Khad languages - Revision history

Raistas: /* Later development */

2022-05-09T10:44:32Z

Later development

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:44, 9 May 2022
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	All Kyem-Khad languages are written with the '''Milpram script''', with a historically conservative orthography that reflects Classical Khad phonology, which helps unify the Central Khad language area, but also makes learning the orthography very difficult. For this reason, a different script, called '''Milngum''' (“one, that is spoken”) is used among speakers of more northern languages, such as '''Shanyi'''. The script was based on the Eastern writing with additional diacritics for tone. Milngum is not a common script and is mostly used by foreigners and merchants. Unlike Milpram it is not standardised, for example certain names may also retain irregular transcriptions, such as ''“Síkpons”'' for the Shipon valley (''Msigpoms'' in the Milpram spelling).		All Kyem-Khad languages are written with the '''Milpram script''', with a historically conservative orthography that reflects Classical Khad phonology, which helps unify the Central Khad language area, but also makes learning the orthography very difficult. For this reason, a different script, called '''Milngum''' (“one, that is spoken”) is used among speakers of more northern languages, such as '''Shanyi'''. The script was based on the Eastern writing with additional diacritics for tone. Milngum is not a common script and is mostly used by foreigners and merchants. Unlike Milpram it is not standardised, for example certain names may also retain irregular transcriptions, such as ''“Síkpons”'' for the Shipon valley (''Msigpoms'' in the Milpram spelling).
			===Khulong===
			The '''Khulong''' languages are a branch of the Mountain Khad language group, being distantly related to the '''Kryalpomg''' branch. They are spoken in the easternmost regions of the Blue Mountains, not far from where the Las language is spoken. The total number of speakers is around 30,000. The Khulong languages are primarily agglutinative and have a rich system of grammatical cases. Unlike their closest neighbours, they do not exhibit vowel harmony. The earliest Khulong language to be preserved in writing was Old Khulong (or Old Kalung depending on the dialect), in the 11th century AC. Both Old Khulong and its descendants use a modified '''Milngum''' script. Traditionally the Khulong dialects are grouped into three languages: Hučang, Źilyan and Polom, the latter two being more closely related to each other than to the former.


	[[Category:Aiwanic languages]]		[[Category:Aiwanic languages]]

Raistas: /* Central Khad */

2022-05-09T10:27:15Z

Central Khad

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:27, 9 May 2022
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	\|-		\|-
	! Absolutive		! Absolutive
	\| ''dnags'' [nɑ˥] \|\| ''dnagtye'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕe꜋] \|\| rowspan=7\| \|\| ''mkra'' [t͡ʂa˨ː] \|\| ''kraye'' [t͡ʂa˨ː.i꜌]		\| ''dnags'' [nɑ˥] \|\| ''dnagtye'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕe꜋] \|\| rowspan=7\| \|\| ''mkra'' [t͡ʂa˨ː] \|\| ''kraye'' [t͡ʂa˨ː.ji꜌]
	\|-		\|-
	! Genitive		! Genitive

Raistas: /* Central Khad */

2022-05-09T10:25:12Z

Central Khad

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:25, 9 May 2022
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	\|}		\|}
	Shanyi reintroduced pronominal clitics with a similar function to the auxilary verb in Proto-Lámeyi:		Shanyi reintroduced pronominal clitics with a similar function to the auxilary verb in Proto-Lámeyi:
	: ~~kyis qekgdepa fod~~		: [t͡ʂi˨ qɑŋ˨ qʌ˧˩.de˨.pʰa꜋ fø˧]
	:''kyis qek=g-depa fod''		:''kyis qan qek=g-depa fod''
	:(2sg.Obj ~~1sgSubj~~.2sgObj=FUT-see soon)		:(2sg.Obj 1sgSbj 1sgSbj.2sgObj=FUT-see soon)
	:“I will see you soon”		:“I will see you soon”

Raistas: /* Central Khad */

2022-05-09T09:48:26Z

Central Khad

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:48, 9 May 2022
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	\|-		\|-
	! Genitive		! Genitive
	\| ''dnagn'' [nɑŋ˥] \|\| ''dnagtyen'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕeŋ꜋] \|\| ''mkrayin'' [~~t͡ʂa˨ː~~.jiŋ꜌] \|\| ''kranyen'' [~~t͡ʂa˨ː~~.jiŋ꜌]		\| ''dnagn'' [nɑŋ˥] \|\| ''dnagtyen'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕeŋ꜋] \|\| ''mkrayin'' [t͡ʂaː˧˨.jiŋ꜌] \|\| ''kranyen'' [t͡ʂaː˨.jiŋ꜌]
	\|-		\|-
	! Ergative		! Ergative
	\| ''dnagyi'' [nɑ˥.d͡ʑi꜊] \|\| ''dnagtyi'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕi꜊] \|\| ''mkrakyi'' [~~t͡ʂa˨ː~~.~~t͡ʂɪ꜌~~] \|\| ''kranyi'' [~~t͡ʂa˨ː~~.ɲi꜌]		\| ''dnagyi'' [nɑ˥.d͡ʑi꜊] \|\| ''dnagtyi'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕi꜊] \|\| ''mkrakyi'' [t͡ʂaː˧˨.t͡ʂi꜌] \|\| ''kranyi'' [t͡ʂaː˨.ɲi꜌]
	\|-		\|-
	! Dative		! Dative
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	\|-		\|-
	! Locative		! Locative
	\| ''dnagla'' [~~nɑŋ˥~~] \|\| ''dnagtyala'' [~~nɑ˥~~.~~t͡ɕeŋ꜋~~] \|\| ''mkrala'' [~~t͡ʂa˨ː~~.~~jiŋ꜌~~] \|\| ''krala'' [~~t͡ʂa˨ː~~.~~jiŋ꜌~~]		\| ''dnagla'' [nɑː˥.la˥] \|\| ''dnagtyala'' [nɑː˥.t͡ɕa꜋.la˥] \|\| ''mkrala'' [t͡ʂaː˧˨.la˥] \|\| ''krala'' [t͡ʂaː˨.la˥]
	\|-		\|-
	! Terminative		! Terminative
	\| ''dnagsog'' [~~nɑŋ˥~~] \|\| ''dnagtyug'' [nɑ˥.~~t͡ɕeŋ꜋~~] \|\| ''mkraug'' [~~t͡ʂa˨ː.jiŋ꜌~~] \|\| ''kraug'' [~~t͡ʂa˨ː.jiŋ꜌~~]		\| ''dnagsog'' [nɑ˥.t͡ʂɔ˥] \|\| ''dnagtyug'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕø˥] \|\| ''mkraug'' [t͡ʂoː˧˨] \|\| ''kraug'' [t͡ʂoː˨]
	\|-		\|-
	! Comitative		! Comitative
	\| ''dnagstang'' [~~nɑŋ˥~~] \|\| ''dnagtyang'' [nɑ˥.~~t͡ɕeŋ꜋~~] \|\| — \|\| —		\| ''dnagstang'' [nɑ˥.taŋ˧] \|\| ''dnagtyang'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕaŋ˧] \|\| — \|\| —
	\|}		\|}

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	Verbs did not inflect for person or number. Morphologically, most verbs had several stem forms for different tenses, distinguishing the “present”, “progressive”, “aorist”, “perfect”, “future” and “imperative”. These so-called tenses typically had a broader use, conveying the sense of necessity, probability, completeness etc. Not every verb could inflect for all six tenses.		Verbs did not inflect for person or number. Morphologically, most verbs had several stem forms for different tenses, distinguishing the “present”, “progressive”, “aorist”, “perfect”, “future” and “imperative”. These so-called tenses typically had a broader use, conveying the sense of necessity, probability, completeness etc. Not every verb could inflect for all six tenses.

	The majority of verbs fell into one of two categories, traditionally called "voluntary" and "involuntary", expressing whether the agent was involved directly or indirectly. Most involuntary verbs lacked an imperative stem. Later languages developed this feature into separate [[w:Volition (linguistics)\|volition]] or [[w:Telicity\|telicity]] verb categories. Kyem-Khad verbs exhibit a conjugation system more similar to the Thad languages, than to both Proto-Lámeyi and other Khad verb conjugation, indicating a possible close contact with the Eastern languages. Different verb forms often showed ablaut of the root vowel – a trend that expanded further among the later Kyem languages. The stems of verbs were also distinguished by the addition of various affixes that share their origin with the same affixes in the Thad languages. Since the descendants of Classical Khad underwent consonant cluster reduction and simplification, this similarity remained only in the written form. All Kyem-Khad languages are written with the '''Milpram script''', with a historically conservative orthography that reflects Classical Khad phonology, which helps unify the Central Khad language area, but also makes learning the orthography very difficult. For this reason, a different script, called '''Milngum''' (“one, that is spoken”) is used among speakers of more northern languages, such as '''Shanyi'''. The script was based on the Eastern writing with additional diacritics for tone. Milngum is not a common script and is mostly used by foreigners and merchants. Unlike Milpram it is not standardised, for example certain names may also retain irregular transcriptions, such as ''“Síkpons”'' for the Shipon valley (''Msigpoms'' in the Milpram spelling).		The majority of verbs fell into one of two categories, traditionally called "voluntary" and "involuntary", expressing whether the agent was involved directly or indirectly. Most involuntary verbs lacked an imperative stem. Later languages developed this feature into separate [[w:Volition (linguistics)\|volition]] or [[w:Telicity\|telicity]] verb categories. Kyem-Khad verbs exhibit a conjugation system more similar to the Thad languages, than to both Proto-Lámeyi and other Khad verb conjugation, indicating a possible close contact with the Eastern languages. Different verb forms often showed ablaut of the root vowel – a trend that expanded further among the later Kyem languages. The stems of verbs were also distinguished by the addition of various affixes that share their origin with the same affixes in the Thad languages. Since the descendants of Classical Khad underwent consonant cluster reduction and simplification, this similarity remained only in the written form. The table below shows four verbs being conjugated in the Shanyi language:

			{\| class="wikitable"
			\|-
			! Meaning !! infinitive !! present !! progressive !! aorist !! perfect !! future !! imperative
			\|-
			\| do \|\| ''kduln'' [tʰuːŋ˧˥] \|\| ''bkdulni'' [duː˥.ni꜊] \|\| ''kdulnud'' [tʰyː˧˥.ny꜊] \|\| ''kdusg'' [tʰyː˧˥] \|\| ''kdulyod'' [tʰyː˧˥.jø꜊] \|\| ''gkdul'' [duː˧˥] \|\| ''kdulbs'' [tyː˥]
			\|-
			\| take \|\| ''len'' [leŋ˧] \|\| ''blei'' [liː˥] \|\| ''lebni'' [lʌ˧.ni꜊] \|\| ''laisg'' [leː˧˥] \|\| ''leyod'' [le˧.jø꜊] \|\| ''gla'' [laː˥] \|\| ''labs'' [lɑː˥]
			\|-
			\| finish \|\| '''srubn'' [ʂuŋ˥] \|\| ''bsrubi'' [d͡ʐu˥.wi꜊] \|\| — \|\| ''srubsg'' [ʂyː˧˥] \|\| ''srubyod'' [ʂyː˥.jø꜊] \|\| ''gsrub'' [d͡ʐu˧˥] \|\| ''srubs'' [d͡ʐu˥]
			\|-
			\| make \|\| ''zin'' [d͡ziŋ˧] \|\| ''bzini'' [d͡zi˧.ni꜊] \|\| ''zibna'' [d͡zʌ˧.na꜊] \|\| — \|\|''ziyod'' [d͡ziː˧.jø꜊] \|\| ''gzi'' [d͡zi˧˥] \|\| ''zibs'' [d͡zʌ˥]
			\|}
			Shanyi reintroduced pronominal clitics with a similar function to the auxilary verb in Proto-Lámeyi:
			: kyis qekgdepa fod
			:''kyis qek=g-depa fod''
			:(2sg.Obj 1sgSubj.2sgObj=FUT-see soon)
			:“I will see you soon”

			All Kyem-Khad languages are written with the '''Milpram script''', with a historically conservative orthography that reflects Classical Khad phonology, which helps unify the Central Khad language area, but also makes learning the orthography very difficult. For this reason, a different script, called '''Milngum''' (“one, that is spoken”) is used among speakers of more northern languages, such as '''Shanyi'''. The script was based on the Eastern writing with additional diacritics for tone. Milngum is not a common script and is mostly used by foreigners and merchants. Unlike Milpram it is not standardised, for example certain names may also retain irregular transcriptions, such as ''“Síkpons”'' for the Shipon valley (''Msigpoms'' in the Milpram spelling).



	[[Category:Aiwanic languages]]		[[Category:Aiwanic languages]]

Raistas: /* Features */

2022-05-09T08:53:37Z

Features

@@ Line 32: / Line 32: @@
 From that point, the Common Khad phonology is rather accurately rendered by its native script. Some prefix letters became assimilated to the root sounds. The pretonic vowels had already collapsed to a single sound by that time, even though they were still represented with different symbols. Because of this fact, texts from that period show frequent confusion and hypercorrection. For instance, the word for “road” is written as ''lados'' and ''lodos'' in the same text. Later texts show ''ledoh'' and ''ldoh'', also indicating the lenition of the final /s/ sound.
-In Central Khad, new consonant clusters, that had appeared after vowel reduction and elision, were usually simplified. For instance, the name of the Suropong Valley would be pronounced [sʷə.ɺə.ˈpoŋ] in Early Central Khad, but it became ''srpong'' [ʂɔ́ŋ] in Shanyi. The process of cluster simplification, devoicing and tonogenesis had begun in the central dialects with some later peripheral branches preserving most words intact, while other languages not allowing any clusters at all. In the Gyu language (spelt ''Dguts''), all consonant clusters disappeared completely, turning into such features as vowel mutation and tone (the name of the language itself is [gʲý].
+In Central Khad, new consonant clusters, that had appeared after vowel reduction and elision, were usually simplified. For instance, the name of the Suropong Valley would be pronounced [sʷə.ɺə.ˈpoŋ] in Early Central Khad, but it became ''srpong'' [ʂɔ́ŋ] in Shanyi. The process of cluster simplification, devoicing and tonogenesis had begun in the central dialects with some later peripheral branches preserving most words intact, while other languages not allowing any clusters at all. In the Gyu language (spelt ''Dguts''), all consonant clusters disappeared completely, turning into such features as vowel mutation and tone (the name of the language itself is [gʲý]).
 [[Category:Aiwanic languages]]

Raistas at 07:14, 9 May 2022

2022-05-09T07:14:33Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:14, 9 May 2022
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	The more divergent languages are spoken in the north and east, likely due to language contact with the Thad languages. The divergence exhibited in the Khulong branch may also be due to a gradual language shift from an extinct Eastern language.		The more divergent languages are spoken in the north and east, likely due to language contact with the Thad languages. The divergence exhibited in the Khulong branch may also be due to a gradual language shift from an extinct Eastern language.

	~~The two major Tibetic languages used for broadcasting within China are Standard Tibetan and Amdo Tibetan.~~
	==Features==		==Features==
	Innovations specific to the Khad languages include:		Innovations specific to the Khad languages include:

Raistas: /* Features */

2022-05-08T19:35:14Z

Features

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:35, 8 May 2022
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	From that point, the Common Khad phonology is rather accurately rendered by its native script. Some prefix letters became assimilated to the root sounds. The pretonic vowels had already collapsed to a single sound by that time, even though they were still represented with different symbols. Because of this fact, texts from that period show frequent confusion and hypercorrection. For instance, the word for “road” is written as ''lados'' and ''lodos'' in the same text. Later texts show ''ledoh'' and ''ldoh'', also indicating the lenition of the final /s/ sound.		From that point, the Common Khad phonology is rather accurately rendered by its native script. Some prefix letters became assimilated to the root sounds. The pretonic vowels had already collapsed to a single sound by that time, even though they were still represented with different symbols. Because of this fact, texts from that period show frequent confusion and hypercorrection. For instance, the word for “road” is written as ''lados'' and ''lodos'' in the same text. Later texts show ''ledoh'' and ''ldoh'', also indicating the lenition of the final /s/ sound.

	In Central Khad, new consonant clusters, that had appeared after vowel reduction and elision, were usually simplified. For instance, the name of the Suropong Valley would be pronounced [sʷə.ɺə.ˈpoŋ] in Early Central Khad, but it became ''srpong'' [ʂɔ́ŋ] in Shanyi. The process of cluster simplification, devoicing and tonogenesis had begun in the central dialects with some later peripheral branches preserving most words intact, while other languages not allowing any clusters at all. In the Gyu (spelt ''Dguts''), all consonant clusters disappeared completely, turning into such features as vowel mutation and tone (the name of the language itself is [gʲý].		In Central Khad, new consonant clusters, that had appeared after vowel reduction and elision, were usually simplified. For instance, the name of the Suropong Valley would be pronounced [sʷə.ɺə.ˈpoŋ] in Early Central Khad, but it became ''srpong'' [ʂɔ́ŋ] in Shanyi. The process of cluster simplification, devoicing and tonogenesis had begun in the central dialects with some later peripheral branches preserving most words intact, while other languages not allowing any clusters at all. In the Gyu language (spelt ''Dguts''), all consonant clusters disappeared completely, turning into such features as vowel mutation and tone (the name of the language itself is [gʲý].


	[[Category:Aiwanic languages]]		[[Category:Aiwanic languages]]

Raistas at 19:34, 8 May 2022

2022-05-08T19:34:42Z

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 **Hill ''(Bsas)''
 **High ''(Ím)''
-*Mountain ''(Kryalpomg)''
+*Mountain (Tsed)
 *River ''(Tsampa)''
 *''Nuli-Salbal''
@@ Line 16: / Line 18: @@
 **''Nuli''
 |}
 [[Category:Aiwanic languages]]

Raistas: Created page with "The '''Khad''' or '''Western''' languages, are a proposed subdivision of the Lámeyi languages which comprises several branches traditionally grouped into Central and Peripher..."

2022-05-08T16:10:46Z

Created page with "The '''Khad''' or '''Western''' languages, are a proposed subdivision of the Lámeyi languages which comprises several branches traditionally grouped into Central and Peripher..."

New page

The '''Khad''' or '''Western''' languages, are a proposed subdivision of the Lámeyi languages which comprises several branches traditionally grouped into Central and Peripheral subgroups, the latter being entirely [[w:Paraphyly|paraphyletic]]. The Khad languages constitute the largest and westernmost extant branch of the Lámeyi language family.

The common ancestor of all of the languages in this family is called '''Common Khad''', which was spoken in approximately the late 6th century AC. A languages, called Las, used to be included into this group, but is nowadays considered to comprise its own branch.

The subclassification of the Khad languages varies among scholars. The generally accepted classification treat the four subbranches of Khad as follows:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
*Central ''(Kyem-Khad)''
**Lowland ''(Gdangs)''
**Hill ''(Bsas)''
**High ''(Ím)''
*Mountain ''(Kryalpomg)''
*River ''(Tsampa)''
*''Nuli-Salbal''
**''Salbal''
**''Nuli''
|}

[[Category:Aiwanic languages]]