* (future) bugiraggio crai. → I will buy tomorrow (forecast for tomorrow).
* (deontic) schio bugire crai. → I shall buy tomorrow (obligation for tomorrow).
=====Future perfect=====
The future perfect is a compound tense used to describe an action that will have been completed before another point or event in the future. In the active voice, it is constructed with the future tense of the auxiliary verb ‘to have’ followed by the past participle of the main verb. In the passive voice, it employs a distinct periphrastic construction: the future tense of the auxiliary ‘to be’ is combined with the past participles of both the auxiliary ‘to have’ and the main verb.
* (active) avrá togitu. → It will have done.
* (passive) sará avutu togitu. → It will have been done.
It should be noted that the paradigms presented in this section apply to regular verbs. Luthic also possesses a number of irregular verbs, whose forms often preserve unique historical developments. A comprehensive treatment of these verbs is beyond the scope of this introductory grammar and will be addressed in the later chapters on historical morphology.
====Imperative====
The imperative mood is used to issue direct commands, requests, and prohibitions. In Luthic, its formation is distinct for affirmative and negative commands and is productive only in the second person.
* Affirmative imperative: the affirmative command has specific forms for the second-person singular, dual and plural, which are derived from the verb stem.
* Negative imperative (prohibition): negative commands are formed periphrastically. The prohibition is expressed by the negative particle followed by the verb’s full infinitive form. This same construction is used for both singular, dual and plural addressees.
:* (prohibition) non rogire! → Do not speak!
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:40%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Affirmative imperative
! style="width:20%;" | Affirmative
! style="width:20%;" | -are
! style="width:20%;" | -ere
! style="width:20%;" | -ore
! style="width:20%;" | -ire
|-
! þú
| -a || -e || -o || -i
|-
! gio
| -aze || -eze || -oze || -ize
|-
! giu
| -ate || -ete || -ote || -ite
|}
====Non-finite forms====
In addition to its finite forms, which are marked for tense and person, Luthic possesses four non-finite verb forms: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle, and the past participle. These forms do not conjugate for person and typically function as verbal nouns or adjectives.
* Infinitive
:* The infinitive is the base form of the verb, functioning as a verbal noun that names the action. As previously established, it is the form used for dictionary entries and is marked by one of the four thematic endings that define the verb's conjugation class: -are, -ere, -ore, and -ire.
* Participles
Luthic has two participles that function as verbal adjectives, agreeing in gender, case, and number with the nouns they modify.
:* Present participle: describes an ongoing action. It is formed by adding -ante on -are verbs, -ente on -ere and -ire verbs and -onte on -ore verbs. Declinable as Classes 4m and 4f.
:* Past participle: describes a completed action. Its endings are -atu, -utu, -otu, and -itu, respectively, for each conjugation class (Classes 1, 2 & 3 adjectives). As shown, the past participle is the fundamental component for forming all compound tenses and analytic passive voices.
* Gerund
The Luthic form ending in -andu, -endu, or -ondu (depending on conjugation class) serves a dual role as both a gerund and a gerundive, a distinction inherited from Classical Latin.
:* As a gerund, it functions as an Class 3 verbal noun or adverb to name an action or to express the manner of an action.
:* As a gerundive, it functions as a declinable Classes 1, 2 & 3 verbal adjective, expressing necessity, obligation, or fitness.
====Auxiliary verbs====
Following the discussion of compound tenses and voice, the full paradigms for the two primary auxiliary verbs, ‘to be’ and ‘to have’, are presented below. Although irregular, their foundational role in the verbal system warrants their inclusion in this section. For the sake of simplicity, compounded forms are skipped.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Non-finite forms
! style="width:50%;" | Infinitive
| vesare
|-
! Past participle
| vesatu
|-
! Present participle
| vesante
|-
! Gerund
| vesandu
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:70%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Indicative active
! style="width:16%;" | Person
! style="width:16%;" | Present
! style="width:16%;" | Imperfect
! style="width:16%;" | Perfect
! style="width:16%;" | Pluperfect
! style="width:16%;" | Future
|-
! ec
| bio || vó || fui || foro || saraggio
|-
! þú
| bii || ví || fosti || fori || sarái
|-
! e
| è || vá || fú || fora || sará
|-
! ve
| segi || ví || fui || fori || sarí
|-
! gio
| segize || vesaze || foze || foraze || saraze
|-
! vi
| siamu || vesamu || fummu || foramu || saremu
|-
! giu
| siete || vesate || foste || forate || sarete
|-
! i
| seno || vesano || furono || forano || sarano
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:50%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Subjunctive & Conditional
! style="width:25%;" | Person
! style="width:25%;" | Subj. Pres.
! style="width:25%;" | Subj. Imp.
! style="width:25%;" | Cond. Pres.
|-
! ec
| sia || fosse || sarebbi
|-
! þú
| sia || fossi || saresti
|-
! e
| sia || fosse || sarebbe
|-
! ve
| sii || fossi || sarebbi
|-
! gio
| siaze || fossize || sareze
|-
! vi
| siamu || fossimu || saremmu
|-
! giu
| siate || fossite || sareste
|-
! i
| siano || fosseno || sarebberono
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Imperative
! style="width:34%;" | Person
! style="width:33%;" | Affirmative
! style="width:33%;" | Negative
|-
! þú
| vesa || non vesare
|-
! gio
| vesaze || non vesare
|-
! giu
| vesate || non vesare
|}
* The verb vesare lacks a passive voice. This is because vesare is an intransitive copular verb; its function is to link a subject to a predicate, not to transfer an action onto a direct object. Since the passive construction requires promoting a direct object to the subject role, it is grammatically inapplicable to vesare.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Non-finite forms
! style="width:50%;" | Infinitive
| avere
|-
! Past participle
| avutu
|-
! Present participle
| avente
|-
! Gerund
| avendu
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:70%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Indicative active
! style="width:16%;" | Person
! style="width:16%;" | Present
! style="width:16%;" | Imperfect
! style="width:16%;" | Perfect
! style="width:16%;" | Pluperfect
! style="width:16%;" | Future
|-
! ec
| aggio || avevo || ebbi || ebbero || avraggio
|-
! þú
| ái || avevi || avesti || ebberi || avrái
|-
! e
| á || aveva || ebbe || ebbera || avrá
|-
! ve
| abbi || avevi || ebbi || ebberi || avrí
|-
! gio
| aveze || avevaze || aveze || ebberaze || avreze
|-
! vi
| abbiamu || avevamu || avemmu || ebberamu || avremu
|-
! giu
| avete || avevate || aveste || ebberate || avrete
|-
! i
| ano || avevano || ebberono || ebberano || avrano
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Indicative passive
! style="width:34%;" | Person
! style="width:33%;" | Present
! style="width:33%;" | Imperfect
|-
! ec
| avara || avavara
|-
! þú
| avasa || avavasa
|-
! e
| avaþa || avavaþa
|-
! ve
| avanda || avavanda
|-
! gio
| avanda || avavanda
|-
! vi
| avanda || avavanda
|-
! giu
| avanda || avavanda
|-
! i
| avanda || avavanda
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:50%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Subjunctive & Conditional active
! style="width:25%;" | Person
! style="width:25%;" | Subj. Pres.
! style="width:25%;" | Subj. Imp.
! style="width:25%;" | Cond. Pres.
|-
! ec
| abbia || avessi || avrebbi
|-
! þú
| abbia || avessi || avresti
|-
! e
| abbia || avesse || avrebbe
|-
! ve
| abbii || avessi || avrebbi
|-
! gio
| abbiaze || avessize || avreze
|-
! vi
| abbiamu || avessimu || avremmu
|-
! giu
| abbiate || avessite || avrete
|-
! i
| abbiano || avessino || avrebberono
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Subjunctive passive
! style="width:50%;" | Person
! style="width:50%;" | Present
|-
! ec
| abbiruo
|-
! þú
| abbisuo
|-
! e
| abbiþuo
|-
! ve
| abbinduo
|-
! gio
| abbinduo
|-
! vi
| abbinduo
|-
! giu
| abbinduo
|-
! i
| abbinduo
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Imperative
! style="width:34%;" | Person
! style="width:33%;" | Affirmative
! style="width:33%;" | Negative
|-
! þú
| ave || non avere
|-
! gio
| aveze || non avere
|-
! giu
| avete || non avere
|}
===Adverbs===
Adverbs in Luthic are generally categorised into three main types based on their formation:
* Inherited irregular adverbs: a number of adverbs are directly inherited from Latin and Gothic. These forms are often irregular and do not follow a productive pattern. Examples include:
:: ondar “under”, èr “early”, sí “so”, sva “thus”, contra “against.”
* Adverbs in -e: a large class of regular adverbs is formed by attaching the suffix -e, a feature inherited from Latin, for instance:
:: fregionde “friendly”, rette “right.”
* Adverbs in -mente: following a pattern common to most Romance languages, another class of regular adverbs is formed by attaching the suffix -mente to the feminine form of an adjective, e.g.:
:: fragcamente “frankly”, angiamente “finally.”
===Prepositions===
Prepositions are used to specify the relationship between nouns, pronouns, and other parts of a sentence, particularly in spatial, temporal, or logical contexts. In many instances where a preposition might be used, Luthic employs a specific noun case instead. However, prepositions are used for clarity and to express nuances that cases alone cannot convey. Most prepositions govern a specific case, meaning the noun that follows must be inflected accordingly.
* Accusative: usually denote movement towards something, specially a destiny or a target. Examples include:
:: for “for”, þèr “through”, contra “against.”
* Dative: typically indicate static location, accompaniment, instrument, or beneficiary. Such as:
:: meþ “with”, fra “from”, neva “near.”
* Genitive: typically those expressing a position relative to a boundary such as ‘beyond’ and ‘outside’. For instance:
:: endana “beyond”, ovaro “over (moving across)”, otana “outside.”
A special class of locational prepositions, particularly those expressing in ‘in’, ana ‘on; at’, can govern two different cases. The choice of case is determined by the semantic distinction between motion and static location.
These prepositions govern the accusative case when expressing motion towards a destination (answering the question “where to?”).
They govern the dative case when expressing a static, unchanging location (answering the question “where at?”).
* (motion, accusative) gaggo neþana staþe. → I go into the place.
* (location, dative) bio neþamma staþi. → I am in the place.
The preposition ‘in’ is subject to sandhi, where its final nasal consonant assimilates to the place of articulation of the following sound. This results in four allomorphs, which are reflected in the orthography:
* im is used before labial consonants (e.g., p, b, v, f);
* ig (pronounced [iŋ]) is used before velar consonants (e.g., c, g);
* in is used before any vowel or any dental consonant (e.g. t, d);
* i is used before sonorants, such as m, n, r and l.
A key feature is the mandatory contraction of certain prepositions with the definite article that follows them. These articulated prepositions merge the two words into a single form. The resulting form depends on the specific preposition and the gender, number, and case of the article.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:50%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Prepositional articles
! style="width:14%;" |
! style="width:14%;" | m.sg.
! style="width:14%;" | f.sg.
! style="width:14%;" | n.sg.
! style="width:14%;" | m.pl.
! style="width:14%;" | f.pl.
! style="width:14%;" | n.pl.
|-
! a
| aþþana || aþþa || aþþata || aþþe || aþþi || aþþa
|-
! di
| deþana || deþa || deþata || deþe || deþi || deþa
|-
! du
| doþamma || doþamma || doþamma || doþe || doþe || doþe
|-
! for
| foþþana || foþþa || foþþata || foþþe || foþþi || foþþa
|-
! fra (acc.)
| fraþana || fraþa || fraþata || fraþe || fraþi || fraþa
|-
! fra (dat.)
| fraþamma || fraþamma || fraþamma || fraþe || fraþe || fraþe
|-
! in (acc.)
| neþana || neþa || neþata || neþe || neþi || neþa
|-
! in (dat.)
| neþamma || neþamma || neþamma || neþe || neþe || neþe
|-
! ana (acc.)
| naþana || naþa || naþata || naþe || naþi || naþa
|-
! ana (dat.)
| naþamma || naþamma || naþamma || naþe || naþe || naþe
|-
! meþ
| meþþamma || meþþamma || meþþamma || meþþe || meþþe || meþþe
|}
===Conjunctions===
Conjunctions are invariable words that link other words, phrases, or clauses. Luthic distinguishes between two main classes of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating, based on the grammatical relationship they establish between the elements they connect.
Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements. Luthic possesses a nuanced system where the choice of conjunction often depends on the context of polarity (affirmative vs. negative) and contrast.
* gio and -vu (and): the primary conjunction for simple addition is gio. For contexts involving a binary contrast, Luthic employs the enclitic suffix -vu, which attaches to the second element to link it with the first, often carrying a slightly adversative nuance.
* eþ, aþþa, ac and òc (but): the choice of the adversative conjunction depends on the polarity of the first clause. “Ac” is used after a negative statement to introduce a correction or a mutually exclusive alternative. “Òc” is used after an affirmative statement to introduce a simple contrast. “Eþ, aþþa” are used when the clause (usually the first) is adversative and/or there is no polarity before.
* eþþuo and neþþa (or/nor): for alternatives, eþþuo is the general conjunction ‘or’ used in affirmative contexts. In negative contexts, neþþa is used to link negated alternatives.
* þuo (than): it is used in comparisons, to introduce the basis of the comparison, usually seeking to measure the force of an adjective or similar description between two predicates.
Subordinating conjunctions introduce a dependent (or subordinate) clause and connect it to an independent (main) clause. They establish a specific relationship between the clauses, such as time, cause, or condition. Many of these conjunctions, particularly those introducing clauses of purpose, condition, or other non-factual events, require the verb of the subordinate clause to be in the subjunctive mood. Subordinating conjunctions can be grouped by their function:
* Complementiser: í is used to introduce a noun clause that functions as the subject or object of a verb. This form is identical to the relative pronoun í.
* Conditional: the conditional conjunction is giavè “if”. Unreal or hypothetical conditions require the subjunctive mood.
* Causal: the causal conjunctions are þande “because, since” and svi “as”, which introduces a clause that provides the reason or cause for the action in the main clause.
* Temporal: van “when” and mentre “while” introduce temporal clauses; van specifies the point in time of an action, while mentre is used to indicate a simultaneous, ongoing action.
* Purpose: the primary conjunction of purpose is forvo “so that, in order that”, which introduces a clause stating the goal of the main action. The verb in a purpose clause is typically in the subjunctive mood, as it expresses a desired, non-factual outcome.
* Concessive: sibbiene “although, though” introduces a clause that presents an obstacle or a counter-argument to the main clause. The following verb is always in the subjunctive mood.
===Numerals===
Luthic distinguishes between cardinal numerals (answering ‘how many?’) and ordinal numerals (answering ‘which in order?’).
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Cardinals
! style="width:30%;" | #
! style="width:70%;" | Form
|-
! 1
| ienu, iena, ieno
|-
! 2
| tue, tui, tua
|-
! 3
| þrei, þrei, þregia
|-
! 4
| feddor
|-
! 5
| fife
|-
! 6
| sè
|-
! 7
| siu
|-
! 8
| attuo
|-
! 9
| niu
|-
! 10
| ziu
|}
The Luthic word for 0 is zephero, a regular Class 3 neuter noun. While ienu, iena and ieno follows a regular Class 1, 2 & 3 declension, tui, tue, tua and þrei have irregular plurale tantum paradigms. Other numbers are indeclinable.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ tue
! style="width:25%;" | Case
! style="width:25%;" | m.
! style="width:25%;" | f.
! style="width:25%;" | n.
|-
! nom.
| tue || tui || tua
|-
! gen.
| tuaggi || tuaggio || tuaggi
|-
! acc.
| tue || tui || tua
|-
! dat.
| tue || tue || tue
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ 11–19
! style="width:30%;" | #
! style="width:70%;" | Form
|-
! 11
| ellefe
|-
! 12
| tuolefe
|-
! 13
| þriziu
|-
! 14
| feddorziu
|-
! 15
| fifeziu
|-
! 16
| seziu
|-
! 17
| siuziu
|-
! 18
| attoziu
|-
! 19
| niuziu
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Tens
! style="width:30%;" | #
! style="width:70%;" | Form
|-
! 20
| venta
|-
! 30
| þrinta
|-
! 40
| feddoranta
|-
! 50
| fifanta
|-
! 60
| sessanta
|-
! 70
| siunta
|-
! 80
| attanta
|-
! 90
| niunta
|-
! 100
| ondo
|}
Combinations of a decade and a unit are constructed in a regular way: the decade comes first followed by the unit. No spaces are written between them. Vowel collision triggers an interpunct. For example:
* 28 venta·attuo;
* 73 siuntaþrei;
* 81 attanta·ienu.
The numeral ondo (100) functions as a regular Class 3 neuter noun. Because it is a noun itself, it does not agree in gender with the noun it quantifies. The higher hundreds are pluralia tantum formed by compounding the base numeral with -(o)nda, the plural form of ondo.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ 200–1000
! style="width:30%;" | #
! style="width:70%;" | Form
|-
! 200
| tuonda
|-
! 300
| þrionda
|-
! 400
| feddoronda
|-
! 500
| fifonda
|-
! 600
| seonda
|-
! 700
| siunda
|-
! 800
| attonda
|-
! 900
| niunda
|-
! 1000
| mille
|}
Combinations of a hundred and a lower number are expressed by just placing them together, with the hundred coming first:
* 111 ondo·elfe;
* 164 ondosessantafeddor;
* 788 siunda·attanta·attuo.
Mille is a regular Class 4 noun. Combinations of a thousand and a lower number are expressed by placing them together, with the thousand coming first. A space is written between them:
* 1 066 mille sessantasè;
* 9 011 niumilli ellefe;
* 61 500 sessanta·ienomilli fifonda;
* 123 456 ondoventaþreimilli feddorondafifantasè.
For numerals of one million (millione Class 4) and above (milliarde Class 4), Luthic employs the long scale system, common throughout continental Europe.
* millione: 10⁶ (one million);
* milliarde: 10⁹ (one thousand million);
* billione: 10¹² (one million million);
* billiarde: 10¹⁵ (one thousand million million).
Luthic’s ordinals, besides a few irregular suppleted forms, use the suffix -þo or -to before fricatives (Class 1n). The historic cluster -fto resulted in -tto.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ 1st–10th
! style="width:30%;" | #
! style="width:70%;" | Form
|-
! 1st
| fromo (Class 1n)
|-
! 2nd
| aþaru
|-
! 3rd
| þriþo
|-
! 4th
| fedorþo
|-
! 5th
| fitto
|-
! 6th
| sesto
|-
! 7th
| siuþo
|-
! 8th
| attuþo
|-
! 9th
| niuþo
|-
! 10th
| ziuþo
|}
Ordinals agree in gender, acting as Class 1, 2 & 3 adjectives. Zephero becomes zepheroþo.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:30%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ 11th–1000th
! style="width:30%;" | #
! style="width:70%;" | Form
|-
! 11th
| elletto
|-
! 12th
| tuoletto
|-
! 13th
| þriziuþo
|-
! 14th
| feddorziuþo
|-
! 15th
| fifeziuþo
|-
! 16th
| seziuþo
|-
! 17th
| siuziuþo
|-
! 18th
| attoziuþo
|-
! 19th
| niuziuþo
|-
! 20th
| ventaþo
|-
! 30th
| þrintaþo
|-
! 40th
| feddorantaþo
|-
! 50th
| fifantaþo
|-
! 60th
| sessantaþo
|-
! 70th
| siuntaþo
|-
! 80th
| attantaþo
|-
! 90th
| niuntaþo
|-
! 100th
| ondoþo
|-
! 200th
| tuondaþo
|-
! 300th
| þriondaþo
|-
! 400th
| feddorondaþo
|-
! 500th
| fifondaþo
|-
! 600th
| seondaþo
|-
! 700th
| siundaþo
|-
! 800th
| attondaþo
|-
! 900th
| niundaþo
|-
! 1000th
| milleþo
|}
Multiple numbers only take the suffix in the last element:
* 123 ondoventaþriþo;
* 2011 tuemilli elletto.
Bigger numbers follow the same logic:
* millionth millioneþo;
* billionth milliardeþo.
===Syntax===
The fundamental principle of clause structure is the Verb-Second (V2) word order. This rule dictates that in any declarative main clause, the finite (conjugated) verb must always appear in the second position. The first position is occupied by the sentence’s topic, which can be the subject or another element (such as an adverb or object) moved to the front for emphasis. When a non-subject element occupies the first position, the subject must be inverted and placed after the verb.
: dregco þata vato.
: dregc-o þata vat-o
: drink-1SG the water
: “I drink the water.”
: þata vato dregco.
: þata vat-o dregc-o
: the water drink-1SG
: “The water is what I drink.”
: bii liuvalicu.
: bi-i liuv-a-lic-u
: be-2SG adorable
: “You are adorable.”
: liuvalicu bii
: liuv-a-lic-u bi-i
: adorable be-2SG
: “Adorable is what you are.”
In contrast, subordinate clauses (introduced by conjunctions like í, ei, si, or þande) follow a strict Verb-Final (VF) word order, where the finite verb is placed at the very end of the clause.
: galuovo í, betese sarebbe si eta
: ga=luov-o í betes-e sar-ebb-e si eta
: think-1SG that better be-COND.3SG if it
: crai togissimu.
: crai tog-iss-imu
: tomorrow do-SUBJ.IMPF.1PL
: “I think that it would be better if we did it tomorrow.”
Yes/no questions and direct commands use a Verb-First (V1) word order. Questions with an interrogative pronoun (e.g., vata) maintain the V2 structure, with the interrogative pronoun in the first position.
: gai þú snele?
: ga-i þú snel-e
: walk-2SG you fast
: “Do you walk fast?”
: togi þú svasvi qeþo!
: tog-i þú svasvi qeþ-o
: do-IMP.2SG you as say-1SG
: “Do as I say!”
: vata togi þú?
: vata tog-i þú
: what do-2SG you
: “What are you doing?”
Non-finite verb forms (infinitives, participles) and separable verb particles are placed at the end of the main clause.
: Sa mina fregionda è aþþa festa anaqemando.
: s-a min-a fregi-ond-a è aþ=þa festa ana=qem-and-o
: the my friend is to=the party on=come-GER
: “My friend is arriving (oncoming) at the party.”
: sa mina fregionda qemò aþþa festa ana.
: s-a min-a fregi-ond-a qem-ò aþ=þa fest-a ana
: the my friend came to=the party on
: “My friend arrived (came on) at the party.”
As a rule, the subject pronoun is omitted unless it is expressed for emphasis, clusivity or clarity. Double emphasis can be used.
: snele bii þú.
: snel-e bi-i þú
: fast be-2SG you
: “Fast is what you really are.”
====Case usage====
The primary function of the accusative case is to mark the direct object of a transitive verb, indicating the patient or receiver of the action. In addition to this role, the accusative is used in a variety of adverbial contexts, often without a governing preposition. These functions include expressing:
* Extent of space: qervò þri chilometri. “He walked three kilometres”
* Duration of time: non bidò ieno dago. “He didn’t wait for one day”
* Place when: þana staþe. “In/on this place”
:* Sometimes prepositional: neþþana staþe. “id.”
* Time when: gieno ventru. “In/at/during that winter”
* Within which: licchie ore schia svoltare. “Within a few hours he shall die”
A preposition is typically required for these temporal and locative uses only when the accusative form of the noun is identical to its nominative form (i.e., with feminine, neuter, and all plural nouns) in order to avoid ambiguity.
The main function of the dative case is to mark the indirect object of a verb, typically indicating the recipient, beneficiary, or the entity affected by the action. Beyond this core role, the dative has a wide range of adverbial and instrumental functions. It is used to express:
* Purpose: manne non obbia, òc goþa toginda. “Humans are not made for evil, but for good”
* Action for: þu schio elpare þi fregionde þine. “I must help your friends for you”
* Purpose for action for: qeno nasini bio. “I am the (cause of) salvation for women”
* Action against: þamma þina fregiatada schio duoþare þuc. “Against/in opposition to your freedom I shall kill you”
* Purpose for action against: manne duoþa bio. “I am the (cause of) death for men” (affects negatively)
* Concerning: vata þú me schia togire? “What will you do for me (expressing the speaker being especially interested in what the other is doing for him or her)?”
* Instrument: screvo penna. “I write with a pen”
* Means: sevo uogona. “I see with the eyes”
* Impersonal agent: gaduoþaþa coltella velvi. “He was killed by the knife of the robber”
* Manner: fregio þuc manage fregiaþþe. “I love you with many affection”
:* Prepositional if with no adjective: fregio þuc meþ fregiaþþe. “I love you with affection”
* Accompaniment: schio qemare fregionda. “I shall come with friends”
* Sometimes prepositional: schio qemare meþ fregionda. “id.”
* Degree of difference: alþeso iena giera. “He is older by a few years”
* Quality: ienu vieru summa onestada. “A man of highest honesty”
* Separation: schio copire þan’ovelo þu. “I shall keep the evil away from you”
* Motion away (prepositional): giupa Ravenna du America furondo. “They went from Ravenna to America”
*- Comparison (adjectival): qeno scuonesa. “More beautiful than women”
* Cause: greto ira gio agi. “I cry with anger and fear” (marks the reason)
The dative also serves a special grammatical function as the impersonal agent in passive constructions, where it marks an inanimate tool or force.
The genitive case primarily expresses possession. However, its functions extend to several other important relational and descriptive roles:
* Material: sa celecna stieni. “The tower made of stone”
* Author/creator or personal agent: sa celecna togiþa andevi mino. “This tower was built by my hands”
* Behaviour: molle vati. “Soft like water”
:* Often displaced by the relative adverb: molle svasvi vato. “Soft like water”
==Research==
Luthic is a well-documented language, supported by numerous academic departments in Italy devoted either specifically to Luthic or to linguistics more broadly, many of which maintain active research programs on the language. Ravenna serves as a major center of study, particularly through institutions such as the Linguistic Circle of Ravenna (Luthic: Crizzo Rasdavetascapetico Ravenne; Italian: Circolo Linguistico di Ravenna) at Ravenna University. A wide range of lexicographical and technological resources has been developed to support Luthic studies, and the language council Gaforþe folla Rasda Lúthica regularly publishes research at both national and international levels. Scholarly descriptions of the language appear in Luthic, Italian, and English, reflecting the interdisciplinary and multilingual character of current research. The most comprehensive grammar to date is Grammatica le Lúthice Rasde (“Grammar of the Luthic Language”) by Alessandru Fiscar and Luca Vagnar, written entirely in Luthic and spanning more than 600 pages. Several corpora are also available, including the Luthic Online Dictionary Project, which offers a curated lexicon of over 35,000 entries.
The Ravenna School of Linguistics emerged around Giuvanni Laggobardi and his evolving theory of language within the framework of structuralist linguistics. Together with Sognafreþu Rossi, Laggobardi founded the Circle of Linguistics of Ravenna in 1964, modeled after the Prague Linguistic Circle. Beginning in 1970, Ravenna University introduced courses in languages and philosophy; however, students were required to complete their final examinations at the Accademia della Crusca in order to graduate.
In 1990, the Ravenna University Circle of Phonological Development (Luthic: Crizzo Sviluppi Phonologici Ieniversitadi Ravenna) was established, though research on the earliest stages of Luthic phonological history remains limited. A decade later, in 2000, the Ravenna University Circle of Theology (Luthic: Crizzo Thiulogie Ieniversitadi Ravenna) was founded in collaboration with the Ravenna Cathedral, officially the Metropolitan Cathedral of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ (Luthic: Cathedrale metropolitana deþe Ostassi Nostri Signori Giesuo Christi; Italian: Cattedrale metropolitana della Risurrezione di Nostro Signore Gesù Cristo; commonly referred to as the Duomo di Ravenna).
===Phonological development===
Research on the earliest stages of phonological development in Luthic has focused on how infants acquire the ability to organize sounds into meaningful linguistic units. Phonological development refers here to the gradual process by which children, during early growth and language acquisition, establish a phoneme inventory and internalize the phonotactic constraints of the language.
* Phoneme inventory and phonotactics
In the initial stages of word production, word-final consonants are rarely realised; consonants occur primarily in word-initial or intervocalic positions. By around six months of age, infants show sensitivity to the prosodic features of the ambient language, which allows them to segment continuous speech into meaningful units. At this stage, they are also able to distinguish stressed from unstressed syllables, reflecting an emerging awareness of the rhythmic and intonational properties of spoken Luthic.
* Around 10 months
Most consonants occur only in word-initial position, notably the voiced stops /d/ and /b/ and the nasal /m/. Voiceless stops /t/, /p/, and, less frequently, /k/ are also attested, sometimes functioning as allophones. A clear preference for front places of articulation is observed. Clicks may occur, primarily in the context of imitative behaviors (e.g., suckling, raspberries). Babbling becomes more structured, shifting from earlier vocal play to canonical reduplicated babbling (CVCV). Consonant clusters remain absent. First words usually emerge around 12 months, commonly in a CVCV format, such as mama (“mother”), papa (“father”), and dada (“give me!”).
* 21 months
The phonetic inventory expands to include the nasal /n/, the voiceless affricate /t͡ʃ/ (an allophone of /t ~ d/, since voicing is not yet contrastive), and the liquid /l/. The preference for anterior articulation persists, often resulting in palatalisation.
* 24 months
Additional fricatives appear, including /f ~ v/ and /s/, which may undergo palatalisation to /ʃ/, typically in intervocalic positions. Voicing begins to function as a contrastive feature. Onomatopoeic expressions become increasingly common (e.g., /aw aw/ for dog barking, /ow/ or more typically /aj/ for pain). Trisyllabic words emerge, generally following a C₁VC₂VC₃V pattern. Consonant clusters are now attested and frequently show consonant harmony (e.g., -mb-, -nd-, -dr-), although voiced–voiceless clusters such as -mp- and -tr- remain rare.
* 30 months
At this stage, children produce approximately equal numbers of phones in both word-initial and intervocalic positions. The voiced stop /ɡ/ and additional consonant clusters are introduced. Coarticulated segments, including labio-velar plosives, begin to occur. Alveolar and bilabial articulations dominate, while labiodental and postalveolar usage increases and velar production declines. Luthic-specific lenition processes become evident, characterised by a rise in fricatives and approximants. Children display greater awareness of syllabic segmentation than of phonemic segmentation.
* Word processes
These phonological processes may happen within a range of 3 to 6 years.
: Nasal assimilation: Non-nasal segments assimilate to a neighboring nasal (e.g., [ˈrɛn.dɐ] → [ˈnen.nɐ]).
: Weak syllable deletion: Unstressed syllables, particularly in initial or final positions, are omitted (e.g., [bɐˈnaː.nɐ] → [ˈna.nɐ]).
: Coda deletion: Final consonants or codas are omitted (e.g., [vɐr] → [vɐ]; [ˈbroː.dɐr] → [ˈbro.dɐ] or [ˈbro]).
: Consonant harmony: One consonant assimilates to another within the word (e.g., [vɐn] → [vɐɱ]; [ˈstɛk.kɐ] → [ˈstɛt.tɐ]).
: Coalescence: Adjacent consonants merge into one with shared features (e.g., [ˈzbaf.fu] → [ˈvaf.fu], realised as [ˈva.fu]).
: Cluster reduction: Consonant clusters are simplified (e.g., [oˈrek̟.k̟jɐ] → [oˈrej.jɐ] or [ˈre.jɐ]).
: Velar fronting: Velar plosives are replaced with alveolars before front vowels (e.g., [ki] → [ti] or [t͡ʃi]).
: Stopping or affrication: Fricatives are replaced by stops or affricates near front vowels (e.g., [si] → [ti] or [t͡ʃi]).
: Gliding: Liquids and taps are replaced by glides (e.g., [ˈkaː.ru] → [ˈka.wu]; [ˈaʎ.ʎo] → [ˈaj.jo]).
* 6 years
By this stage, children typically command an adult-like phonemic inventory. Their ability to produce complex phonotactic sequences and multisyllabic lexical items is largely established, though refinement continues throughout middle childhood.
==Typology==
Luthic has right symmetry, as do other VO languages (verb before object) like English.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; width:75%; table-layout:fixed;"
|+ Typological correlations
! style="width:40%;" | Correlation
! style="width:30%;" | VO language
! style="width:30%;" | Examples
|-
! Adposition type
| prepositions
| of..., than..., on...
|-
! Order of noun and genitive
| noun before genitive
| father + of John
|-
! Order of adjective and standard of comparison
| adjective before standard
| taller + than Bob
|-
! Order of verb and adpositional phrase
| verb before adpositional phrase
| slept + on the floor
|-
! Order of verb and manner adverb
| verb before manner adverb
| ran + slowly
|-
! Order of copula and predicative
| copula before predicate
| is + a teacher
|-
! Order of auxiliary verb and content verb
| auxiliary before content verb
| want + to see Mary
|-
! Place of adverbial subordinator in clause
| clause-initial subordinators
| because + Bob has left
|-
! Order of noun and relative clause
| noun before relative clause
| movies + that we saw
|}
==Sample text==
: Sacavano so vendu norde þata sòilo·vu, vaiu so forteso vá, van ienu pellegrinu, þamma acchia varma avviluppatu, anaqemò.
: sac-av-ano so vend-u nord-e þata sòil-o=vu vai-u so fort-es-o vá van ien-u pellegrin-u þamma acchi-a varm-a avvilupp-at-u ana-qem-ò.
: dispute-IPFV-3PL DEF.NOM.M.SG wind-NOM.SG north-NOM.SG DEF.NOM.N.SG sun-NOM.SG=CONJ which-NOM.SG DEF.NOM.M.SG strong-CMPR-NOM.M.SG be.PST.3SG when INDF.NOM.M.SG traveler-NOM.SG. DEF.DAT.M.SG cloak-DAT.SG warm-DAT.SG wrap-PTCP-NOM.M.SG on-come-PRF.3SG.
: Disputed the North Wind the Sun-and, which the stronger was, when a traveler, (in) the cloak warm wrapped, arrived.
: Sammirano i í, vaiu fromo þan’acchio þe pellegrini rimuovere magassi, so forteso þamm’aþera duomitu sarebbe.
: samm-irano i í vai-u from-o þan=acchi-o þe pellegrin-i rimuov-ere mag-ass-i so fort-es-o þamm=aþer-a duom-it-u sar-ebbe.
: agree-PRF.3PL 3PL.NOM COMP REL-NOM.SG. first-ADV DEF.ACC.M.SG=cloak-ACC.SG DEF.GEN.M.SG traveler-GEN.SG remove-INF able-IPFV.SBJV-3SG DEF.NOM.M.SG strong-CMPR-NOM.SG DEF.DAT.SG=other-DAT.SG judge-PTCP-NOM.M.SG be-COND.3SG.
: Agreed they that, who first the cloak of-the traveler to-remove might/could, the stronger than-the other considered would-be.
: Þan soffiò so vendu norde ardumente í, mageva, ac þan miese soffiava, þan miese servò so pellegrinu þan’acchio bi se.
: Þan soffi-ò so vend-u nord-e ard-u-mente í mag-ev-a ac þan mies-e soffi-av-a þan mies-e serv-ò so pellegrin-u þan=acchi-o bi se.
: then blow-PRF.3SG DEF.NOM.M.SG wind-NOM.SG north-NOM.SG hard-THM-ADV COMP able-IPFV-3SG but the more-ADV blow-IPFV-3SG the more-ADV fold-PRF.3SG DEF.NOM.M.SG traveler-NOM.SG DEF.ACC.M.SG=cloak-ACC.SG around REFL.DAT.
: Then blew the wind north hard-ly as able-was, but the more blew, the more folded the traveler the=cloak around himself.
: Gio angiamente aggevò so vendu norde þana sforzo. Þan scinò þata sòilo varmamente, gio immediatamente rimuové so pellegrinu þan’acchio.
: Gio angi-a-mente aggev-ò so vend-u nord-e þana sforz-o þan scin-ò þata sòil-o varm-a-mente gio immediat-a-mente rimuov-é so pellegrin-u þan=acchi-o
: and end-THM-ADV give.up-PRF.3SG DEF.NOM.M.SG wind-NOM.SG north-ADJ DEF.ACC.M.SG effort-ACC.SG then shine-PRF.3SG DEF.NOM.N.SG sun-NOM.SG warm-THM-ADV and immediate-THM-ADV remove-PRF.3SG DEF.NOM.M.SG traveler-NOM.SG DEF.ACC.M.SG=cloak-ACC.SG
: And finally gave-up the wind north the effort. Then shone the sun warm-ly, and immediately removed the traveler the=cloak.
: Sva obbligatu fú so vendu norde ad andetare í, þata sòilo so forteso tuaggi vá.
: Sva obblig-at-u fú so vend-u nord-e ad andet-are í þata sòil-o so fort-es-o tu-aggi vá.
: thus oblige-PTCP-NOM.M.SG be.PRF.3SG DEF.NOM.M.SG wind-NOM.SG north-ADJ to confess-INF COMP DEF.NOM.N.SG sun-NOM.SG DEF.NOM.M.SG strong-CMPR-NOM.SG two-GEN.PL be.PST.3SG
: Thus obliged was the wind north to confess that, the sun the stronger of-two was.


==See also==
==See also==
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