Sambahsa - Revision history

Учхљёная at 22:01, 24 April 2021

2021-04-24T22:01:10Z

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	}}		}}

	'''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-Mundialect''' is an [[~~:Category:Auxlangs\|~~international auxiliary language]] (IAL) devised by [[w:French people\|French]] linguist Dr. Olivier Simon.<ref name="OS">{{cite web \|url= http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=The Official Website of Sambahsa \|author=Dr. Olivier Simon \|year=2010\| accessdate= 2011-02-18}}</ref>		'''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-Mundialect''' is an [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) devised by [[w:French people\|French]] linguist Dr. Olivier Simon.<ref name="OS">{{cite web \|url= http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=The Official Website of Sambahsa \|author=Dr. Olivier Simon \|year=2010\| accessdate= 2011-02-18}}</ref>
	Among [[~~Auxiliary language~~\|IALs]] it is categorized as a [[wikt:worldlang\|worldlang]]. It is based on the [[w:Proto-Indo-European language\|Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE) and has a relatively complex grammar.<ref name="Mithridates">{{cite web \|url=http://www.pagef30.com/2009/05/why-you-should-keep-your-eye-on.html\|title=Why You Should Keep an Eye on Sambahsa \|author=Mithridates \|date =2009-05-14 \|accessdate =2011-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=sambahsa / FrontPage\|website=sambahsa.pbworks.com\|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>		Among [[:Category:Auxlangs\|IALs]] it is categorized as a [[wikt:worldlang\|worldlang]]. It is based on the [[w:Proto-Indo-European language\|Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE) and has a relatively complex grammar.<ref name="Mithridates">{{cite web \|url=http://www.pagef30.com/2009/05/why-you-should-keep-your-eye-on.html\|title=Why You Should Keep an Eye on Sambahsa \|author=Mithridates \|date =2009-05-14 \|accessdate =2011-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=sambahsa / FrontPage\|website=sambahsa.pbworks.com\|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>
	The language was first released on the Internet in July 2007; prior to that, the creator claims to have worked on it for eight years. According to one of the rare academic studies addressing recent auxiliary languages, "Sambahsa has an extensive vocabulary and a large amount of learning and reference material".<ref>"The Representation of Korean and Other Altaic Languages in Artificial International Auxiliary Languages" in ''Journal of Universal Language'', March 2012, p.153, by Alan Reed Libert.</ref>		The language was first released on the Internet in July 2007; prior to that, the creator claims to have worked on it for eight years. According to one of the rare academic studies addressing recent auxiliary languages, "Sambahsa has an extensive vocabulary and a large amount of learning and reference material".<ref>"The Representation of Korean and Other Altaic Languages in Artificial International Auxiliary Languages" in ''Journal of Universal Language'', March 2012, p.153, by Alan Reed Libert.</ref>

Учхљёная at 21:18, 24 April 2021

2021-04-24T21:18:50Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:18, 24 April 2021
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	'''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-Mundialect''' is an [[:Category:Auxlangs\|international auxiliary language]] (IAL) devised by [[w:French people\|French]] linguist Dr. Olivier Simon.<ref name="OS">{{cite web \|url= http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=The Official Website of Sambahsa \|author=Dr. Olivier Simon \|year=2010\| accessdate= 2011-02-18}}</ref>		'''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-Mundialect''' is an [[:Category:Auxlangs\|international auxiliary language]] (IAL) devised by [[w:French people\|French]] linguist Dr. Olivier Simon.<ref name="OS">{{cite web \|url= http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=The Official Website of Sambahsa \|author=Dr. Olivier Simon \|year=2010\| accessdate= 2011-02-18}}</ref>
	Among [[~~w:International auxiliary languages~~\|IALs]] it is categorized as a [[wikt:worldlang\|worldlang]]. It is based on the [[w:Proto-Indo-European language\|Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE) and has a relatively complex grammar.<ref name="Mithridates">{{cite web \|url=http://www.pagef30.com/2009/05/why-you-should-keep-your-eye-on.html\|title=Why You Should Keep an Eye on Sambahsa \|author=Mithridates \|date =2009-05-14 \|accessdate =2011-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=sambahsa / FrontPage\|website=sambahsa.pbworks.com\|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>		Among [[Auxiliary language\|IALs]] it is categorized as a [[wikt:worldlang\|worldlang]]. It is based on the [[w:Proto-Indo-European language\|Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE) and has a relatively complex grammar.<ref name="Mithridates">{{cite web \|url=http://www.pagef30.com/2009/05/why-you-should-keep-your-eye-on.html\|title=Why You Should Keep an Eye on Sambahsa \|author=Mithridates \|date =2009-05-14 \|accessdate =2011-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=sambahsa / FrontPage\|website=sambahsa.pbworks.com\|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>
	The language was first released on the Internet in July 2007; prior to that, the creator claims to have worked on it for eight years. According to one of the rare academic studies addressing recent auxiliary languages, "Sambahsa has an extensive vocabulary and a large amount of learning and reference material".<ref>"The Representation of Korean and Other Altaic Languages in Artificial International Auxiliary Languages" in ''Journal of Universal Language'', March 2012, p.153, by Alan Reed Libert.</ref>		The language was first released on the Internet in July 2007; prior to that, the creator claims to have worked on it for eight years. According to one of the rare academic studies addressing recent auxiliary languages, "Sambahsa has an extensive vocabulary and a large amount of learning and reference material".<ref>"The Representation of Korean and Other Altaic Languages in Artificial International Auxiliary Languages" in ''Journal of Universal Language'', March 2012, p.153, by Alan Reed Libert.</ref>

Учхљёная at 21:15, 24 April 2021

2021-04-24T21:15:51Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:15, 24 April 2021
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	~~{{short description\|Language}}~~
	{{Infobox language		{{Infobox language
	\|name=Sambahsa-Mundialect		\|name=Sambahsa-Mundialect

Учхљёная: Fixed a few things such as redlinks. Someone should come back to this and more thoroughly work on it.

2021-04-24T21:15:29Z

Fixed a few things such as redlinks. Someone should come back to this and more thoroughly work on it.

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:15, 24 April 2021
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	{{Infobox language		{{Infobox language
	\|name=Sambahsa-Mundialect		\|name=Sambahsa-Mundialect
			\|familycolor=Indo-European
	\|creator=Dr. Olivier Simon		\|creator=Dr. Olivier Simon
	\|created=2007		\|created=2007
	\|iso3=none		\|iso3=none
	~~\|glotto=none~~
	}}		}}

	'''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-Mundialect''' is an [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) devised by [[French people\|French]] linguist Dr. Olivier Simon.<ref name="OS">{{cite web \|url= http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=The Official Website of Sambahsa \|author=Dr. Olivier Simon \|year=2010\| accessdate= 2011-02-18}}</ref>		'''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-Mundialect''' is an [[:Category:Auxlangs\|international auxiliary language]] (IAL) devised by [[w:French people\|French]] linguist Dr. Olivier Simon.<ref name="OS">{{cite web \|url= http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=The Official Website of Sambahsa \|author=Dr. Olivier Simon \|year=2010\| accessdate= 2011-02-18}}</ref>
	Among [[~~international~~ auxiliary languages\|~~IAL~~]]s it is categorized as a [[wikt:worldlang\|worldlang]]. It is based on the [[Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE) and has a relatively complex grammar.<ref name="Mithridates">{{cite web \|url=http://www.pagef30.com/2009/05/why-you-should-keep-your-eye-on.html\|title=Why You Should Keep an Eye on Sambahsa \|author=Mithridates \|date =2009-05-14 \|accessdate =2011-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=sambahsa / FrontPage\|website=sambahsa.pbworks.com\|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>		Among [[w:International auxiliary languages\|IALs]] it is categorized as a [[wikt:worldlang\|worldlang]]. It is based on the [[w:Proto-Indo-European language\|Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE) and has a relatively complex grammar.<ref name="Mithridates">{{cite web \|url=http://www.pagef30.com/2009/05/why-you-should-keep-your-eye-on.html\|title=Why You Should Keep an Eye on Sambahsa \|author=Mithridates \|date =2009-05-14 \|accessdate =2011-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage\|title=sambahsa / FrontPage\|website=sambahsa.pbworks.com\|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>
	The language was first released on the Internet in July 2007; prior to that, the creator claims to have worked on it for eight years. According to one of the rare academic studies addressing recent auxiliary languages, "Sambahsa has an extensive vocabulary and a large amount of learning and reference material".<ref>"The Representation of Korean and Other Altaic Languages in Artificial International Auxiliary Languages" in ''Journal of Universal Language'', March 2012, p.153, by Alan Reed Libert.</ref>		The language was first released on the Internet in July 2007; prior to that, the creator claims to have worked on it for eight years. According to one of the rare academic studies addressing recent auxiliary languages, "Sambahsa has an extensive vocabulary and a large amount of learning and reference material".<ref>"The Representation of Korean and Other Altaic Languages in Artificial International Auxiliary Languages" in ''Journal of Universal Language'', March 2012, p.153, by Alan Reed Libert.</ref>

	The first part of the name of the language, ''Sambahsa'', is composed of two words from the language itself, ''sam'' and ''bahsa'', which mean 'same' and 'language' respectively. Mundialect, on the other hand, is a [[Blend word\|fusion]] of ''mundial'' 'worldwide' and ''dialect'' 'dialect'.		The first part of the name of the language, ''Sambahsa'', is composed of two words from the language itself, ''sam'' and ''bahsa'', which mean 'same' and 'language' respectively. Mundialect, on the other hand, is a [[w:Blend word\|fusion]] of ''mundial'' 'worldwide' and ''dialect'' 'dialect'.

	Sambahsa tries to preserve the original spellings of words as much as possible and this makes its orthography complex, though still kept regular.<ref>A full analysis of Sambahsa (written in Esperanto) has been made by S.Auclair in ''La Riverego'' n°104, pp. 11-16, http://www.esperanto.qc.ca/files/riverego/Riverego-104.pdf</ref> There are four [[grammatical case]]s: [[nominative case\|nominative]], [[accusative case\|accusative]], [[dative case\|dative]] and [[genitive case\|genitive]].<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/27871608/Foreword-to-the-Sambahsa-Grammar-in-English\|title=Foreword to the Sambahsa Grammar in English\|author=Dave MacLeod\|year=2010\|accessdate=2011-02-02}}</ref>		Sambahsa tries to preserve the original spellings of words as much as possible and this makes its orthography complex, though still kept regular.<ref>A full analysis of Sambahsa (written in Esperanto) has been made by S.Auclair in ''La Riverego'' n°104, pp. 11-16, http://www.esperanto.qc.ca/files/riverego/Riverego-104.pdf</ref> There are four [[w:grammatical case\|grammatical cases]]: [[w:nominative case\|nominative]], [[w:accusative case\|accusative]], [[w:dative case\|dative]] and [[w:genitive case\|genitive]].<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/27871608/Foreword-to-the-Sambahsa-Grammar-in-English\|title=Foreword to the Sambahsa Grammar in English\|author=Dave MacLeod\|year=2010\|accessdate=2011-02-02}}</ref>

	~~<!--~~ Some language enthusiasts have said Sambahsa would have resulted had a kingdom been formed several millennia ago with PIE as its official tongue and remained intact until the present times.<ref name="Mithridates" /~~> --~~>		Some language enthusiasts have said Sambahsa would have resulted had a kingdom been formed several millennia ago with PIE as its official tongue and remained intact until the present times.<ref name="Mithridates" />
	Sambahsa, though based on PIE, borrows a good proportion of its vocabulary from languages such as [[Arabic language\|Arabic]], [[Chinese language\|Chinese]], [[Indonesian language\|Indonesian]], [[Swahili language\|Swahili]] and [[Turkish language\|Turkish]], which belong to various other [[~~language family~~\|language families]].<ref name="OS" />		Sambahsa, though based on PIE, borrows a good proportion of its vocabulary from languages such as [[w:Arabic language\|Arabic]], [[w:Chinese language\|Chinese]], [[w:Indonesian language\|Indonesian]], [[w:Swahili language\|Swahili]] and [[w:Turkish language\|Turkish]], which belong to various other [[:Category:Language families\|language families]].<ref name="OS" />

	==Phonology==		==Phonology==

Учхљёная: /* External links */ Fixed categories.

2021-04-24T21:02:06Z

External links: Fixed categories.

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	* [https://sambahsa.fandom.com/wiki/Sambahsa-mundialect_Wiki Sambahsa-mundialect Wiki]		* [https://sambahsa.fandom.com/wiki/Sambahsa-mundialect_Wiki Sambahsa-mundialect Wiki]

	~~{{Constructed languages}}~~		[[Category:Auxlangs]]

	[[Category:~~International auxiliary languages~~]]
	[[Category:Constructed languages introduced in the 2000s]]		[[Category:Constructed languages introduced in the 2000s]]
	[[Category:2007 introductions]]		[[Category:2007 introductions]]
	[[Category:~~Constructed languages~~]]		[[Category:Conlangs]]
			[[Category:Languages]]

Nicomega: Created page with "{{short description|Language}} {{Infobox language |name=Sambahsa-Mundialect |creator=Dr. Olivier Simon |created=2007 |iso3=none |glotto=none }} '''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-..."

2021-02-05T19:03:24Z

Created page with "{{short description|Language}} {{Infobox language |name=Sambahsa-Mundialect |creator=Dr. Olivier Simon |created=2007 |iso3=none |glotto=none }} '''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-..."

New page

{{short description|Language}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Sambahsa-Mundialect
|creator=Dr. Olivier Simon
|created=2007
|iso3=none
|glotto=none
}}

'''Sambahsa''' or '''Sambahsa-Mundialect''' is an [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) devised by [[French people|French]] linguist Dr. Olivier Simon.<ref name="OS">{{cite web |url= http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage|title=The Official Website of Sambahsa |author=Dr. Olivier Simon |year=2010| accessdate= 2011-02-18}}</ref>
Among [[international auxiliary languages|IAL]]s it is categorized as a [[wikt:worldlang|worldlang]]. It is based on the [[Proto-Indo-European language]] (PIE) and has a relatively complex grammar.<ref name="Mithridates">{{cite web |url=http://www.pagef30.com/2009/05/why-you-should-keep-your-eye-on.html|title=Why You Should Keep an Eye on Sambahsa |author=Mithridates |date =2009-05-14 |accessdate =2011-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage|title=sambahsa / FrontPage|website=sambahsa.pbworks.com|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref>
The language was first released on the Internet in July 2007; prior to that, the creator claims to have worked on it for eight years. According to one of the rare academic studies addressing recent auxiliary languages, "Sambahsa has an extensive vocabulary and a large amount of learning and reference material".<ref>"The Representation of Korean and Other Altaic Languages in Artificial International Auxiliary Languages" in ''Journal of Universal Language'', March 2012, p.153, by Alan Reed Libert.</ref>

The first part of the name of the language, ''Sambahsa'', is composed of two words from the language itself, ''sam'' and ''bahsa'', which mean 'same' and 'language' respectively. Mundialect, on the other hand, is a [[Blend word|fusion]] of ''mundial'' 'worldwide' and ''dialect'' 'dialect'.

Sambahsa tries to preserve the original spellings of words as much as possible and this makes its orthography complex, though still kept regular.<ref>A full analysis of Sambahsa (written in Esperanto) has been made by S.Auclair in ''La Riverego'' n°104, pp. 11-16, http://www.esperanto.qc.ca/files/riverego/Riverego-104.pdf</ref> There are four [[grammatical case]]s: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[dative case|dative]] and [[genitive case|genitive]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/27871608/Foreword-to-the-Sambahsa-Grammar-in-English|title=Foreword to the Sambahsa Grammar in English|author=Dave MacLeod|year=2010|accessdate=2011-02-02}}</ref>


Sambahsa, though based on PIE, borrows a good proportion of its vocabulary from languages such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], which belong to various other [[language family|language families]].<ref name="OS" />

==Phonology==
Sambahsa's phonology [http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/27811711/Sambahsa-pronunciation-in-English] has little to do with [[Proto-Indo-European phonology]], though the majority of its vocabulary comes from PIE.
The changes from PIE are not regular, since the creator of Sambahsa has tried to avoid [[homophones]], which would have become common after the elimination of some PIE sounds like [[Laryngeal theory|laryngeals]] or some [[aspiration (phonetics) |aspirated]] consonants. However, any person proficient with [[Proto-Indo-European root]]s will easily recognize them when they appear in Sambahsa.
Unlike some [[auxlang]]s like [[Esperanto]], Sambahsa does not use the "one letter = one sound" principle, nor [[diacritic]]s, but instead relies on a regular and complex system that combines the 26 letters of the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet|basic Latin alphabet]].<ref>"The strange quest for a universal "Earth Standard" language" by Esther Inglis-Arkell, 08-17-2012 : http://io9.com/5935563/the-strange-quest-for-a-universal-earth-standard-language</ref> This system was chosen to preserve the recognizability of words taken from West-European languages, where [[orthography]] plays a key role. For example, according to the rules of Sambahsa, ''[[wikt:fr: bureau|bureau]]'' is pronounced as in [[French language|French]], and ''[[wikt: point|point]]'' as in [[English language|English]].

Sambahsa has nine [[vowel]]s (not counting the lengthened form of these vowels), two [[semi-vowel]]s ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: [j] and [w]) and twenty [[consonant]]s.<ref>However, different versions of pronunciation of "r" are admitted, and the "ng" sound (as in English "sing") could be counted as a new sound, distinct from the conjunction of [n] + [g].</ref> To help language learners, and because [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] symbols cannot be written with all keyboards, a special simpler system has been developed, called ''Sambahsa Phonetic Transcription'', or ''SPT''.

Compared to other [[conlang]]s, Sambahsa words are short, often as short as English words, and highly consonantic.<ref>See this link on a French-speaking forum : http://aphil.forumn.net/t844p15-analyse-phonotactique-kotava-esperanto-uropi-et-autres?highlight=analyse+phon%E9tique</ref> This latter point is in accordance with the PIE background of Sambahsa, where roots have often a consonant-vocal-consonant structure.<ref>[[Emile Benveniste]], ''Origine de la formation des noms en Indo-Européen'': https://books.google.com/books?id=OD4IAQAAIAAJ</ref>

Likewise, Sambahsa's [[Stress (linguistics)|accentuation]] rules are complex but regular, and tend to follow what is often found in [[German language|German]] or [[Italian language|Italian]]. This predictability implies that all words with the same orthography are pronounced and stressed the same way as each other. Thus, for example, while German [http://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A4sident Präsident] and Italian [http://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/presidente#it presidente] are stressed on the "ent" syllable, Sambahsa ''president'' is stressed on the "i", since ''president'' can also mean "they preside", and a final "ent" never bears the stress. This regularity of accentuation can be compared with English [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/President "president"] and [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preside "to preside"], two words that bear the stress on different syllables, though they share the same origin.

==Grammar==
===Declensions===
In Sambahsa, [[declension]]s are only compulsory for [[pronoun]]s. The declensions of these pronouns (demonstrative/interrogative & relative/personal) are mostly parallel, and often show similarities with their [[Proto-Indo-European pronoun|Proto-Indo-European]] ancestors. Thus, in all Sambahsa declensions, the neuter nominative and accusative are identical, as it was the case in PIE.<ref>R.S.P. Beekes, ''Comparative Indo-European Linguistics'', J.Benjamins.Pub., p.195</ref> There are identical forms for the relative and interrogative pronouns,<ref>With the exception of the nominative singular masculine, as in [[Latin]], where the relative pronoun is ''qui'', and the interrogative form is ''quis''.</ref> as well as for the third person pronoun and the definite article ("the" in English).<ref>But the genitive form serves only for the definite article, while the possessive pronouns have special forms (otherwise, confusions could have arisen).</ref>

Sambahsa has two numbers (singular and plural; the [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual number]] of PIE has not been preserved) and four [[grammatical gender]]s : masculine, feminine, neuter, and "undetermined". This last gender, which is an innovation from PIE, is used when a noun of uncertain or unknown gender is referred to, and, in the plural, for groups containing elements of different genders. The creator of Sambahsa introduced this non-PIE element to avoid the "gender" dispute found in [[Gender reform in Esperanto|Esperanto]].

Gender is attributed in Sambahsa according to the "true nature" of the noun referred to, as [[English language|English]] speakers do with ''he'', ''she'' and ''it''.

Sambahsa has four [[grammatical case]]s: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[dative case|dative]] and [[genitive case|genitive]]; however, their attribution tries to be as logical as possible, and not arbitrary as in many modern [[Indo-European languages]]. The nominative is the case of the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]], and the form under which words are given in dictionaries. Except for verbs describing a movement or a position (where the appropriate [[preposition]]s ought to be used), all [[transitive verb]]s must introduce the [[accusative case]] in the first place, before an eventual [[dative case]]. However, the [[dependent clause]] of [[indirect speech]] is considered as a direct [[Object (grammar)|object]], leading to verbs introducing an indirect object, even if there is no visible direct object.

Compare :
* ''Is mi antwehrdt od is ne gwehmsiet cras'' = "He answers (to) me that he won't come tomorrow"
* ''Is ne mi hat antwohrden'' = "He hasn't answered (to) me"

In Sambahsa, all [[Preposition and postposition|prepositions]] trigger the accusative.<ref>Under certain circumstances, the preposition ''bi'' can merge with the definite article in its dative form.</ref>

The [[genitive case|genitive]] indicates possession, and is used after adjectives that can introduce a [[dependent clause]].

Compare :
* ''Som yakin od is ghehdsiet kwehre to'' = "I'm sure that he'll be able to do that".
* ''Som yakin eysen'' (genitive plural) ''imkans'' = "I'm sure of his abilities".

For substantives and adjectives, there are declined "free endings" (i.e. non-compulsory) used most often in literary context for [[euphonics]] or [[poetry]]. This system is inspired by the euphonic endings (''[[ʾiʿrāb]]'') found in [[Modern Standard Arabic]].

=== Conjugation ===
In Sambahsa, all [[verb]]s are regular, except ''ses'' (to be), ''habe'' (to have), and ''woide'' ("to know", in the meaning of French ''[[wikt:savoir#French|savoir]]'' or German [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wissen#German wissen]). Sambahsa verbs are indicated in dictionaries not under their [[infinitive]] form, but their bare [[Word stem|stem]], because the whole conjugation can be deduced from the form of this stem.
The main [[Grammatical tense|tense]]s of Sambahsa are [[Present tense|present]] and
[[Past tense|past]], but many other tenses can be obtained through the use of affixes or [[auxiliary verb]]s. Sambahsa uses the following endings, which are close to those found in many [[Indo-European languages]].<ref>They can be compared to the data provided in ''Indo-European Linguistics : an introduction'' by J. Clackson, Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 127 & 128.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Person !! Present and other tenses !! Past tense only
|-
| First-person singular || -o, -m (''if the verb ends with a stressed vocalic sound'') or nothing (''if the last vowel of the verb is unstressed'') || -im
|-
| Second-person singular || -s || -(i)st(a)
|-
| Third-person singular || -t || -it
|-
| First-person plural || -m(o)s || -am
|-
| Second-person plural || -t(e) || -at
|-
| Third-person plural || -e(nt) ("-nt" ''is compulsory if the verb ends with a stressed vocalic sound'') || -(ee)r
|}

Sambahsa is unusual among [[auxlang]]s because of its use of a predictable [[Ablaut#Indo-European ablaut|ablaut]] system for the past tense and passive past [[participle]]s. For example, ''eh'' within a verbal stem turns to ''oh''. Other verbs that cannot use ablaut can drop their [[nasal infix]], or use an improved version of the [[De Wahl's rule]]s. Finally, the remaining verbs simply add the past tense endings, which are optional for verbs of the categories described above.

Therefore, this system qualifies Sambahsa as a language belonging to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family of languages]], though it remains a [[constructed language]].{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

== Vocabulary ==

Because of its rather large vocabulary for an [[auxlang]] (as of August 2014, the full Sambahsa-English dictionary contained more than 15000 entries<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/39063111/Sambahsa-English-Dictionary|title=Sambahsa English Dictionary - Nature|website=Scribd|accessdate=27 June 2017}}</ref>), it is difficult to assess the share of each language in Sambahsa's eclectic wordstock. However, the main layers are (either reconstructed or extrapolated) Indo-European vocabulary, Greco-Roman scientific and technical vocabulary (which is not discussed below, as it is more or less comparable to what is found in English) and multiple sources extending from Western Europe to Eastern Asia.

=== Indo-European vocabulary ===

The core of Sambahsa's vocabulary is undoubtedly of Indo-European origin. Only a few Sambahsa words can be traced back to pre-Indo-European times (as ''kamwns'', [[chamois]], cf. [[Basque language]] : [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ahuntz "ahuntz"]). Many basic Sambahsa words are thus very close to their reconstructed Indo-European counterparts. See (Sambahsa / Proto-Indo-European) : ''eghi / *H₁eghis'' (hedgehog), ''ghelgh / *ghelghe-'' (gland), ''pehk / *pek'' (to comb), ''skand / *skand'' (to jump), ''peungst / *pn̥kʷsti-'' (fist), ''wobhel / *wobhel-'' (weevil), ''gwah / *gweH₂'' (to go), ''tox / *tòksom'' ("yew wood" in Sambahsa; "yew" in PIE), ''treb / *trêbs'' (dwelling), ''oit / *H₁òitos'' (oath), ''poti / *potis'' (Sir, lord). But less attested Indo-European vocabulary is found in Sambahsa too. For example, the common Sambahsa word for "person" is ''anghen'', as in ''semanghen'' = "someone, somebody", and can be derived from PIE ''?*H₂enH₁ǵh'', only found in [[Old Armenian]] ''anjn'' (person) and [[Old Norse]] ''angi'' (smell). And ''motic'' (hoe) may be a cognate of [[Old Church Slavonic]] ''motyka'' and English [[Mattock#Etymology|"mattock"]].

===Further development from the Indo-European background===

Though Sambahsa, like any other conlang, has derivation rules, it sometimes uses [[backformation]] too. For example, the relation between [[Lithuania]]n ''bendras'' (companion), Old Greek ''pentheros'' (father-in-law) and Sanskrit ''bandhu-'' (companion) is uncertain;<ref>J.P Mallory & D.Q. Adams, ''Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'', Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, p.196</ref> however Sambahsa "reconstructs" this root as ''behndwr'' from ''behnd'' 'to bind'. PIE has ''*dhéǵhom'' 'earth' and ''*dhinéǵh-'' (with nasal [[infix]]) 'to shape, to make pottery'; accordingly, Sambahsa has ''(di)ghom'' and ''dinegh'', but the latter can be understood as "to put earth on" if we refer to ''yug'' (yoke) and ''yuneg'' (to join), both from PIE ''*yugom'' and ''*yunég-''.

The Sambahsa word for 'ice pellet' is ''kersnit''; it rests on the word ''kersen'' 'frozen snow', itself from [[Old Norse]] ''hjarn'', Lithuanian ''šarma'' (frost) and Russian ''serën''.<ref>''ibidem'', p.287</ref> But the [[suffix]] ''-it'' was abstracted from PIE words like ''*sepit'' 'grain of wheat' and ''*H₂elbit'' 'grain of barley';<ref>''ibidem'', p.639</ref> thus ''kersnit'' can be understood as 'a grain of frozen snow'.

===Words common to different language families===

A characteristic of Sambahsa is to include words found in different language families, while the most famous [[auxiliary languages]] tend to limit themselves to a compilation of [[Romance (love)|Romance]] vocabulary with some borrowings from the [[Germanic languages]]. For example:

* ''schkaf'' (cupboard) has cognates both in Germanic and [[Slavic languages]]: Russian [[:ru:шкаф|шкаф]], Polish [[:pl:szafa|szafa]], Ukrainian [[:uk:шафа|шафа]], Danish [[:da:skab|skab]], Icelandic [[:is:skápur|skápur]], Franconian dialect [[:ksh:schaaf|schaaf]] and Swedish [[:sv:skåp|skåp]].
* ''Graf'' (count, as a nobility title) is a German word from Greek<ref>{{cite web|url=http://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/Graf|title=Graf – Wiktionary|website=de.wiktionary.org|accessdate=27 June 2017}}</ref> "grapheùs" that has been borrowed into many languages including Azerbaijani [[:az:qraf|qraf]], Bulgarian [[:bg:граф|граф]], Czech [[:cs:hrabě|hrabě]], Danish [[:da:greve (rang)|greve]], Estonian [[:et:krahv|krahv]], Croatian [[:hr:grof|grof]], Hungarian [[:hu:gróf|gróf]], Finnish [[:fi:kreivi|kreivi]], Lithuanian [[:lt:grafas (titulas)|grafas]], Icelandic [[:is:greifi|greifi]] and Russian [[:ru:граф (титул)|граф]].
* ''Bicair'' (mug) is found in German [[:de:Becher|Becher]] and many other Germanic languages. It comes from [[Low Latin]] ''bicarium'' and is at the origin of Hungarian [[:hu:pohár|pohár]], Italian [[:it:Bicchiere|bicchiere]] and Romanian [[:ro:Pahar|pahar]], all meaning "glass".
* Sambahsa ''saray'' means "big hall, palace" and has the same Turkish and Persian origin as English ''[[Seraglio#cite note-0|seraglio]]'' but with a meaning closer to its etymology and to Russian [http://ru.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9 сарай] (barn).

===The [[Balkan sprachbund]]===

Though they belong to different language families{{clarification needed|date=August 2017}}{{dubious|date=August 2017}}, the languages spoken in Southeast Europe share a number of common grammatical features and of loanwords due to their historical background{{citation needed |date=August 2017}}. That's why Sambahsa includes words from this region.

* Sambahsa ''schut'' = "hornless" corresponds to Romanian [[:ro:Șut|șut]], Bulgarian/Serbo-Croatian šut; also Albanian shut ‘hornless’.
* Sambahsa ''potire'' = "pitcher" comes from Old Greek ''ποτήρ'', like Serbo-Croatian [[:en:путир|путир]], Russian [[:ru:потир|потир]], Romanian and Albanian ''potir''.
* Sambahsa ''keramide'' = "coating" comes from Greek [[:el:κεραμίδα|κεραμίδα]], which has given, among others, Romanian [[:ro:cărămidă|cărămidă]] (brick) and Arabic قرميدة = qirmîda(t) = "tile".

===Words from Arabic and Persian===

A significant part of Sambahsa's vocabulary comes from [[Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]. Both languages have extensively provided loanwords to a lexical continuum ranging from the Atlantic Ocean to Indonesia because, respectively, of the spread of [[Islam]] and the brilliance of the former Persian civilization. Sambahsa learning materials often call this stratum "Muslim".

* Sambahsa ''amlak'' (assets) comes from Arabic ''أملاك'' and is found in Turkish [[emlak]] (estate) and Persian [[:en:املاک|املاک]].
* Sambahsa ''zina'' (adultery) comes from Arabic زنا and is found in Persian and many other languages spoken by a majority of Muslims.
* Sambahsa ''adarb'' (merlon) comes from Spanish [[:es:Adarve|adarve]] and Portuguese [[:pt:Adarve|adarve]] from Arabic درب and ultimately Persian در which has its origin in PIE [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/d%CA%B0wer-#Proto-Indo-European *dhwer] just like Sambahsa ''dwer'' = "door".

===Sinitic vocabulary===

[[Classical Chinese]] has heavily influenced the wordstock of neighbouring languages, mostly Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese. As a result, Sambahsa incorporates some "Sinitic" vocabulary, but the phonetic differences between these various languages can be high.

* Sambahsa ''kjingyow'' (goldfish) corresponds to 金魚, which is read ''jīnyú'' in Mandarin Pinyin and ''kingyo'' in Japanese.
* Sambahsa ''geong'' (fortified palace) corresponds to the Han character 城 read ''chéng'' in Mandarin Pinyin, ''jō'' in Japanese Goon reading, ''seong'' in Korean, and ''thành'' in Vietnamese.

Not all Sambahsa "Sinitic" words come from Classical Chinese. The [[Min Nan]] language of Southern China provided loanwords to some South-East Asian languages, and some of these borrowings are, in turn, found in Sambahsa.

* Sambahsa ''pangsit'' ([[wonton]]) is an Indonesian word from Min Nan ''pian sit'', while Mandarin Chinese (Pinyin) has ''húndùn''
* Likewise, Sambahsa ''loteng'' (attic) comes from Min Nan ''lauteng'' through Indonesian [[:id:Loteng|loteng]].

==Sample phrases==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sambahsa
! English
|-
| Sellamat!
| Hello!
|-
| Kam leitte yu?
| How are you?
|-
| Leito.
| Fine.
|-
| Bahte yu Sambahsa?
| Do you speak Sambahsa?
|-
| No, ne bahm Sambahsa.
| No, I don't speak Sambahsa.
|-
| Marba!
| Pleased to meet you!
|}



==Literary works translated into Sambahsa==

* [[The Songs of Bilitis]] by [[Pierre Louÿs]] : [http://fr.scribd.com/doc/83065380/Ia-Songvs-as-Bilitis ''Ia Songvs as Bilitis'']
* [[Demian]] by [[Hermann Hesse]] : [http://fr.scribd.com/doc/122334083/Demian-Sambahsa-tarjem ''Demian'']
* [[The Stranger (Camus novel)|The Stranger]] by [[Albert Camus]] : [http://fr.scribd.com/doc/81520739/Is-Gospoti-l-Etranger-in-Sambahsa ''Is Gospoti'']
* [[The Little Prince]] by [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] : [http://fr.scribd.com/doc/61098743/Is-Lytil-Prince-Le-Petit-Prince-en-Sambahsa-The-Little-Prince-in-Sambahsa ''Is Lytil Prince'']
* [[The Gospel of Matthew]] : [http://fr.scribd.com/doc/147341646/EUANGHELIO-SEKWENT-MATYAH ''Id Euanghelio sekwent Matyah'']
* [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]] : [http://www.evertype.com/books/alice-sambahsa.html ''Ia Aventures as Alice in Daumsenland''] and [http://www.evertype.com/books/looking-glass-sambahsa.html ''Through the Looking-Glass''] published by [[Michael Everson#Publishing at Evertype|Evertype]]
* [[The Strange Case of Doctor Jekyll and Mister Hyde]] : [https://www.evertype.com/books/jekyll-sambahsa.html ''Id Stragno Fall om Doctor Jekyll ed Poti Hyde''] published by [[Michael Everson#Publishing at Evertype|Evertype]]
* ''Un Coeur simple'' by [[Gustave Flaubert]] : [https://fr.scribd.com/document/380965322/Un-Simple-Kerd ''Un simple kerd'']
* [[The Tower of the Elephant]], [[The Scarlet Citadel]] and [[The Devil in Iron]] by [[Robert E. Howard]] : [https://fr.scribd.com/document/334053099/Id-Tor-Ios-Elephant ''Id Tor ios Elephant''], [https://fr.scribd.com/document/335501303/Id-Scarlato-Citadell ''Id Scarlato Citadell''], [https://fr.scribd.com/document/383775991/Diabel-Ex-Sider ''Diabel ex Sider'']
* [[A Scandal in Bohemia]] by [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] : [https://fr.scribd.com/document/469774223/Scandal-in-Chekhia ''Un Scandal in Chekhia'']

==Movies with Sambahsa subtitles==

* ''Revelations'' (a [[fan-made]] movie based on [[Star Wars]]): [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-qjqQwF0Bc ''Revelations'']
* [[The Hunt for Gollum]] (a fan-made prequel to [[the Lord of the Rings]]) : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkAxzTfcMbU ''Sayd po Gollum'']
* [[Born of Hope]] (a fan-made prequel to [[the Lord of the Rings]]) : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cY4aAtSf8eI ''Gnaht Speh'']
* ''Home'' (a French movie by [[Yann Arthus-Bertrand]] about environmental threats) : [http://www.dailymotion.com/playlist/x1ikyf_3abductee_ghom-in-sambahsa-hd/1#video=xgb2g3 ''Ghom'']
* [[Kaydara]] (a fan-made movie based on ''[[The Matrix]]'') : [http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xickar_kaydara-official-film_shortfilms ''Kaydara'']

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://sambahsa.pbworks.com/w/page/10183084/FrontPage|The Official Website of Sambahsa]
* [https://www.scribd.com/doc/39063111/Sambahsa-English-Dictionary A Sambahsa English Dictionary]
* [https://glosbe.com/mis_sam/en/ Sambahsa-English dictionary on Glosbe (providing dictionaries to many other languages)]
* [https://sambahsa.fandom.com/wiki/Sambahsa-mundialect_Wiki Sambahsa-mundialect Wiki]

{{Constructed languages}}

[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Constructed languages introduced in the 2000s]]
[[Category:2007 introductions]]
[[Category:Constructed languages]]