Lemizh - Revision history

Anypodetos: Copyedit

2022-06-03T20:36:20Z

Copyedit

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:36, 3 June 2022
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	\|''[Someone] helps the speaker. ⇔ The one being helped speaks.''}}		\|''[Someone] helps the speaker. ⇔ The one being helped speaks.''}}

	Both sentences ~~claim~~ that the sender of speaking is the recipient of helping. The equation is ''wèx.'' = ''lìzhw.'', the speaker = the one being helped.		Both sentences assert that the sender of speaking is the recipient of helping. The equation is ''wèx.'' = ''lìzhw.'', the speaker = the one being helped.

	'''Rule Four. An instance of a word stem designates a specific action.'''		'''Rule Four. An instance of a word stem designates a specific action.'''
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	===Noun phrases===		===Noun phrases===
	Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. ~~Taking the first example sentence from above and changing~~ the inner case of "give" to the nominative yields "one giving something, a giver". The objects are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three:		Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. Changing the inner case of "give" in the first example sentence above to the nominative yields "one giving something, a giver". The objects are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three:
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
	\|dé föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.		\|dé föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
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	\|mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi.		\|mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi.
	\|make-FACT-1 eat-ACC-'''NOM'''-2 ill-ACC-'''ACC'''-2 dog-ACC-'''DAT'''-2. → ill-FACT-1 eat-ACC-NOM-2 dog-ACC-DAT-2.		\|make-FACT-1 eat-ACC-'''NOM'''-2 ill-ACC-'''ACC'''-2 dog-ACC-'''DAT'''-2. → ill-FACT-1 eat-ACC-NOM-2 dog-ACC-DAT-2.
	\|''The food made the dog ill.'' (The food gave the property of being ill to the dog.)}}		\|''The food made the dog ill.'' (The food gave the property of being ill to the dog. – The food could also be seen as the cause for making the dog ill, calling for the causative case.)}}

	The verb "to be" translates as the corresponding perfect form, i.e. with inner consecutive of the main predicate:		The verb "to be" translates as the corresponding perfect form, i.e. with inner consecutive of the main predicate:
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	===Relative pronouns===		===Relative pronouns===
	Stems of relative pronouns (not to be confused with the pronouns of the same name in ~~English or Latin~~) refer to actions by pointing to another stem or to a parole: they are [[w:Anaphora (linguistics)\|anaphoric]]. Here is the full list:		Stems of relative pronouns (not to be confused with the pronouns of the same name in other languages) refer to actions by pointing to another stem or to a parole: they are [[w:Anaphora (linguistics)\|anaphoric]]. Here is the full list:
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	! rowspan="2" \| Level !! colspan="2" \| Type I !! colspan="2" \| Type II		! rowspan="2" \| Level !! colspan="2" \| Type I !! colspan="2" \| Type II
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	\| n−5 \|\| ghà. \|\| … \|\| xà. \|\| …		\| n−5 \|\| ghà. \|\| … \|\| xà. \|\| …
	\|}		\|}
	~~They~~ are highly versatile~~, corresponding to various structures in other languages~~. Recall that a sentence's parole has level zero:		Relative pronouns are highly versatile. Recall that a sentence's parole has level zero:
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	! Reflexive !! First person (singular) !! Second person		! Reflexive !! First person (singular) !! Second person
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	The consequences of this rule are somewhat technical; but the last one, pertaining to degree of reality, is important for correctly interpreting compounds.		The consequences of this rule are somewhat technical; but the last one, pertaining to degree of reality, is important for correctly interpreting compounds.
	* Rules One to Three of sentence grammar are not applicable to compounds, as can be ~~easily~~ seen.		* Rules One to Three of sentence grammar are not applicable to compounds, as can easily be seen.
	* Four: Both modifier and head are instantiations of specific actions in the original sentence (which however do not necessarily match the instantiation of the compound).		* Four: Both modifier and head are instantiations of specific actions in the original sentence (which however do not necessarily match the instantiation of the compound).
	* Five: The epenthetic case characterises the head completely with regard to its descriptor.		* Five: The epenthetic case characterises the head completely with regard to its descriptor.
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	\|''[He] has to run fast.''}}		\|''[He] has to run fast.''}}

	These examples ~~talk~~ about the location of eating, as opposed to the location of allowing; about eating sweets, as opposed to allowing sweets; ~~the~~ running ~~is fast~~, as opposed to ~~the~~ necessity; etc.		These examples are about the location of eating, as opposed to the location of allowing; about eating sweets, as opposed to allowing sweets; about fast running, as opposed to a fast necessity; etc.

	Number and gender of [[#Nouns\|nouns]] are compounds from brackets which are first inverted to turn the more salient word into the compound's head: ''dè mlỳe. ⇔ mlỳ dèy.'' "several givers" ⇒ ''demlè.'' "givers". The inner nominative (''-e-'') becomes the epenthetic case, and the new inner case also has to be a nominative per Rule Three. ''demlỳ.'' (inner {{sc\|acc}}), by contrast, is "something given by several people".		Number and gender of [[#Nouns\|nouns]] are compounds from brackets which are first inverted to turn the more salient word into the compound's head: ''dè mlỳe. ⇔ mlỳ dèy.'' "several givers" ⇒ ''demlè.'' "givers". The inner nominative (''-e-'') becomes the epenthetic case, and the new inner case also has to be a nominative per Rule Three of compounding. ''demlỳ.'' (inner {{sc\|acc}}), by contrast, is "something given by several people", and ''dymlè.'' (epenthetic {{sc\|acc}}) is "a giver of several things".

	Compounds expressing degrees of [[#Adjectives and the like\|adjectives]] are also formed from brackets. They have an epenthetic consecutive (''-il-''), which stems from the corresponding abstract noun: ''gmrìl dmỳil. ⇔ dmỳ gmrìly.'' "much warmth" ⇒ ''gmrildmìl.'' "heat" (abstract noun formed with inner {{sc\|cons}}), ''gmrildmỳ.'' "hot" (adjective with inner {{sc\|acc}}). Degrees of comparison are often combined with qualitative or partitive outer cases and with [[#Predicative\|predicatives]]:		Compounds expressing degrees of [[#Adjectives and the like\|adjectives]] are also formed from brackets. They have an epenthetic consecutive (''-il-''), which stems from the corresponding abstract noun: ''gmrìl dmỳil. ⇔ dmỳ gmrìly.'' "much warmth" ⇒ ''gmrildmìl.'' "heat" (abstract noun formed with inner {{sc\|cons}}), ''gmrildmỳ.'' "hot" (adjective with inner {{sc\|acc}}). Degrees of comparison are often combined with qualitative or partitive outer cases and with [[#Predicative\|predicatives]]:
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	\|zdàs dhàarh. ⇔ wà zdàrhsa. ⇒ zdarhswà.		\|zdàs dhàarh. ⇔ wà zdàrhsa. ⇒ zdarhswà.
	\|seat-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-FACT-TEMP-2. ⇔ PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1 seat-TEMP-FACT-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1.		\|seat-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-FACT-TEMP-2. ⇔ PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1 seat-TEMP-FACT-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1.
	\|''~~[She] sits down at the~~ time of the parole. ⇒ [She] sits down now.''}}		\|''The time of sitting down is the parole. ⇒ [She] sits down now.''}}

	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
	\|zdàs prỳarh. ⇔ prỳ zdàrhsy. ⇒ zdarhsprà.		\|zdàs prỳarh. ⇔ prỳ zdàrhsy. ⇒ zdarhsprà.
	\|seat-FACT-1 front-ACC-TEMP-2. ⇔ front-ACC-1 seat-TEMP-ACC-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-front-FACT-1.		\|seat-FACT-1 front-ACC-TEMP-2. ⇔ front-ACC-1 seat-TEMP-ACC-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-front-FACT-1.
	\|''~~[She] sits~~ down ~~at a time~~ in front [of the parole]. ⇒ [She] will sit down.''}}		\|''The time of sitting down is in front [of the parole]. ⇒ [She] will sit down.''}}
			The past is formed analogously to the future.

	==Example text==		==Example text==

Anypodetos: Brackets confer reality; copyedit

2022-06-03T11:51:42Z

Brackets confer reality; copyedit

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:51, 3 June 2022
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	\| ''ngà.'' "to make something nonexistent" \|\| ''ngè.'' "one making something nonexistent" \|\| ''ngỳ.'' "(something) '''nonexistent'''" \|\| ''ngì.'' "something made nonexistent, something destroyed" \|\| ''ngìl.'' "the consequence of making nonexistent = nothingness"		\| ''ngà.'' "to make something nonexistent" \|\| ''ngè.'' "one making something nonexistent" \|\| ''ngỳ.'' "(something) '''nonexistent'''" \|\| ''ngì.'' "something made nonexistent, something destroyed" \|\| ''ngìl.'' "the consequence of making nonexistent = nothingness"
	\|-		\|-
	\| ''dwà.'' "to make two things~~/individuals~~" \|\| ''dwè.'' "one making two ~~things~~" \|\| ''dwỳ.'' "'''two''' (~~things~~)" \|\| ''dwì.'' "something made into two (~~things~~)" \|\| ''dwìl.'' "the consequence of making two ~~things~~ = twoness"		\| ''dwà.'' "to make two individuals/things" \|\| ''dwè.'' "one making two individuals" \|\| ''dwỳ.'' "'''two''' (individuals)" \|\| ''dwì.'' "something made into two (individuals)" \|\| ''dwìl.'' "the consequence of making two individuals = twoness"
	\|}		\|}

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	! Inner factive !! Inner nominative !! Inner accusative !! Inner dative !! Inner causative		! Inner factive !! Inner nominative !! Inner accusative !! Inner dative !! Inner causative
	\|-		\|-
	\| ''pthàb.'' "to be angry" \|\| ''pthèb.'' "an angry one; '''angry'''" \|\| ''pthỳb.'' "the content/object of one's anger" \|\| ''pthìb.'' "one that one's anger reaches" \|\| ''pthèlb.'' "one causing someone anger; one annoying someone"		\| ''pthàb.'' "to be angry" \|\| ''pthèb.'' "an angry one; '''angry'''" \|\| ''pthỳb.'' "the content/object of one's anger; one ''about'' whom someone is angry" \|\| ''pthìb.'' "one that one's anger reaches; one ''with'' whom someone is angry" \|\| ''pthèlb.'' "one causing someone anger; one annoying someone"
	\|}		\|}

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	The first word in a sentence (the main predicate) is of first level by definition. The level of the next word is determined by the main predicate's accent and by the type of pause between the two words, the level of the third word is determined by the accent of the second and the pause between these two, and so on.		The first word in a sentence (the main predicate) is of first level by definition. The level of the next word is determined by the main predicate's accent and by the type of pause between the two words, the level of the third word is determined by the accent of the second and the pause between these two, and so on.

	Here is the complete list of pause/accent combinations.		Here is the complete list of pause/accent combinations:

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
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	In the diagram, the main predicate's three objects are enclosed in ellipses. Objects of the same word are called ''sibling objects'' or just ''siblings'', and the word they are subordinate to is their ''predicate''. Note that ''predicate'' and ''object'' are relative terms like ''parent'' and ''child''.		In the diagram, the main predicate's three objects are enclosed in ellipses. Objects of the same word are called ''sibling objects'' or just ''siblings'', and the word they are subordinate to is their ''predicate''. Note that ''predicate'' and ''object'' are relative terms like ''parent'' and ''child''.

	The table of level markers implies that only the first object of a predicate can be marked as agent. ~~(Therefore,~~ Lemizh ~~is often~~ said to have VSO word order, ~~although verb–agent–object~~ or VAO ~~is more correct~~.)		The table of level markers implies that only the first object of a predicate can be marked as agent. So Lemizh can be said to have VSO word order, or more correctly VAO (verb–agent–object).

	'''Rule Three. The outer case of the first word of an object defines its relation to its predicate's stem via its descriptor; the outer case of a level 1 word is zero.'''		'''Rule Three. The outer case of the first word of an object defines its relation to its predicate's stem via its descriptor; the outer case of a level 1 word is zero.'''
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	\|''Lucy takes a bottle from Father Christmas.''}}		\|''Lucy takes a bottle from Father Christmas.''}}

	We need not mark an object as agentive if we consider this information ~~unimportant~~. The English translations are only rough approximations:		We need not mark an object as agentive if we do not consider this information important. The English translations are only rough approximations:
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
	\|dà lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe.		\|dà lusyì dwywỳ föpysrỳfe.
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	The bottle and Lucy, having third level, are still more hypothetical than the action of giving; their existence does not follow from grammar but from logic and context: someone nonexistent cannot be given something. A better example would be "I see white mice", where the existence of the mice may or may not be inferred from context such as the amount of alcohol I have drunk.		The bottle and Lucy, having third level, are still more hypothetical than the action of giving; their existence does not follow from grammar but from logic and context: someone nonexistent cannot be given something. A better example would be "I see white mice", where the existence of the mice may or may not be inferred from context such as the amount of alcohol I have drunk.

	In the sentence "I think that Father Christmas wants to give Lucy a bottle", "to think" is grammatically real, while the other two verbs, so to say, are pushed down one degree of reality. ~~Furthermore, inversion~~ changes degrees of reality:		In the sentence "I think that Father Christmas wants to give Lucy a bottle", "to think" is grammatically real, while the other two verbs, so to say, are pushed down one degree of reality.

			Inversion changes degrees of reality; only the second of the following sentences contains the information that he actually gives something:
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
	\|làxt dày. ⇔ dà lỳxta.		\|làxt dày. ⇔ dà lỳxta.
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	\|''[There is] one giving Lucy a bottle, Father Christmas.''}}		\|''[There is] one giving Lucy a bottle, Father Christmas.''}}

	Rules Four and Five guarantee that the giver is identical to Father Christmas: both are the sender of the same instance of the stem ''d–'' "give" (the giver via its inner nominative, Father Christmas via its outer nominative), and both are the ''complete'' sender of this action. This type of construction, where an object's outer case matches its predicate's inner case, is called a '''bracket'''. Brackets are ~~very widely~~ used:		Rules Four and Five guarantee that the giver is identical to Father Christmas: both are the sender of the same instance of the stem ''d–'' "give" (the giver via its inner nominative, Father Christmas via its outer nominative), and both are the ''complete'' sender of this action. This type of construction, where an object's outer case matches its predicate's inner case, is called a '''bracket'''. The identity of predicate and object means that the object is as real as its predicate in the sense of Rule Seven. We say that a bracket confers reality on its object.

			Brackets are used extensively:
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|-		\|-
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	\|dwỳw lusỳü.		\|dwỳw lusỳü.
	\|bottle-ACC-1 Lucy-ACC-'''BEN'''-2.		\|bottle-ACC-1 Lucy-ACC-'''BEN'''-2.
	\|''Lucy's bottle'' (Lucy is the beneficiary of making the bottle~~. The bottle is made for Lucy~~.)}}		\|''Lucy's bottle'' (Lucy is the beneficiary of making the bottle.)}}

	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
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	===Dependent clauses===		===Dependent clauses===
	~~Dependent clauses employ the same principles as above, as we~~ have ~~seen with~~ the ~~sentence~~ "Father Christmas wants '''to give Lucy a bottle'''" under Rule Seven.		We have already discussed the infinitive clause in "Father Christmas wants '''to give Lucy a bottle'''" under Rule Seven.

	The difference between English gerund clauses and that-clauses roughly translates into a difference between an inner factive (''action'') and an inner affirmative (''fact''):		The difference between English gerund clauses and that-clauses roughly translates into a difference between an inner factive (''action'') and an inner affirmative (''fact''):
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	\|''The children called Lucy a hero.'' (The children gave the designation of hero to Lucy.)}}		\|''The children called Lucy a hero.'' (The children gave the designation of hero to Lucy.)}}

	Predicatives with the verb "to make" typically correspond to Lemizh sentences with a nominal or adjectival verb as the main predicate. This can be interpreted as the accusative object – here "ill" – being absorbed ("swallowed up") by the main predicate:		Predicatives with the verb "to make" typically correspond to Lemizh sentences with a nominal or adjectival verb as the main predicate. This can be interpreted as the accusative object – here "ill" – being absorbed ("swallowed") by the main predicate:
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
	\|mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi.		\|mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi.
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	\|wáx wìe.		\|wáx wìe.
	\|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−1</sub>-'''DAT'''-'''NOM'''-2A.		\|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−1</sub>-'''DAT'''-'''NOM'''-2A.
	\|''to talk to oneself. He is talking to himself.'' (The recipient of speaking is its sender.)}}		\|''to talk to oneself. [He] is talking to himself.'' (The recipient of speaking is its sender.)}}

	\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive		\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
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	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	! Possessive determiner !! Vocative		! Possessive (≙ genitive) determiner !! Vocative
	\|-		\|-
	\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level		\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
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	\|want-FACT-1 eat-FACT-ACC-2. ⇒ eat-FACT-want-FACT-1.		\|want-FACT-1 eat-FACT-ACC-2. ⇒ eat-FACT-want-FACT-1.
	\|''[She] wants to eat.'' (See the inflection of [[#Verbs\|verbs]]; the other moods follow the same pattern.)}}		\|''[She] wants to eat.'' (See the inflection of [[#Verbs\|verbs]]; the other moods follow the same pattern.)}}
	~~In this example,~~ the ~~lost~~ accusative ending has to be deduced from context.		Here the accusative ending is lost and has to be deduced from context.

	'''Rule Two. In the relationship between the original predicate and object, the rules of sentence grammar are retained as far as applicable.'''		'''Rule Two. In the relationship between the original predicate and object, the rules of sentence grammar are retained as far as applicable.'''

Anypodetos: Negation; copyedit

2022-05-30T13:01:23Z

Negation; copyedit

Show changes

Anypodetos: "and"; copyedit and fixes

2022-05-29T20:44:25Z

"and"; copyedit and fixes

Show changes

Anypodetos: Rule Seven etc.

2022-05-28T09:02:55Z

Rule Seven etc.

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:02, 28 May 2022
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	'''Rule Five. A case characterises the action it refers to completely with regard to its case descriptor.'''		'''Rule Five. A case characterises the action it refers to completely with regard to its case descriptor.'''

	For example, the nominative object "Father Christmas" has to name the complete sender of the above instance of giving. This excludes from this instance all giving not done by Father Christmas. So each object places a restriction on the action of giving the main predicate refers to. Thus, the subset of giving meant by this instance of ''dà.'' – what the sentence is ultimately talking about – is defined more and more precisely with each additional object. (This is true not only of the main predicate but of all words in a sentence.)		For example, the nominative object "Father Christmas" has to name the complete sender of the above instance of giving. This excludes from this instance all giving not done by Father Christmas. So each object places a restriction on the action of giving the main predicate refers to. Thus, the subset of giving meant by this instance of ''dà.'' – what the sentence is ultimately talking about – is defined more and more precisely with each additional object. (This is true not only of the main predicate but of all words in a sentence. Also, as inner and outer cases can be interconverted via inversion, this rule applies to inner cases as well.)

	'''Rule Six. A missing object is equivalent to the absence of information about its descriptor.'''		'''Rule Six. A missing object is equivalent to the absence of information about its descriptor.'''
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	Above sentences do not have, for example, locative objects, so Rule Five cannot place a restriction on the place of giving. Because of Rule Six, this does not mean there are no restrictions on the location, but only that this kind of information has not been included in the sentence (for example, because the speaker does not know about it, considers it irrelevant, assumes that the listener already knows or – perhaps most importantly – that the listener can infer it). In fact, everything not useful for understanding a sentence should be omitted to save the listener processing effort. (See the inversion example above, which omits the nominative "someone".)		Above sentences do not have, for example, locative objects, so Rule Five cannot place a restriction on the place of giving. Because of Rule Six, this does not mean there are no restrictions on the location, but only that this kind of information has not been included in the sentence (for example, because the speaker does not know about it, considers it irrelevant, assumes that the listener already knows or – perhaps most importantly – that the listener can infer it). In fact, everything not useful for understanding a sentence should be omitted to save the listener processing effort. (See the inversion example above, which omits the nominative "someone".)

	Rules Five and Six imply that every instance of a word has exactly one action (which, however, need not be contiguous), one sender (which ~~can~~ consist of several people), and so on: Five excludes additional senders if one nominative object is already present, and Six gives meaning to missing objects, establishing them as an integral part of Lemizh sentence grammar.		Rules Five and Six imply that every instance of a word has exactly one action (which, however, need not be contiguous), one sender (which may consist of several people), and so on: Five excludes additional senders if one nominative object is already present, and Six gives meaning to missing objects, establishing them as an integral part of Lemizh sentence grammar.

	'''Rule Seven. Given an object and its predicate, the predicate is considered more real and the object more hypothetical.'''		'''Rule Seven. Given an object and its predicate, the predicate is considered more real and the object more hypothetical.'''
			{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive; 3:third level
			\|láxt föpysryfè dày dwywỳ lusỳi.
			\|want-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A give-FACT-ACC-2 bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
			\|''Father Christmas wants to give Lucy a bottle.'' (The action of giving is the content of the wish. The nominative object of "give", which is also Father Christmas, is omitted per Rule Six.)}}

	…		This sentence contains the information that Father Christmas wants something (i.e. to give Lucy a bottle), but not that he actually gives something (i.e. Lucy a bottle). The main predicate "want", so to speak, lives in the world the sentence is talking about (more formally, the world of the parole), which is the more real, while its object "give Lucy a bottle" lives in the world of his wish, which is the more hypothetical. The parole, having level zero, acts as the predicate to the sentence as a whole and is therefore still more real. This reflects the fact that the parole is part of the real world; it is as real as anything linguistic can be. Turning this around, we see that the sentence is more hypothetical than reality: it can be a metaphor or some other figure of speech, a statement about a fictional or otherwise imagined world, an error, a lie, a linguistic example sentence, etc. We call the main predicate's kind of reality, the one that is just one level more hypothetical than the parole and the real world, ''grammatical reality''.
	~~<!--~~
	* Rule Five applied to ~~inner case: THIS instance of giving exists~~		The bottle and Lucy, having third level, are still more hypothetical than the action of giving; their existence does not follow from grammar but from logic and context: someone nonexistent cannot be given something. A better example would be "I see white mice", where the existence of the mice may or may not be inferred from context such as the amount of alcohol I have drunk.
	* want to ~~X ⇔~~ to ~~X gladly~~: ~~see below~~, ~~to sing loudly~~, and "Father Christmas wants ..."
	-->		In the sentence "I think that Father Christmas wants to give Lucy a bottle", "to think" is grammatically real, while the other two verbs, so to say, are pushed down one degree of reality. Furthermore, inversion changes degrees of reality:
			{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
			\|làxt dày. ⇔ dà lỳxta.
			\|want-FACT-1 give-'''FACT'''-'''ACC'''-2. ⇔ give-FACT-1 want-'''ACC'''-'''FACT'''-2.
			\|''[He] wants to give. ⇔ [He] gives "wantingly", i.e. gladly.''}}

			There is no real difference between phrases and complete sentences in Lemizh:
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|-		\|-
	! !! as an object !! as a complete sentence		! !! as an object (hypothetical) !! as a main predicate / complete sentence (grammatically real)
	\|-		\|-
	\| ''dà.'' \|\| to give; giving \|\| An action of giving exists = Someone gives something.		\| ''dà.'' \|\| to give; giving \|\| An action of giving exists = Someone gives something.
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	===Noun phrases===		===Noun phrases===
	Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. In the ~~following~~ example, the inner case of "give" ~~is changed~~ to the nominative~~, yielding~~ "one giving something, a giver"~~, and everything is pushed down one level~~. The ~~third-level words~~ are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three.		Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. Taking the first example sentence from above and changing the inner case of "give" to the nominative yields "one giving something, a giver". The objects are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three.
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; ~~3:third level; 3A~~:~~third~~ level, agentive		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
	\|~~dmàt tryxkì dée~~ föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.		\|dé föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
	\|~~see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2~~ give-'''NOM'''-~~NOM-2~~ {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.		\|give-'''NOM'''-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A bottle-ACC-ACC-2 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2.
	\|''~~The beaver sees '''the~~ one giving Lucy a bottle, Father Christmas~~'''.~~''}}		\|''[There is] one giving Lucy a bottle, Father Christmas''}}
	Regarding the verb "see", note that the beaver is in the dative, being at the receiving end of the optical stimulus or information. Marking the beaver as agent would translate as "The beaver looks at the one …".

	Rules Four and Five guarantee that the giver is identical to Father Christmas: both are the sender of the same instance of the stem ''d–'' "give" (the giver via its inner nominative, Father Christmas via its outer nominative), and both are the ''complete'' sender of this action. This type of construction, where an object's outer case matches its predicate's inner case, is called a '''bracket'''. Brackets are very widely used:		Rules Four and Five guarantee that the giver is identical to Father Christmas: both are the sender of the same instance of the stem ''d–'' "give" (the giver via its inner nominative, Father Christmas via its outer nominative), and both are the ''complete'' sender of this action. This type of construction, where an object's outer case matches its predicate's inner case, is called a '''bracket'''. Brackets are very widely used:
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	\|gangà txỳska.		\|gangà txỳska.
	\|sing-'''FACT'''-1 loud-ACC-'''FACT'''-2.		\|sing-'''FACT'''-1 loud-ACC-'''FACT'''-2.
	\|''(an action of) singing, a loud thing = loud singing = singing loudly, to sing loudly''}}		\|''(an action of) singing, a loud thing = loud singing = singing loudly, to sing loudly'' (Compare "to give gladly" above, under Rule Seven.)}}

	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
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	===Dependent clauses===		===Dependent clauses===
	~~Non-finite and conjunctional~~ clauses employ the same principles as above:		Dependent clauses employ the same principles as above, as we have seen with the sentence "Father Christmas wants '''to give Lucy a bottle'''" under Rule Seven.
	~~{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level~~, ~~agentive; 3:third level~~
	~~\|láxt föpysryfè dày dwywỳ lusỳi.~~
	~~\|want-FACT-1 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-2A give-'''FACT'''-ACC-2 bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.~~
	~~\|''~~Father Christmas wants '''to give Lucy a bottle'''~~.'' ("Father Christmas~~" ~~is omitted from the dependent clause per~~ Rule ~~Six~~.~~)}}~~

	The difference between English gerund clauses and ~~finite~~ that-clauses roughly translates into a difference between an inner factive (''action'') and an inner affirmative (''fact'').		The difference between English gerund clauses and that-clauses roughly translates into a difference between an inner factive (''action'') and an inner affirmative (''fact'').
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive
	\|dmàt tryxkì dáe föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.		\|dmàt tryxkì dáe föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi.
	\|see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-'''FACT'''-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.		\|see-FACT-1 beaver-ACC-DAT-2 give-'''FACT'''-NOM-2 {Father Christmas}-ACC-NOM-3A bottle-ACC-ACC-3 Lucy-ACC-DAT-3.
	\|''The beaver sees [the action of] '''Father Christmas giving Lucy a bottle'''.'' (The dependent clause could also be in the accusative to focus on the optical information transmitted to the beaver.)}}		\|''The beaver sees [the action of] '''Father Christmas giving Lucy a bottle'''.'' (The beaver is at the receiving end of the optical stimulus or information, hence the dative. The dependent clause could also be in the accusative to focus on the optical information transmitted to the beaver.)}}

	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; AFF:affirmative case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; AFF:affirmative case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level; 3A:third level, agentive

Anypodetos: See also: Tower of Babel

2022-05-26T17:27:30Z

Anypodetos: Formatting and fixes

2022-05-26T17:04:46Z

Formatting and fixes

Show changes

Anypodetos: Job titles; predicative

2022-05-24T17:56:22Z

Job titles; predicative

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:56, 24 May 2022
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	\| ''làw.'' "to make a lion" \|\| [''lèw.'' "one making a lion"] \|\| ''lỳw.'' "a thing having the properties of a lion = '''a lion'''" \|\| [''lìw.'' "building materials for a lion, materials made into a lion"]		\| ''làw.'' "to make a lion" \|\| [''lèw.'' "one making a lion"] \|\| ''lỳw.'' "a thing having the properties of a lion = '''a lion'''" \|\| [''lìw.'' "building materials for a lion, materials made into a lion"]
	\|}		\|}

			Nouns expressing job titles and the like mostly have inner nominatives because professions are often about producing or selling something, or about providing a kind of service:
			* ''ghexè.'' "baker" from ''ghexà.'' "to bake",
			* ''saxèf.'' "trumpeter" from ''saxàf.'' "to play the trumpet",
			* ''bèst.'' "hero" from ''bàst.'' "to do heroic deeds, to act as a hero".

	Another very common kind of nouns are tool nouns, formed with an inner instrumental case:		Another very common kind of nouns are tool nouns, formed with an inner instrumental case:
	* ''ghstù.'' "a sail" is derived from ''ghstà.'' "to sail", literally "a means of sailing",		* ''ghstù.'' "a sail" is derived from ''ghstà.'' "to sail", literally "a means of sailing",
	* ''pslù.'' "scissors" from ''pslà.'' "to cut with scissors",		* ''pslù.'' "scissors" from ''pslà.'' "to cut with scissors",
	* ''saxùf.'' "a trumpet" from ''saxàf.'' ~~"to play the trumpet"~~,		* ''saxùf.'' "a trumpet", also from ''saxàf.'',
	* ''skrùzh.'' "a finger" from ''skràzh.'' "to work with one's fingers".		* ''skrùzh.'' "a finger" from ''skràzh.'' "to work with one's fingers".

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	===Predicative===		===Predicative===
	…		[[w:Predicative expression\|Predicatives]], like all sentences, follow the plot arrow:
	<!--~~The nominal verb~~ ''mà.'' "to make ~~[something, an entity]~~"-->		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive
			\|ghát zhngyè bestỳ lusỳi.
			\|name-FACT-1 child-ACC-NOM-2A hero-NOM-ACC-2 Lucy-ACC-DAT-2.
			\|''The children called Lucy a hero.'' (The children gave the name of hero to Lucy.)}}

			Predicatives with the verb "to make" typically correspond to Lemizh sentences with a nominal or adjectival verb as the main predicate. This can be interpreted as the accusative object – here "ill" – being absorbed ("swallowed up") by the main predicate:
			{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
			\|mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi.
			\|make-FACT-1 eat-ACC-NOM-2 ill-ACC-ACC-2 dog-ACC-DAT-2. → ill-FACT-1 eat-ACC-NOM-2 dog-ACC-DAT-2.
			\|''The food made the dog ill.'' (The food gave the property of being ill to the dog.)}}

	~~Resultative~~:		The verb "to be" translates as the corresponding perfect form, i.e. with inner consecutive of the main predicate:
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
	\|lìlbdh lỳghi.		\|lìlbdh lỳghi.
	\|white-CONS-1 house-ACC-~~'''~~DAT~~'''~~-2.		\|white-CONS-1 house-ACC-DAT-2.
	\|''The house is [painted] white.'' (The ~~consequence~~ of ~~whitening the house exists~~. The house has been ~~made white~~.)}}		\|''The house is [painted] white.'' (The house has been given the property of being white. The house has been whitened.)}}

	~~Depictive~~:		The above are called resultative predicatives, describing the result of some property being conferred on someone or something. A depictive predicative describes an inherent property; this is achieved with an accusative object:
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
	\|drulìl werhèy.		\|drulìl werhèy.
	\|shrub-CONS-1 hazel-NOM-~~'''~~ACC~~'''~~-2.		\|shrub-CONS-1 hazel-NOM-ACC-2.
	\|''The hazel is a shrub.'' (The hazel has the properties of a shrub.)}}		\|''The hazel is a shrub.'' (The hazel has the properties of a shrub.)}}
	(Side note: The stem of ''werhè.'' "hazel" means "to make hazelnuts", hence the inner nominative. The nuts are called ''werhỳ.'', with inner accusative. Other plants bearing edible fruits follow the same pattern.)		(Side note: The stem of ''werhè.'' "hazel" means "to make hazelnuts", hence the inner nominative. The nuts are called ''werhỳ.'', with inner accusative. Other plants bearing edible fruits follow the same pattern.)
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	Number and gender of [[#Nouns\|nouns]] are compounds from brackets which are first inverted to turn the more salient word into the compound's head: ''dè mlỳe. ⇔ mlỳ dèy.'' "several givers" ⇒ ''demlè.'' "givers". The inner nominative (''-e-'') becomes the epenthetic case, and the new inner case also has to be a nominative per Rule Three. ''demlỳ.'' (inner {{sc\|acc}}), by contrast, is "something given by several people".		Number and gender of [[#Nouns\|nouns]] are compounds from brackets which are first inverted to turn the more salient word into the compound's head: ''dè mlỳe. ⇔ mlỳ dèy.'' "several givers" ⇒ ''demlè.'' "givers". The inner nominative (''-e-'') becomes the epenthetic case, and the new inner case also has to be a nominative per Rule Three. ''demlỳ.'' (inner {{sc\|acc}}), by contrast, is "something given by several people".

	Compounds expressing degrees of [[#Adjectives and the like\|adjectives]] are also formed from brackets. They have an epenthetic consecutive (''-il-''), which stems from the corresponding abstract noun: ''gmrìl dmỳil. ⇔ dmỳ gmrìly.'' "much warmth" ⇒ ''gmrildmìl.'' "heat" (abstract noun formed with inner {{sc\|cons}}), ''gmrildmỳ.'' "hot" (adjective with inner {{sc\|acc}}). Degrees of comparison are often combined with [[#Predicative\|predicatives]]:		Compounds expressing degrees of [[#Adjectives and the like\|adjectives]] are also formed from brackets. They have an epenthetic consecutive (''-il-''), which stems from the corresponding abstract noun: ''gmrìl dmỳil. ⇔ dmỳ gmrìly.'' "much warmth" ⇒ ''gmrildmìl.'' "heat" (abstract noun formed with inner {{sc\|cons}}), ''gmrildmỳ.'' "hot" (adjective with inner {{sc\|acc}}). Degrees of comparison are often combined with [[#Predicative\|predicatives]] as well as with qualitative or partitive outer cases:
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; QUALDAT:qualitative dative case; 1:first level; 2:second level		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; QUALDAT:qualitative dative case; 1:first level; 2:second level
	\|prilghtìlzhd lyghì bỳghim.		\|prilghtìlzhd lyghì bỳghim.

Anypodetos: Resultative vs. depictive; formatting

2022-05-21T09:35:03Z

Resultative vs. depictive; formatting

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:35, 21 May 2022
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	\|dwỳw lusỳü.		\|dwỳw lusỳü.
	\|bottle-ACC-1 Lucy-ACC-'''BEN'''-2.		\|bottle-ACC-1 Lucy-ACC-'''BEN'''-2.
	\|Lucy is the beneficiary of making the bottle.~~<br>~~The bottle is made for Lucy.~~<br>~~		\|''Lucy's bottle'' (Lucy is the beneficiary of making the bottle. The bottle is made for Lucy.)}}
	~~''Lucy's bottle''~~}}

	\| {{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive		\| {{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
	\|dý ỳxe.		\|dý ỳxe.
	\|give-ACC-1 male-ACC-'''NOM'''-2A.		\|give-ACC-1 male-ACC-'''NOM'''-2A.
	\|~~The man is the sender of giving.<br>~~		\|''the man's gift'' (The man is the sender of giving.)}}
	''the man's gift''}}

	\| {{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level		\| {{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=1:first level; 2:second level; 3:third level
	\|rhỳst ytfỳarh filpskỳy.		\|rhỳst ytfỳarh filpskỳy.
	\|dream-ACC-1 night-ACC-'''TEMP'''-2 midsummer-ACC-ACC-3.		\|dream-ACC-1 night-ACC-'''TEMP'''-2 midsummer-ACC-ACC-3.
	\| ~~The midsummer night is the time of dreaming.<br>~~		\| ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (The midsummer night is the time of dreaming.)}}
	''A Midsummer Night's Dream''}}
	\|}		\|}

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	…		…
	<!--The nominal verb ''mà.'' "to make [something, an entity]"-->		<!--The nominal verb ''mà.'' "to make [something, an entity]"-->

			Resultative:
	{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level		{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
	\|lìlbdh lỳghi.		\|lìlbdh lỳghi.
	\|white-CONS-1 house-ACC-DAT-2.		\|white-CONS-1 house-ACC-'''DAT'''-2.
	\|The consequence of whitening the house exists. The house has been made white.~~<br>~~		\|''The house is [painted] white.'' (The consequence of whitening the house exists. The house has been made white.)}}
	''The ~~house~~ is ~~white~~.''}}
			Depictive:
			{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|display-messages=no\|ablist=CONS:consecutive case; 1:first level; 2:second level
			\|drulìl werhèy.
			\|shrub-CONS-1 hazel-NOM-'''ACC'''-2.
			\|''The hazel is a shrub.'' (The hazel has the properties of a shrub.)}}
			(Side note: The stem of ''werhè.'' "hazel" means "to make hazelnuts", hence the inner nominative. The nuts are called ''werhỳ.'', with inner accusative. Other plants bearing edible fruits follow the same pattern.)

	===Relative pronouns===		===Relative pronouns===
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	\|wáx wìe.		\|wáx wìe.
	\|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−1</sub>-'''DAT'''-'''NOM'''-2A.		\|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−1</sub>-'''DAT'''-'''NOM'''-2A.
	\|~~The recipient of speaking is its sender.<br>~~		\|''to talk to oneself. He is talking to himself.'' (The recipient of speaking is its sender.)}}
	''to talk to oneself. He is talking to himself.''}}

	\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive		\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
	\|dráw dhèe.		\|dráw dhèe.
	\|dance-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-'''NOM'''-NOM-2A.		\|dance-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-'''NOM'''-NOM-2A.
	\|The sender of the parole is the sender of dancing.~~<br>~~		\|''I am dancing.'' (The sender of the parole is the sender of dancing.)}}
	~~''I am dancing.''~~}}

	\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive		\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=FACT:factive case; PI:pronoun type I; 1:first level; 2A:second level, agentive
	\|dráw dhìe.		\|dráw dhìe.
	\|dance-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-'''DAT'''-NOM-2A.		\|dance-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-'''DAT'''-NOM-2A.
	\|The recipient of the parole is the sender of dancing.~~<br>~~		\|''You are dancing.'' (The recipient of the parole is the sender of dancing.)}}
	~~''You are dancing.''~~}}
	\|}		\|}
	Rule Four of sentence grammar ensures that the reflexive example means "He is talking to himself" as opposed to, say, "He is talking to one being talked to" (which would be ''wáx wìxe.'' <span style="font-variant-numeric: oldstyle-nums">speak-{{sc\|fact}}-1 speak-{{sc\|dat-nom}}-2{{sc\|a}}</span>, with two different instances of the stem "speak").		Rule Four of sentence grammar ensures that the reflexive example means "He is talking to himself" as opposed to, say, "He is talking to one being talked to" (which would be ''wáx wìxe.'' <span style="font-variant-numeric: oldstyle-nums">speak-{{sc\|fact}}-1 speak-{{sc\|dat-nom}}-2{{sc\|a}}</span>, with two different instances of the stem "speak").
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	\|zdìls ngỳzdy zeú tỳar.		\|zdìls ngỳzdy zeú tỳar.
	\|seat-CONS-1 bird-ACC-ACC-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-'''NOM'''-BEN-3 this-ACC-LOC-2.		\|seat-CONS-1 bird-ACC-ACC-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-'''NOM'''-BEN-3 this-ACC-LOC-2.
	\|The sender of the parole is the beneficiary of making a bird.		\|''My bird is sitting there.'' (The sender of the parole is the beneficiary of making a bird.)}}
	~~<br>''My bird is sitting there.''~~}}

	\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=PI:pronoun type I; FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive; 3:third level		\| {{Interlinear\|display-messages=no\|ablist=PI:pronoun type I; FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive; 3:third level
	\|wáx dheè zdhèzhi zìe.		\|wáx dheè zdhèzhi zìe.
	\|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-NOM-NOM-2A friend-NOM-DAT-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-'''DAT'''-NOM-3.		\|speak-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-NOM-NOM-2A friend-NOM-DAT-2 PI<sub>n−3</sub>-'''DAT'''-NOM-3.
	\|~~The recipient of the parole is the friend. (nominative bracket)<br>~~		\|''Friend, I am talking to you.'' (The recipient of the parole is the friend: nominative bracket.)}}
	''Friend, I am talking to you.''}}
	\|}		\|}

Anypodetos: /* External links */ Agglutinative

2022-05-21T08:38:21Z

External links: Agglutinative

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:38, 21 May 2022
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	[[Category:Conlangs]]		[[Category:Conlangs]]
	[[Category:Indo-European languages]]		[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
	[[Category:~~Fusional~~ languages]]		[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:27, 26 May 2022
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	[[File:Lemizh text sample.png\|600px]]		[[File:Lemizh text sample.png\|600px]]

	====stedrỳzh thìrhfi xtrỳghy.====		===stedrỳzh thìrhfi xtrỳghy.===
	krỳgh dghngireì prilxpilghkỳarh. mangỳ srungbỳng lyngghỳng yngshwỳng fỳü. zhöazhghngìl tmỳil. ghngàgzh smìa prỳal ghngyé dhàbdhy lunguỳ ùyl mỳu fplyxár tỳarh. dmát feì sxngengzè ishkènge. ghìlt krighmyngthxì xtrỳngghi swyshỳ ghỳxy fplyxòr zhöyzhỳm xngàrorm. dmìlt öngkrỳngty zhryỳ rèshy esfàsy sxngyzdmýi, usrỳngy xazhgèsty ghngỳeng, frekrỳngfy rilghdzhỳwby pthèby, dgheipysrỳngdy psrèby rhèzhem, dghistngỳngty ghỳxy zangỳa dghildhfmlýyrh, ngiftngyghtmỳngy krültlìy zùe gỳghda. xtrỳgh swyshý stedrỳzh thìrfi. dngilszhrìl bdhyrgzhyngỳng xüxtrỳngyng prilkỳarh ötìlil skmyngìlng ghỳngsilng. dngilszhìlwb ráxpy thìlfi. fö̀l gwiltngìlöl dmàty föpysryfỳ ngỳu.		krỳgh dghngireì prilxpilghkỳarh. mangỳ srungbỳng lyngghỳng yngshwỳng fỳü. zhöazhghngìl tmỳil. ghngàgzh smìa prỳal ghngyé dhàbdhy lunguỳ ùyl mỳu fplyxár tỳarh. dmát feì sxngengzè ishkènge. ghìlt krighmyngthxì xtrỳngghi swyshỳ ghỳxy fplyxòr zhöyzhỳm xngàrorm. dmìlt öngkrỳngty zhryỳ rèshy esfàsy sxngyzdmýi, usrỳngy xazhgèsty ghngỳeng, frekrỳngfy rilghdzhỳwby pthèby, dgheipysrỳngdy psrèby rhèzhem, dghistngỳngty ghỳxy zangỳa dghildhfmlýyrh, ngiftngyghtmỳngy krültlìy zùe gỳghda. xtrỳgh swyshý stedrỳzh thìrfi. dngilszhrìl bdhyrgzhyngỳng xüxtrỳngyng prilkỳarh ötìlil skmyngìlng ghỳngsilng. dngilszhìlwb ráxpy thìlfi. fö̀l gwiltngìlöl dmàty föpysryfỳ ngỳu.

	rỳ zhryỳrh thìzgy gwiltngìly rhàghgy dmatngìe thìrfy. là xángska matngiè ytfỳyrh dmyý fplyxór dyxtngyngà mànga prilzhryngỳr iltỳngzhdyr. dmàt ytfỳarh ryý mìlngorh xngyì prilkyár mìlngorh xtrỳngghi kshrextý mengthxì prỳar zìe, fplỳngxe fywýr déngske xtryghè sxngezì xngỳnge.		rỳ zhryỳrh thìzgy gwiltngìly rhàghgy dmatngìe thìrfy. là xángska matngiè ytfỳyrh dmyý fplyxór dyxtngyngà mànga prilzhryngỳr iltỳngzhdyr. dmàt ytfỳarh ryý mìlngorh xngyì prilkyár mìlngorh xtrỳngghi kshrextý mengthxì prỳar zìe, fplỳngxe fywýr déngske xtryghè sxngezì xngỳnge.

	====The Legend of the Seventh Planet====		===The Legend of the Seventh Planet===
	A long time ago there was a tribe of nomads. They possessed neither writing nor houses nor horses. But they were truly human. They were curious; this means, above all, that they took interest in the useless, for the celestial objects were of no use to them yet. They looked at the Sun and the Moon. They had named the constellations and the six planets moving across the sky like the humans across the earth. They knew dim Mercury, who liked to hide in the glare of the Sun; Venus, the brightest of all; reddish and angry Mars; majestic father Jupiter; Saturn, who seemed to stand still for weeks; and even Uranus had been caught by their keen eyes. Six planets, and the legend of a seventh. Maybe it had been the minor planet Vesta, or a comet centuries or millennia earlier. Maybe it was the attraction of the number seven. For Neptune is invisible to the naked eye.		A long time ago there was a tribe of nomads. They possessed neither writing nor houses nor horses. But they were truly human. They were curious; this means, above all, that they took interest in the useless, for the celestial objects were of no use to them yet. They looked at the Sun and the Moon. They had named the constellations and the six planets moving across the sky like the humans across the earth. They knew dim Mercury, who liked to hide in the glare of the Sun; Venus, the brightest of all; reddish and angry Mars; majestic father Jupiter; Saturn, who seemed to stand still for weeks; and even Uranus had been caught by their keen eyes. Six planets, and the legend of a seventh. Maybe it had been the minor planet Vesta, or a comet centuries or millennia earlier. Maybe it was the attraction of the number seven. For Neptune is invisible to the naked eye.

	One youngster thought to himself that he could not live without seeing the seventh planet. He lay awake searching the sky for many nights, neglected his duties, and became thinner and thinner. And one night, lying with the Earth behind his back, and with the looping planets and the stars above him, he saw the depth of the sky and the planets circling the Sun, and among them the Earth.		One youngster thought to himself that he could not live without seeing the seventh planet. He lay awake searching the sky for many nights, neglected his duties, and became thinner and thinner. And one night, lying with the Earth behind his back, and with the looping planets and the stars above him, he saw the depth of the sky and the planets circling the Sun, and among them the Earth.

			==See also==
			* [[Literature:The Tower of Babel#Lemizh\|The Tower of Babel § Lemizh]]

	==External links==		==External links==
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	[[File:Copyleft1.png\|20px]] ''This article is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License]. It includes material from the Lemizh homepage, which has the same license.''		[[File:Copyleft1.png\|20px]] ''This article is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License]. It includes material from the Lemizh homepage, which has the same license.''

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