Linguifex - User contributions [en]

TolsianR

2026-06-23T15:10:25Z

Uvie: /* Composed graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

<poem>
'''Vowel + /w/'''
/jow/ Y͠o y͠o Y͠u y͠u Y̊͠o ẙ͠o Y̊͠u ẙ͠u I͠o͠ŏ i͠o͠ŏ I͠oŏ i͠oŏ I͠o͠ŭ i͠o͠ŭ I͠oŭ i͠oŭ (Y͠ŏ y͠ŏ Y͠ŭ y͠ŭ Y̊͠ŏ ẙ͠ŏ Y̊͠ŭ ẙ͠ŭ)
/ajw/ Æ͠ŏ æ͠ŏ Æ͠ŭ æ͠ŭ
/jaw/ Æ̊͠o æ̊͠o Æ̊͠u æ̊͠u I͠a͠ŏ i͠a͠ŏ I͠aŏ i͠aŏ I͠a͠ŭ i͠a͠ŭ I͠aŭ i͠aŭ
/aw/ A͠o a͠o A͠u a͠u
/ew/ E͠o e͠o E͠u e͠u
/ɛw/ Ê͠o ê͠o Ê͠u ê͠u
/øw/ Ě͠o ě͠o Ě͠u ě͠u
/iw/ I͠ŏ i͠ŏ I͠ŭ i͠ŭ
/ow/, /ɔw/ O͠ŏ o͠ŏ O͠ŭ o͠ŭ
/ow/ Œ͠o œ͠o Œ͠u œ͠u
/yw/ U͠ŏ u͠ŏ U͠ŭ u͠ŭ
/wiw/ Ƿ͠o ƿ͠o Ƿ͠u ƿ͠u O͠i͠ŏ o͠i͠ŏ O͠iŏ o͠iŏ U͠i͠ŭ u͠i͠ŭ U͠iŭ u͠iŭ O͠i͠ŭ o͠i͠ŭ O͠iŭ o͠iŭ U͠i͠ŏ u͠i͠ŏ U͠iŏ u͠iŏ
/ɑ̃w/ Ɯ͠o ɯ͠o Ɯ͠u ɯ͠u
/ɛ̃w/ Ɯ̂͠o ɯ̂͠o Ɯ̂͠u ɯ̂͠u
/ɔ̃w/ Ɯ̌͠o ɯ̌͠o Ɯ̌͠u ɯ̌͠u
/uw/ W͠o w͠o W͠u w͠u (W͠ŏ w͠ŏ W͠ŭ w͠ŭ)
/bɾaw/ Ƃ͠o ƃ͠o Ƃ͠u ƃ͠u
'''/w/ + vowel'''
/woj/ O͠y o͠y U͠y u͠y O͠o͠ĭ o͠o͠ĭ O͠oĭ o͠oĭ U͠o͠ĭ u͠o͠ĭ U͠oĭ u͠oĭ
/waj/ O͠æ o͠æ U͠æ u͠æ O͠a͠ĭ o͠a͠ĭ O͠aĭ o͠aĭ U͠a͠ĭ u͠a͠ĭ U͠aĭ u͠aĭ
/wa/ O͠a o͠a U͠a u͠a
/we/ O͠e o͠e U͠e u͠e
/wɛ/ O͠ê o͠ê U͠ê u͠ê
/wø/ O͠ě o͠ě U͠ě u͠ě
/wi/ O͠i o͠i U͠i u͠i
/wo/ O͠œ o͠œ U͠œ u͠œ O͠o o͠o U͠o u͠o
/wɔ/ O͠ò o͠ò U͠ò u͠ò
/wy/ O͠u o͠u U͠u u͠u
/wɑ̃/ O͠ɯ o͠ɯ U͠ɯ u͠ɯ
/wɛ̃/ O͠ɯ̂ o͠ɯ̂ U͠ɯ̂ u͠ɯ̂
/wɔ̃/ O͠ɯ̌ o͠ɯ̌ U͠ɯ̌ u͠ɯ̌
/wu/ O͠w o͠w U͠w u͠w (W͠w w͠w)
'''Vowel + /j/'''
/joj/ Y͠i y͠i Y̊͠i ẙ͠i (Y͠ĭ y͠ĭ Y̊͠ĭ ẙ͠ĭ) I͠o͠ĭ i͠o͠ĭ I͠oĭ i͠oĭ
/jaj/ Æ̊͠i æ̊͠i I͠a͠ĭ i͠a͠ĭ I͠aĭ i͠aĭ
/aj/ A͠i a͠i
/ej/ E͠i e͠i
/ɛj/ Ê͠i ê͠i
/øj/ Ě͠i ě͠i
/ij/ I͠ĭ i͠ĭ
/oj/, /ɔj/ O͠ĭ o͠ĭ
/oj/ Œ͠i œ͠i
/yj/ U͠ĭ u͠ĭ
/wij/ Ƿ͠i ƿ͠i (Ƿ͠ĭ ƿ͠ĭ) O͠i͠ĭ o͠i͠ĭ O͠iĭ o͠iĭ U͠i͠ĭ u͠i͠ĭ U͠iĭ u͠iĭ
/ɑ̃j/ Ɯ͠i ɯ͠i
/ɛ̃j/ Ɯ̂͠i ɯ̂͠i
/ɔ̃j/ Ɯ̌͠i ɯ̌͠i
/ui/ W͠i w͠i (W͠ĭ w͠ĭ)
/bɾaj/ Ƃ͠i ƃ͠i
'''/j/ + vowel'''
/joj/ I͠y i͠y (I͠y̆ i͠y̆) I͠o͠ĭ i͠o͠ĭ I͠oĭ i͠oĭ
/jaj/ I͠æ i͠æ I͠a͠ĭ i͠a͠ĭ I͠aĭ i͠aĭ
/ja/ I͠a i͠a
/je/ I͠e i͠e
/jɛ/ I͠ê i͠ê
/jø/ I͠ě i͠ě
/ji/ I͠i i͠i
/jo/ I͠œ i͠œ I͠o i͠o
/jɔ/ I͠ò i͠ò
/jy/ I͠u i͠u
/jɑ̃/ I͠ɯ i͠ɯ
/jɛ̃/ I͠ɯ̂ i͠ɯ̂
/jɔ̃/ I͠ɯ̌ i͠ɯ̌
/ju/ I͠w i͠w
</poem>

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-23T15:03:57Z

Uvie: /* Composed graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

<poem>
'''Vowel + /w/'''
/jow/ Y͠o y͠o Y͠u y͠u Y̊͠o ẙ͠o Y̊͠u ẙ͠u I͠o͠ŏ i͠o͠ŏ I͠oŏ i͠oŏ I͠o͠ŭ i͠o͠ŭ I͠oŭ i͠oŭ (Y͠ŏ y͠ŏ Y͠ŭ y͠ŭ Y̊͠ŏ ẙ͠ŏ Y̊͠ŭ ẙ͠ŭ)
/ajw/ Æ͠ŏ æ͠ŏ Æ͠ŭ æ͠ŭ
/jaw/ Æ̊͠o æ̊͠o Æ̊͠u æ̊͠u I͠a͠ŏ i͠a͠ŏ I͠aŏ i͠aŏ I͠a͠ŭ i͠a͠ŭ I͠aŭ i͠aŭ
/aw/ A͠o a͠o A͠u a͠u
/ew/ E͠o e͠o E͠u e͠u
/ɛw/ Ê͠o ê͠o Ê͠u ê͠u
/øw/ Ě͠o ě͠o Ě͠u ě͠u
/iw/ I͠ŏ i͠ŏ I͠ŭ i͠ŭ
/ow/, /ɔw/ O͠ŏ o͠ŏ O͠ŭ o͠ŭ
/ow/ Œ͠o œ͠o Œ͠u œ͠u
/yw/ U͠ŏ u͠ŏ U͠ŭ u͠ŭ
/wiw/ Ƿ͠o ƿ͠o Ƿ͠u ƿ͠u O͠i͠ŏ o͠i͠ŏ O͠iŏ o͠iŏ U͠i͠ŭ u͠i͠ŭ U͠iŭ u͠iŭ O͠i͠ŭ o͠i͠ŭ O͠iŭ o͠iŭ U͠i͠ŏ u͠i͠ŏ U͠iŏ u͠iŏ
/ɑ̃w/ Ɯ͠o ɯ͠o Ɯ͠u ɯ͠u
/ɛ̃w/ Ɯ̂͠o ɯ̂͠o Ɯ̂͠u ɯ̂͠u
/ɔ̃w/ Ɯ̌͠o ɯ̌͠o Ɯ̌͠u ɯ̌͠u
/uw/ W͠o w͠o W͠u w͠u (W͠ŏ w͠ŏ W͠ŭ w͠ŭ)
/bɾaw/ Ƃ͠o ƃ͠o Ƃ͠u ƃ͠u
'''/w/ + vowel'''
/woj/ O͠y o͠y U͠y u͠y O͠o͠ĭ o͠o͠ĭ O͠oĭ o͠oĭ U͠o͠ĭ u͠o͠ĭ U͠oĭ u͠oĭ
/waj/ O͠æ o͠æ U͠æ u͠æ O͠a͠ĭ o͠a͠ĭ O͠aĭ o͠aĭ U͠a͠ĭ u͠a͠ĭ U͠aĭ u͠aĭ
/wa/ O͠a o͠a U͠a u͠a
/we/ O͠e o͠e U͠e u͠e
/wɛ/ O͠ê o͠ê U͠ê u͠ê
/wø/ O͠ě o͠ě U͠ě u͠ě
/wi/ O͠i o͠i U͠i u͠i
/wo/ O͠œ o͠œ U͠œ u͠œ O͠o o͠o U͠o u͠o
/wɔ/ O͠ò o͠ò U͠ò u͠ò
/wy/ O͠u o͠u U͠u u͠u
/wɑ̃/ O͠ɯ o͠ɯ U͠ɯ u͠ɯ
/wɛ̃/ O͠ɯ̂ o͠ɯ̂ U͠ɯ̂ u͠ɯ̂
/wɔ̃/ O͠ɯ̌ o͠ɯ̌ U͠ɯ̌ u͠ɯ̌
/wu/ O͠w o͠w U͠w u͠w (W͠w w͠w)
'''Vowel + /j/'''
/joj/ Y͠i y͠i Y̊͠i ẙ͠i (Y͠ĭ y͠ĭ Y̊͠ĭ ẙ͠ĭ) I͠o͠ĭ i͠o͠ĭ I͠oĭ i͠oĭ
/jaj/ Æ̊͠i æ̊͠i I͠a͠ĭ i͠a͠ĭ I͠aĭ i͠aĭ
/aj/ A͠i a͠i
/ej/ E͠i e͠i
/ɛj/ Ê͠i ê͠i
/øj/ Ě͠i ě͠i
/ij/ I͠ĭ i͠ĭ
/oj/, /ɔj/ O͠ĭ o͠ĭ
/oj/ Œ͠i œ͠i
/yj/ U͠ĭ u͠ĭ
/wij/ Ƿ͠i ƿ͠i (Ƿ͠ĭ ƿ͠ĭ) O͠i͠ĭ o͠i͠ĭ O͠iĭ o͠iĭ U͠i͠ĭ u͠i͠ĭ U͠iĭ u͠iĭ
/ɑ̃j/ Ɯ͠i ɯ͠i
/ɛ̃j/ Ɯ̂͠i ɯ̂͠i
/ɔ̃j/ Ɯ̌͠i ɯ̌͠i
/ui/ W͠i w͠i (W͠ĭ w͠ĭ)
/bɾaj/ Ƃ͠i ƃ͠i
</poem>

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-23T14:53:57Z

Uvie: /* Composed graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

<poem>
'''Vowel + /w/'''
/jow/ Y͠o y͠o Y͠u y͠u Y̊͠o ẙ͠o Y̊͠u ẙ͠u I͠o͠ŏ i͠o͠ŏ I͠oŏ i͠oŏ I͠o͠ŭ i͠o͠ŭ I͠oŭ i͠oŭ (Y͠ŏ y͠ŏ Y͠ŭ y͠ŭ Y̊͠ŏ ẙ͠ŏ Y̊͠ŭ ẙ͠ŭ)
/ajw/ Æ͠ŏ æ͠ŏ Æ͠ŭ æ͠ŭ
/jaw/ Æ̊͠o æ̊͠o Æ̊͠u æ̊͠u I͠a͠ŏ i͠a͠ŏ I͠aŏ i͠aŏ I͠a͠ŭ i͠a͠ŭ I͠aŭ i͠aŭ
/aw/ A͠o a͠o A͠u a͠u
/ew/ E͠o e͠o E͠u e͠u
/ɛw/ Ê͠o ê͠o Ê͠u ê͠u
/øw/ Ě͠o ě͠o Ě͠u ě͠u
/iw/ I͠ŏ i͠ŏ I͠ŭ i͠ŭ
/ow/, /ɔw/ O͠ŏ o͠ŏ O͠ŭ o͠ŭ
/ow/ Œ͠o œ͠o Œ͠u œ͠u
/yw/ U͠ŏ u͠ŏ U͠ŭ u͠ŭ
/wiw/ Ƿ͠o ƿ͠o Ƿ͠u ƿ͠u O͠i͠ŏ o͠i͠ŏ O͠iŏ o͠iŏ U͠i͠ŭ u͠i͠ŭ U͠iŭ u͠iŭ O͠i͠ŭ o͠i͠ŭ O͠iŭ o͠iŭ U͠i͠ŏ u͠i͠ŏ U͠iŏ u͠iŏ
/ɑ̃w/ Ɯ͠o ɯ͠o Ɯ͠u ɯ͠u
/ɛ̃w/ Ɯ̂͠o ɯ̂͠o Ɯ̂͠u ɯ̂͠u
/ɔ̃w/ Ɯ̌͠o ɯ̌͠o Ɯ̌͠u ɯ̌͠u
/uw/ W͠o w͠o W͠u w͠u (W͠ŏ w͠ŏ W͠ŭ w͠ŭ)
/bɾaw/ Ƃ͠o ƃ͠o Ƃ͠u ƃ͠u
'''/w/ + vowel'''
/woj/ O͠y o͠y U͠y u͠y O͠o͠ĭ o͠o͠ĭ O͠oĭ o͠oĭ U͠o͠ĭ u͠o͠ĭ U͠oĭ u͠oĭ
/waj/ O͠æ o͠æ U͠æ u͠æ O͠a͠ĭ o͠a͠ĭ O͠aĭ o͠aĭ U͠a͠ĭ u͠a͠ĭ U͠aĭ u͠aĭ
/wa/ O͠a o͠a U͠a u͠a
/we/ O͠e o͠e U͠e u͠e
/wɛ/ O͠ê o͠ê U͠ê u͠ê
/wø/ O͠ě o͠ě U͠ě u͠ě
/wi/ O͠i o͠i U͠i u͠i
/wo/ O͠œ o͠œ U͠œ u͠œ O͠o o͠o U͠o u͠o
/wɔ/ O͠ò o͠ò U͠ò u͠ò
/wy/ O͠u o͠u U͠u u͠u
/wɑ̃/ O͠ɯ o͠ɯ U͠ɯ u͠ɯ
/wɛ̃/ O͠ɯ̂ o͠ɯ̂ U͠ɯ̂ u͠ɯ̂
/wɔ̃/ O͠ɯ̌ o͠ɯ̌ U͠ɯ̌ u͠ɯ̌
/wu/ O͠w o͠w U͠w u͠w (W͠w w͠w)
</poem>

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-23T14:51:40Z

Uvie: /* Composed graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

<poem>
'''Vowel + /w/'''
/jow/ Y͠o y͠o Y͠u y͠u Y̊͠o ẙ͠o Y̊͠u ẙ͠u I͠o͠ŏ i͠o͠ŏ I͠oŏ i͠oŏ I͠o͠ŭ i͠o͠ŭ I͠oŭ i͠oŭ (Y͠ŏ y͠ŏ Y͠ŭ y͠ŭ Y̊͠ŏ ẙ͠ŏ Y̊͠ŭ ẙ͠ŭ)
/ajw/ Æ͠ŏ æ͠ŏ Æ͠ŭ æ͠ŭ
/jaw/ Æ̊͠o æ̊͠o Æ̊͠u æ̊͠u I͠a͠ŏ i͠a͠ŏ I͠aŏ i͠aŏ I͠a͠ŭ i͠a͠ŭ I͠aŭ i͠aŭ
/aw/ A͠o a͠o A͠u a͠u
/ew/ E͠o e͠o E͠u e͠u
/ɛw/ Ê͠o ê͠o Ê͠u ê͠u
/øw/ Ě͠o ě͠o Ě͠u ě͠u
/iw/ I͠ŏ i͠ŏ I͠ŭ i͠ŭ
/ow/, /ɔw/ O͠ŏ o͠ŏ O͠ŭ o͠ŭ /ow/ Œ͠o œ͠o Œ͠u œ͠u
/yw/ U͠ŏ u͠ŏ U͠ŭ u͠ŭ
/wiw/ Ƿ͠o ƿ͠o Ƿ͠u ƿ͠u O͠i͠ŏ o͠i͠ŏ O͠iŏ o͠iŏ U͠i͠ŭ u͠i͠ŭ U͠iŭ u͠iŭ O͠i͠ŭ o͠i͠ŭ O͠iŭ o͠iŭ U͠i͠ŏ u͠i͠ŏ U͠iŏ u͠iŏ
/ɑ̃w/ Ɯ͠o ɯ͠o Ɯ͠u ɯ͠u
/ɛ̃w/ Ɯ̂͠o ɯ̂͠o Ɯ̂͠u ɯ̂͠u
/ɔ̃w/ Ɯ̌͠o ɯ̌͠o Ɯ̌͠u ɯ̌͠u
/uw/ W͠o w͠o W͠u w͠u (W͠ŏ w͠ŏ W͠ŭ w͠ŭ)
/bɾaw/ Ƃ͠o ƃ͠o Ƃ͠u ƃ͠u
'''/w/ + vowel'''
/woj/ O͠y o͠y U͠y u͠y O͠o͠ĭ o͠o͠ĭ O͠oĭ o͠oĭ U͠o͠ĭ u͠o͠ĭ U͠oĭ u͠oĭ
/waj/ O͠æ o͠æ U͠æ u͠æ O͠a͠ĭ o͠a͠ĭ O͠aĭ o͠aĭ U͠a͠ĭ u͠a͠ĭ U͠aĭ u͠aĭ
/wa/ O͠a o͠a U͠a u͠a
/we/ O͠e o͠e U͠e u͠e
/wɛ/ O͠ê o͠ê U͠ê u͠ê
/wø/ O͠ě o͠ě U͠ě u͠ě
/wi/ O͠i o͠i U͠i u͠i
/wo/ O͠œ o͠œ U͠œ u͠œ, /wɔ/ O͠ò o͠ò U͠ò u͠ò
/wy/ O͠u o͠u U͠u u͠u
/wɑ̃/ O͠ɯ o͠ɯ U͠ɯ u͠ɯ
/wɛ̃/ O͠ɯ̂ o͠ɯ̂ U͠ɯ̂ u͠ɯ̂
/wɔ̃/ O͠ɯ̌ o͠ɯ̌ U͠ɯ̌ u͠ɯ̌
/wu/ O͠w o͠w U͠w u͠w (W͠w w͠w)
</poem>

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-23T14:48:51Z

Uvie: /* Composed graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

<poem>
'''Vowel + /w/'''
/jow/ Y͠o y͠o Y͠u y͠u Y̊͠o ẙ͠o Y̊͠u ẙ͠u I͠o͠ŏ i͠o͠ŏ I͠oŏ i͠oŏ I͠o͠ŭ i͠o͠ŭ I͠oŭ i͠oŭ (Y͠ŏ y͠ŏ Y͠ŭ y͠ŭ Y̊͠ŏ ẙ͠ŏ Y̊͠ŭ ẙ͠ŭ)
/ajw/ Æ͠ŏ æ͠ŏ Æ͠ŭ æ͠ŭ
/jaw/ Æ̊͠o æ̊͠o Æ̊͠u æ̊͠u I͠a͠ŏ i͠a͠ŏ I͠aŏ i͠aŏ I͠a͠ŭ i͠a͠ŭ I͠aŭ i͠aŭ
/aw/ A͠o a͠o A͠u a͠u
/ew/ E͠o e͠o E͠u e͠u
/ɛw/ Ê͠o ê͠o Ê͠u ê͠u
/øw/ Ě͠o ě͠o Ě͠u ě͠u
/iw/ I͠ŏ i͠ŏ I͠ŭ i͠ŭ
/ow/, /ɔw/ O͠ŏ o͠ŏ O͠ŭ o͠ŭ /ow/ Œ͠o œ͠o Œ͠u œ͠u
/yw/ U͠ŏ u͠ŏ U͠ŭ u͠ŭ
/wiw/ Ƿ͠o ƿ͠o Ƿ͠u ƿ͠u O͠i͠ŏ o͠i͠ŏ O͠iŏ o͠iŏ U͠i͠ŭ u͠i͠ŭ U͠iŭ u͠iŭ
/ɑ̃w/ Ɯ͠o ɯ͠o Ɯ͠u ɯ͠u
/ɛ̃w/ Ɯ̂͠o ɯ̂͠o Ɯ̂͠u ɯ̂͠u
/ɔ̃w/ Ɯ̌͠o ɯ̌͠o Ɯ̌͠u ɯ̌͠u
/uw/ W͠o w͠o W͠u w͠u (W͠ŏ w͠ŏ W͠ŭ w͠ŭ)
/bɾaw/ Ƃ͠o ƃ͠o Ƃ͠u ƃ͠u
'''/w/ + vowel'''
/woj/ O͠y o͠y U͠y u͠y O͠o͠ĭ o͠o͠ĭ O͠oĭ o͠oĭ U͠o͠ĭ u͠o͠ĭ U͠oĭ u͠oĭ
/waj/ O͠æ o͠æ U͠æ u͠æ O͠a͠ĭ o͠a͠ĭ O͠aĭ o͠aĭ U͠a͠ĭ u͠a͠ĭ U͠aĭ u͠aĭ
/wa/ O͠a o͠a U͠a u͠a
/we/ O͠e o͠e U͠e u͠e
/wɛ/ O͠ê o͠ê U͠ê u͠ê
/wø/ O͠ě o͠ě U͠ě u͠ě
/wi/ O͠i o͠i U͠i u͠i
/wo/ O͠œ o͠œ U͠œ u͠œ, /wɔ/ O͠ò o͠ò U͠ò u͠ò
/wy/ O͠u o͠u U͠u u͠u
/wɑ̃/ O͠ɯ o͠ɯ U͠ɯ u͠ɯ
/wɛ̃/ O͠ɯ̂ o͠ɯ̂ U͠ɯ̂ u͠ɯ̂
/wɔ̃/ O͠ɯ̌ o͠ɯ̌ U͠ɯ̌ u͠ɯ̌
/wu/ O͠w o͠w U͠w u͠w (W͠w w͠w)
</poem>

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-23T14:45:00Z

Uvie: /* Composed graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

<poem>
'''Vowel + /w/'''
/jow/ Y͠o y͠o Y͠u y͠u I͠o͠ŏ i͠o͠ŏ I͠oŏ i͠oŏ I͠o͠ŭ i͠o͠ŭ I͠oŭ i͠oŭ
/ajw/ Æ͠ŏ æ͠ŏ Æ͠ŭ æ͠ŭ
/jaw/ Æ̊͠o æ̊͠o Æ̊͠u æ̊͠u I͠a͠ŏ i͠a͠ŏ I͠aŏ i͠aŏ I͠a͠ŭ i͠a͠ŭ I͠aŭ i͠aŭ
/aw/ A͠o a͠o A͠u a͠u
/ew/ E͠o e͠o E͠u e͠u
/ɛw/ Ê͠o ê͠o Ê͠u ê͠u
/øw/ Ě͠o ě͠o Ě͠u ě͠u
/iw/ I͠ŏ i͠ŏ I͠ŭ i͠ŭ
/ow/, /ɔw/ O͠ŏ o͠ŏ O͠ŭ o͠ŭ /ow/ Œ͠o œ͠o Œ͠u œ͠u
/yw/ U͠ŏ u͠ŏ U͠ŭ u͠ŭ
/wiw/ Ƿ͠o ƿ͠o Ƿ͠u ƿ͠u O͠i͠ŏ o͠i͠ŏ O͠iŏ o͠iŏ U͠i͠ŭ u͠i͠ŭ U͠iŭ u͠iŭ
/ɑ̃w/ Ɯ͠o ɯ͠o Ɯ͠u ɯ͠u
/ɛ̃w/ Ɯ̂͠o ɯ̂͠o Ɯ̂͠u ɯ̂͠u
/ɔ̃w/ Ɯ̌͠o ɯ̌͠o Ɯ̌͠u ɯ̌͠u
/uw/ W͠o w͠o W͠u w͠u (W͠ŏ w͠ŏ W͠ŭ w͠ŭ)
/bɾaw/ Ƃ͠o ƃ͠o Ƃ͠u ƃ͠u
'''/w/ + vowel'''
/woj/ O͠y o͠y U͠y u͠y O͠o͠ĭ o͠o͠ĭ O͠oĭ o͠oĭ U͠o͠ĭ u͠o͠ĭ U͠oĭ u͠oĭ
/waj/ O͠æ o͠æ U͠æ u͠æ O͠a͠ĭ o͠a͠ĭ O͠aĭ o͠aĭ U͠a͠ĭ u͠a͠ĭ U͠aĭ u͠aĭ
/wa/ O͠a o͠a U͠a u͠a
/we/ O͠e o͠e U͠e u͠e
/wɛ/ O͠ê o͠ê U͠ê u͠ê
/wø/ O͠ě o͠ě U͠ě u͠ě
/wi/ O͠i o͠i U͠i u͠i
/wo/ O͠œ o͠œ U͠œ u͠œ, /wɔ/ O͠ò o͠ò U͠ò u͠ò
/wy/ O͠u o͠u U͠u u͠u
/wɑ̃/ O͠ɯ o͠ɯ U͠ɯ u͠ɯ
/wɛ̃/ O͠ɯ̂ o͠ɯ̂ U͠ɯ̂ u͠ɯ̂
/wɔ̃/ O͠ɯ̌ o͠ɯ̌ U͠ɯ̌ u͠ɯ̌
/wu/ O͠w o͠w U͠w u͠w (W͠w w͠w)
</poem>

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-23T14:22:02Z

Uvie: /* Composed graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

<poem>
Vowels + /w/
/jow/ Y͠o y͠o Y͠u y͠u I͠o͠ŏ i͠o͠ŏ I͠oŏ i͠oŏ I͠o͠ŭ i͠o͠ŭ I͠oŭ i͠oŭ
/woj/ O͠y o͠y U͠y u͠y O͠o͠ĭ o͠o͠ĭ O͠oĭ o͠oĭ U͠o͠ĭ u͠o͠ĭ U͠oĭ u͠oĭ
/ajw/ Æ͠ŏ æ͠ŏ Æ͠ŭ æ͠ŭ
/waj/ O͠æ o͠æ U͠æ u͠æ O͠a͠ĭ o͠a͠ĭ O͠aĭ o͠aĭ U͠a͠ĭ u͠a͠ĭ U͠aĭ u͠aĭ
/jaw/ Æ̊͠o æ̊͠o Æ̊͠u æ̊͠u I͠a͠ŏ i͠a͠ŏ I͠aŏ i͠aŏ I͠a͠ŭ i͠a͠ŭ I͠aŭ i͠aŭ
/aw/ A͠o a͠o A͠u a͠u
/ew/ E͠o e͠o E͠u e͠u
/ɛw/ Ê͠o ê͠o Ê͠u ê͠u
/øw/ Ě͠o ě͠o Ě͠u ě͠u
/iw/ I͠ŏ i͠ŏ I͠ŭ i͠ŭ
/ow/, /ɔw/ O͠ŏ o͠ŏ O͠ŭ o͠ŭ /ow/ Œ͠o œ͠o Œ͠u œ͠u
</poem>

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-23T13:45:28Z

Uvie: /* Composed graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

æ̊͠o

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-14T15:28:09Z

Uvie: /* Case */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

=====Exceptions=====

Nouns are not marked for accusative when using them with a possessive pronoun.

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:56:45Z

Uvie: /* Dependent clauses */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Nouns have gender, number, and (most likely) definiteness (definite and indefinite articles).
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

====Declarative sentences====

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

====Questions====

Questions are made by inversing verb and subject. However, this inversion is relative to the underlying constituent order in the corresponding declarative sentence :
<poem>
(1) If the underlying order is VSO (more common), then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Subject + Verb (in the third person)
(2) If it is SVO , then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Verb (agreeing in person with its subject) + Subject.
</poem>
Questions usually have a rising intonation.

===Noun phrase===
*Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

*Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :
<poem>
(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.
</poem>

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:56:21Z

Uvie: /* Sentence phrase */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Nouns have gender, number, and (most likely) definiteness (definite and indefinite articles).
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

====Declarative sentences====

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

====Questions====

Questions are made by inversing verb and subject. However, this inversion is relative to the underlying constituent order in the corresponding declarative sentence :
<poem>
(1) If the underlying order is VSO (more common), then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Subject + Verb (in the third person)
(2) If it is SVO , then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Verb (agreeing in person with its subject) + Subject.
</poem>
Questions usually have a rising intonation.

===Noun phrase===
*Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

*Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :
<poem>
(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.
</poem>

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:55:45Z

Uvie: /* Nouns */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Nouns have gender, number, and (most likely) definiteness (definite and indefinite articles).
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

====Declarative sentences====

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

====Questions====

Questions are made by inversing verb and subject. However, this inversion is relative to the underlying constituent order in the corresponding declarative sentence :
<poem>
(1) If the underlying order is VSO (more common), then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Subject + Verb (in the third person)
(2) If it is SVO , then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Verb (agreeing in person with its subject) + Subject.
</poem>
Questions usually have a rising intonation.

===Noun phrase===
*Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

*Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :
<poem>
(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.
</poem>

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:54:55Z

Uvie: /* Morphophonology */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

====Declarative sentences====

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

====Questions====

Questions are made by inversing verb and subject. However, this inversion is relative to the underlying constituent order in the corresponding declarative sentence :
<poem>
(1) If the underlying order is VSO (more common), then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Subject + Verb (in the third person)
(2) If it is SVO , then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Verb (agreeing in person with its subject) + Subject.
</poem>
Questions usually have a rising intonation.

===Noun phrase===
*Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

*Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :
<poem>
(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.
</poem>

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:54:44Z

Uvie: /* Phonotactics */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

====Declarative sentences====

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

====Questions====

Questions are made by inversing verb and subject. However, this inversion is relative to the underlying constituent order in the corresponding declarative sentence :
<poem>
(1) If the underlying order is VSO (more common), then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Subject + Verb (in the third person)
(2) If it is SVO , then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Verb (agreeing in person with its subject) + Subject.
</poem>
Questions usually have a rising intonation.

===Noun phrase===
*Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

*Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :
<poem>
(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.
</poem>

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:53:32Z

Uvie: /* Constituent order */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

====Declarative sentences====

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

====Questions====

Questions are made by inversing verb and subject. However, this inversion is relative to the underlying constituent order in the corresponding declarative sentence :
<poem>
(1) If the underlying order is VSO (more common), then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Subject + Verb (in the third person)
(2) If it is SVO , then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Verb (agreeing in person with its subject) + Subject.
</poem>
Questions usually have a rising intonation.

===Noun phrase===
*Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

*Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :
<poem>
(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.
</poem>

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:42:41Z

Uvie: /* Noun phrase */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

===Noun phrase===
*Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

*Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :
<poem>
(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.
</poem>

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:41:59Z

Uvie: /* Noun phrase */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

===Noun phrase===
*Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

*Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :
(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:37:02Z

Uvie: /* Verb phrase */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

===Noun phrase===
Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

===Verb phrase===
Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.

===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:36:41Z

Uvie: /* Noun phrase */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

===Noun phrase===
Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:36:15Z

Uvie: /* Noun phrase */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

===Noun phrase===
The noun is usually followed by the adjective.

===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:28:19Z

Uvie: /* Constituent order */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-10T14:22:31Z

Uvie: /* Derivational morphology */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

*Prefixes

<poem>
u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).
</poem>

*Suffixes

<poem>
-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.
</poem>

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T14:20:31Z

Uvie: /* Morphology */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

===Derivational morphology===

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T14:19:31Z

Uvie: /* Verbs */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

====Participles====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Participles
|-
! !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| Present || -adz /adz/ || -dz /dz/ || -ant /ant/
|-
| Past || -i /i/ || -~i1 /j/ || -te /te/
|}

1In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T13:41:23Z

Uvie: /* Subjunctive */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T13:39:45Z

Uvie: /* Conditional */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T13:38:14Z

Uvie: /* Absolute (gnomic) */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T13:32:19Z

Uvie: /* Indicative Mood */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T13:29:48Z

Uvie: /* Subjunctive */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/ || -ko /ko/
|-
| 2SG || -koc /kɔs/ || -kc /ks/ || -koc /kɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -kot /kɔt/ || -kt /kt/ || -kot /kɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -komw /komu/ || -km /km/ || -komwc /komus/
|-
| 2PL || -kotc /kɔts/ || -ktc /kts/ || -kotic /kotis/
|-
| 3PL || -kon /kɔn/ || -kn /kn/ || -kona /kona/
|-
| 2POL || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/ || -ke /ke/
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T13:25:53Z

Uvie: /* Conditional */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o /o/ || -o /o/ || -o /o/
|-
| 2SG || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/ || -oc /ɔs/
|-
| 3SG || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/ || -ot /ɔt/
|-
| 1PL || -omw /omu/ || -omwc /omus/ || -omwc /omus/
|-
| 2PL || -otc /ɔts/ || -otic /otis/ || -otic /otis/
|-
| 3PL || -on /ɔn/ || -ona /ona/ || -ona /ona/
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/ || -o͠e /we/
|}

====Subjunctive====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko || -ko || -ko
|-
| 2SG || -koc || -kc || -koc
|-
| 3SG || -kot || -kt || -kot
|-
| 1PL || -komw || -km || -komwc
|-
| 2PL || -kotc || -ktc || -kotic
|-
| 3PL || -kon || -kn || -kona
|-
| 2POL || -ke || -ke || -ke
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T13:12:14Z

Uvie: /* Absolute (gnomic) */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh /joh/ || -yh /joh/ || -y /jo/
|-
| 2SG || -ys /joθ/ || -ys /joθ/ || -yc /jos/
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yŧ /jot̚/ || -yt /jot/
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yƥ /joɸ/ || -yf /jof/
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ || -yz /joz/
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yƿ /jowi/ || -yn /jon/
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ /joð/ || -yƶ /joð/ || -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)
|}

1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

====Conditional====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o || -o || -o
|-
| 2SG || -oc || -oc || -oc
|-
| 3SG || -ot || -ot || -ot
|-
| 1PL || -omw || -omwc || -omwc
|-
| 2PL || -otc || -otic || -otic
|-
| 3PL || -on || -ona || -ona
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e || -o͠e || -o͠e
|}
====Subjunctive====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko || -ko || -ko
|-
| 2SG || -koc || -kc || -koc
|-
| 3SG || -kot || -kt || -kot
|-
| 1PL || -komw || -km || -komwc
|-
| 2PL || -kotc || -ktc || -kotic
|-
| 3PL || -kon || -kn || -kona
|-
| 2POL || -ke || -ke || -ke
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-09T13:01:30Z

Uvie: /* Indicative Mood */

==Introduction==








==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t̚ tʰ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ɾ)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalized occlusive
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| (ᵑg)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e (ø)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

Notes :
<poem>
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
</poem>
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
<poem>
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (''E, e ; Ê, ê ;'')
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (''G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ'')
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
</poem>

====Spelling rules====
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <nowiki></nowiki> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
<poem>
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
</poem>

===Phonotactics===

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Gender====
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

====Number====
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

===Verbs===
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

====Indicative Mood====
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -a /a/ || - || -a /a/
|-
| 2SG || -ac /as/ || -c /s/ || -ac /as/
|-
| 3SG || -at /at/ || -t /t/ || -at /at/
|-
| 1PL || -amw /amu/ || -m /t/ || -mwc /mus/
|-
| 2PL || -atc /ats/ || -tc /m/ || -tic /tis/
|-
| 3PL || -an /an/ || -n /n/ || -na /na/
|-
| 2POL || -e /e/ || -e /e/ || -e /e/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Imperfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ta /ta/ || -t /t/ || -ta /ta/
|-
| 2SG || -tac /tas/ || -tc /ts/ || -tac /tas/
|-
| 3SG || -tat /tat/ || -ŧ /t̚/ || -tat /tat/
|-
| 1PL || -tamw /tamu/ || -tm /tm/ || -tamo /tamo/
|-
| 2PL || -tatc /tats/ || -ŧc /t̚s/ || -tati /tati/
|-
| 3PL || -tan /tan/ || -tn /tn/ || -tana /tana/
|-
| 2POL || -te /te/ || -te /te/ || -te /te/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Perfect past
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -fa /fa/ || -f /f/ || -fa /fa/
|-
| 2SG || -fac /fas/ || -fc /fs/ || -fac /fas/
|-
| 3SG || -fat /fat/ || -ft /ft/ || -fat /fat/
|-
| 1PL || -famw /famu/ || -fmw /fmu/ || -famo /famo/
|-
| 2PL || -fatc /fats/ || -ftc /fts/ || -fati /fati/
|-
| 3PL || -fan /fan/ || -fn /fn/ || -fana /fana/
|-
| 2POL || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/ || -fe /fe/
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Future
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ra /ʁa/ || -r /ʁ/ || -ra /ʁa/
|-
| 2SG || -rac /ʁas/ || -rc /ʁs/ || -rac /ʁas/
|-
| 3SG || -rat /ʁat/ || -rt /ʁt/ || -rat /ʁat/
|-
| 1PL || -ramw /ʁamu/ || -rm /ʁm/ || -ramo /ʁamo/
|-
| 2PL || -ratc /ʁats/ || -rtc /ʁts/ || -rati /ʁati/
|-
| 3PL || -ran /ʁan/ || -rn /ʁn/ || -rana /ʁana/
|-
| 2POL || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/ || -re /ʁe/
|}

====Absolute (gnomic)====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -yh || -yh || -y
|-
| 2SG || -ys || -ys || -yc
|-
| 3SG || -yŧ || -yŧ || -yt
|-
| 1PL || -yƥ || -yƥ || -yf
|-
| 2PL || -yƶ̆1 || -yƶ̆1 || -yz
|-
| 3PL || -yƿ || -yƿ || -yn
|-
| 2POL || -yƶ || -yƶ || -yœ
|}
====Conditional====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -o || -o || -o
|-
| 2SG || -oc || -oc || -oc
|-
| 3SG || -ot || -ot || -ot
|-
| 1PL || -omw || -omwc || -omwc
|-
| 2PL || -otc || -otic || -otic
|-
| 3PL || -on || -ona || -ona
|-
| 2POL || -o͠e || -o͠e || -o͠e
|}
====Subjunctive====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present
|-
! Person !! Group A !! Group B !! Group C
|-
| 1SG || -ko || -ko || -ko
|-
| 2SG || -koc || -kc || -koc
|-
| 3SG || -kot || -kt || -kot
|-
| 1PL || -komw || -km || -komwc
|-
| 2PL || -kotc || -ktc || -kotic
|-
| 3PL || -kon || -kn || -kona
|-
| 2POL || -ke || -ke || -ke
|}

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:TolsienO]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienO

2026-06-08T16:15:38Z

Uvie: /* Morphology */

Lodeen

2026-06-05T15:59:49Z

Uvie: /* Inspiration */

==Background==

===Inspiration===

Lodeen is a joke attempt at an auxlang, intended as an experiment to see what would a simple language to learn and speak be like if everyone was like me.
But it was quickly boring so I tried to complexify it a little bit.

===Setting===

==Phonology==

Lodeen's phonemic inventory is comprised of 15 phonemes :

===Consonants===
{| class="redtable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ colspan="8" | Consonantal phonemes
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="1" | Bilabial
! rowspan="1" | Labio-dental
! rowspan="1" | Alveolar
! rowspan="1" | Palatal
! rowspan="1" | Velar
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| m
|
| n
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Stop
| p
|
| t
|
| k
|-
! colspan="2" | Fricative
|
| f
| s
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximant
|w
|
|l
|j
|
|-
|}
===Vowels===
{| class="redtable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ colspan="8" | Vowel phonemes
|-
| rowspan="1" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="1" | Front
! rowspan="1" | Central
! rowspan="1" | Back
|-
! colspan="2" | Close
| i
|
| u
|-
! colspan="2" | Mid
| e
|
| o
|-
! colspan="2" | Open
|
| a
|
|-
|}

The obstruents have two allophonic realizations : they are voiceless in word-initial and word-final positions, and voiced otherwise.

There is no phonological lengthening of vowels or gemination of consonants.

===Phonotactics===


The syllabic structure is (C)(C)V(V)(C)(C), where V and (V) can be any vowel ; any sole consonant can appear in the onset, and in the coda any sole consonant but /w/. But the constraints on consonants clusters, which can't exceed two consonants, differ depending on the position in the word :

• Word-initial consonants clusters can be comprised of :

<poem>
– a plosive followed by /s/, /l/ or /j/ (except */t/ + /l/) ;
– /s/ followed by any plosive ;
– /f/ followed by /j/ or /l/ ;
– /l/ followed by /j/.
Thus, consonants clusters allowed in word-initial position are : /ps/, /pl/, /pj/, /ts/, /tj/, /ks/, /kl/, /kj/, /sp/, /st/, /sk/, /fl/, /fj/, /mj/, /nj/, /lj/.
</poem>

• Word-final consonants clusters can be :

/kt/, /st/, /sk/, /lt/, /lk/.

• Finally, there are intra-word consonants clusters. They can be comprised of :

<poem>
– /p/ or /k/ followed by any consonant except /w/ ;
– /t/ followed by /p/, a fricative, or /j/ ;
– /f/ followed by /l/ or /j/ ;
– /s/ followed by any consonant except /j/ or /w/ ;
– /m/ followed by any consonant except /n/ or /w/ ;
– /n/ followed by a fricative, /t/, /k/ or /j/ ;
– /l/ followed by any consonant except /w/ ;
– /j/ followed by any consonant except /w/.
Thus, consonants clusters allowed inside a word (in non-initial, non-final position) are : /pt/, /pk/, /pf/, /ps/, /pl/, /pj/ ; /kp/, /kt/, /kf/, /ks/, /kl/, /kj/ ; /tp/, /tf/, /ts/, /tj/ ; /fl/, /fj/ ; /sp/, /st/, /sk/, /sf/, /sm/, /sn/, /sl/ ; /mp/, /mt/, /mk/, /mf/, /ms/, /ml/, /mj/ ; /nt/, /nk/, /nf/, /ns/, /nj/ ; /lp/, /lt/, /lk/, /lf/, /ls/, /lm/, /ln/, /lj/ ; /jp/, /jt/, /jk/, /jf/, /js/, /jm/, /jn/, /jl/.
</poem>

===Phonetics===

Ideally :

Plosives are not aspirated ; generally, the VOT occurs early in Lodeen, and voiced plosives are voiced all throughout due to their position in the word.
The plosives [p] and [b] are bilabial. The plosives [t̪] and [d̪] are "dental" or more exactly pronounced with the blade of the tongue about the alveola and the apex slightly touching the teeth. They get slightly affricated before /i/ or /j/ but not in a very noticeable way, at least in the standard variety. The plosives [k] and [g] are velar, and slightly palatalized before /i/ and /j/ but not to the extent that they would become [c]/[ɟ]. The fricatives [f] and [v] are labio-dental, realized with the upper teeth touching the lower lip, slightly from behind. The fricatives [s] and [z] are realized with a similar configuration as /t/ and /d/, probably slightly more retracted. They are not noticeably palatalized before /i/, at least in the standard variety. The approximant [l] is realized in a rather apical and alveolar manner ; it is slightly velarized after/before back, rounded vowels. The approximant [j] is palatal, the approximant [w] is labio-velar.
Concerning vowels, high vowels [i] and [u] tend to weaken a bit in atonic position. The open vowel [ä] is rather centralized. The mid vowels present an allophony between open and closed : they're realized [e] and [o] in an open syllable (no coda), but [ɛ] and [ɔ] in a closed syllable (ending with a consonant coda). This is more especially true when it's a word-final syllable. That allophony is never showed in current transcriptions.
There is an assimilation of the nasal [n̪] (realized more or less like /t/ and /d/) in [ŋ] before /k/, but it keeps its place of articulation before other consonants. The nasal [m] is bilabial. If you are familiar with modern, standard French, the phonetic realizations are basically the same.

===Orthography===


Lodeen has its own script which is ideally phonemic, with one graph representing one phoneme of the language. However, here will be discussed its romanization, which similarly employs one letter of the Latin alphabet for one phoneme. There are three usual variants, depending on the phonemic analysis one makes.

====Official Standard====

As can be seen in the Phonology section, there are fifteen phonemes, including ten consonants, with voiceless segments chosen as representing the obstruent phonemes. Accordingly to that analysis, the romanization always employs the following graphs when writing these phonemes :

<poem>
/p/ = 
/t/ = < t >
/k/ = < k >
/f/ = < f >
/s/ = < s >
</poem>

The rest of the Latin alphabet for Lodeen in the official standard is :

<poem>
/m/ = < m >
/n/ = < n >

/w/ = < w >
/l/ = < l >
/j/ = < y >

/a/ = < a >
/e/ = < e >
/i/ = 
/o/ = < o >
/u/ = 
</poem>

=====Alphabet=====

The Lodeen alphabet in its own alphabetical order :

A E I O U M N P T K F S L Y W

====Alternate Standard====

Another analysis of Lodeen phonemic structure has proposed that, synchronically, it makes more sense to consider the underlying representation of the obstruents is that of voiced ones, and thus uses in the romanization the "voiced" counterparts of the official standard. Thus instead of , < t >, < k >, < f >, < s >, we have , < d >, < g >, < v >, < z >, respectively.

====Mixed Standard====

That last standard tries to give a more "phonetic" romanization of Lodeen, although only the allophony between voiced and voiceless obstruents is actually considered. That standard uses the letters p, t, k, f, s, in the beginning and the end of the words (where the obstruents are voiceless) and the letters b, d, g, v, z, inside a word (where they are voiced).

However, the official standard is the most widely used and will be the only one used on this page.

A few examples of Lodeen written in Latin alphabet (official standard) :

<poem>
Lekuan (ne) pankim yemkoyol.
"The dog is eating a bone"

Kato tame niwamile.
"My cat is grey"
</poem>

==Grammar==
===Morphology===




Lodeen can be said to be an agglutinative language, with both prefixes and suffixes.

====Nouns====

The noun is marked for number and definiteness. Concerning number, there is an opposition singular/plural, the plural being marked with the thematic vowel /i/, either as the suffix -i { -i/C_ ~ -j/V_ } if the word doesn't have a prefix, or inserted in the thematic vowel position of a prefix, if there's one. It will usually be in the definite prefix, or in the first prefix if there's no definite prefix.
Also, if there's a thematic gender vowel /a/ or /u/, it combines with the plural vowel : -ja/-ju in a prefix, -aj/-uj as a suffix, -ja/-ju as a suffix after a vowel ending.
As for definiteness, it is often marked by the prefix -le ; but it is usually unmarked when the speaker assumes it's given, part of the common ground, that the listener knows what particular instance object of the universe is referred to.

Gender is not considered a category of the noun proper, as it is never obligatory and usually restrained to animated beings whose sex or gender the speaker wants to precise. The thematic vowels /a/ (feminine) and /u/ (masculine) are then suffixed to the noun, or inserted in a prefix.

Examples :

<poem>
PAN : "a person" → PANA : "a woman" ; PANUY : "(some) men"
KEPAN : "a child" → KYAPAN : "(some) girls"
LEPAN : "the person" → LEKIPAN : "the children"
</poem>

====Verbs====

Verbs can be active or stative. Stative verbs will usually conjugate only for tense, but active verbs will usually be conjugated for aspect as well.

=====Tense=====

There are three temporal categories, past, present and future. They are marked with thematic vowels : /e/ for past, /o/ for present, and /i/ for future, which are inserted in the verbal suffix -Vl, where V is a thematic vowel.

Thus, we have the verb "to be" which presents the forms STOL (present), STEL (past) and STIL (future).

=====Aspect=====

Aspect describes the degree of progression of a process. There are three aspectual categories in Lodeen :

<poem>
• Inchoative : the process is starting or just about to start ; it is marked by dropping the final -l of the verbal suffix and adding the suffix -yen. For instance, MUKOL "eat.PR" will become MUKOYEN "eat-PR-INCH", "begin to eat", "be about to eat" ;
• Progressive : the process is being realized ; it is marked similarly by dropping the final -l and adding the suffix -yol. For instance, MUKEYOL "eat-PAST-PROG" "was/were eating" ;
• Perfective : the process is achieved and it is marked by dropping the final -l and adding the suffix -yka. Thus we have MUKIYKA "eat-FUT-PERF" "will have eaten".
</poem>

Aspect is not always marked though, even on active verbs. When there is no marking for aspect, it can mean different values : for instance, in the present, it will usually correspond to an habitual present, or a gnomic present.

=====Modalities=====

There are no verbal modes as morphological marks, but modal adverbs to indicate modalities. Other verbal categories such as evidentiality, polarity... are also indicated by adverbs. For instance, negation is indicated with such an adverb, the modal adverb NEWIN.

======''Negation''======

The modal adverb NEWIN is used for negation. It is placed before the subject and the conjugated verb.

Ex. : NEWIN SE AYEYOL, "he didn't agree".

======''Interrogation''======

On the other hand, questions are built with the interrogative particle KSA. For a yes/no question, it is simply placed at the beginning of the sentence, which is otherwise regular. For other types of questions, the particle is also placed at the beginning of the sentence, but a question word is added at the end.

Ex. : KSA MOT KAWOK LAOFOL ? "do you like chocolate ?" ''lit. question you chocolate like ?''
Ex. : KSA KATO TON ? "where is the cat ?" ''lit. question cat where ?''

====Adjectives====

Most adjectives are derived from nouns by adding the suffix -le (-ele after a consonant). In the most standard dialect of Lodeen they must agree in number and "gender" with the noun they qualify. They can be used for adjectival predication, in which case there is no need for a copula, for they will carry the temporal information as well : in the present the usual form of the adjective is used, in the past an -l suffix is added, and in the future, an -i replaces the -e :

<poem>
• KYUL ASELE : "(the) sky (is) blue"
• KYUL ASELEL : "(the) sky (was) blue"
• KYUL ASELI : "(the) sky (will be) blue"
Definiteness was not marked here as it would be considered obvious which sky the speaker is referring to.
</poem>

To express intensity (very X), reduplication is used : generally, the first syllable or the first morpheme of the root is reduplicated. In the written language there would usually be only one such reduplication but in spoken language the speaker may repeat the same segment more than twice to express ever greater intensity. Reduplication is also used in positive comparison (more X than).

For example : "red" : LUTELE becomes LULUTELE "very red", "more red".

====Adverbs====

Adverbs are usually derived from noun or verb stems with the suffix -in (-win after a vowel). They are usually placed after the verb.

====Derivational morphology====

There is a rather important derivational morphology in Lodeen. Often, prefixes are used to create new lexical content, whereas suffixes will modify the grammatical category of a word.

=====List of prefixes=====

<poem>
il- : pejorative
nye- : privative
pya- : meliorative
ke- : diminutive
sku- : causative
le- : indicates definiteness
</poem>

=====List of suffixes=====

<poem>
-a : indicates feminine
-ef : forms a noun from a verb
-i {-i ; -y} : indicates plural
-in {-in ; -win} : forms an adverb, usually from a noun
-il : agentive suffix
-Vl : forms a verb from a noun
-u : indicates masculine
-nta : under, into
-nka : akin to English “-less”
-mpule : akin to English “-ful(l)”
-le {-le ; -ele ; -e} : forms an adjective, usually from a noun
-lt {-lt ; -elt} : forms a noun, from an adjective
</poem>

===Syntax===

====Constituents order====

The canonical order of complements is Subject-Complement-Object-Verb (SOV). This order is kept for example in negative and interrogative sentences.

Lodeen mostly uses postpositions.

====Head and complement order====

Adjectives usually appear after nouns and adverbs after verbs. They can appear in front for stylistic/pragmatic reasons, which sometimes lead to different shades of meaning depending on that placement.

====Genitive construction====

The genitive construction is comprised of a Possessor noun, a Possessed noun, and a genitive pronoun agreeing with the possessor and placed right after it. The unit Possessor noun + genitive pronoun can appear either before or after the Possessed noun.

[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Jokelangs]]
[[Category:Auxlangs]]
[[Category:Experimental languages]]

TolsienO

2026-06-05T15:58:25Z

Uvie: /* Spelling rules */

TolsienO

2026-06-05T15:57:07Z

Uvie: /* Spelling rules */

TolsienO

2026-06-05T15:55:42Z

Uvie:

User:Uvie

2026-06-05T15:54:50Z

Uvie:

My languages on Linguifex :

Tolsianic languages :

* [[TolsianR]]
* [[Ŧœlsin]]
* [[TolsienS]]
* [[TolsienO]]
* [[Qtolqjimctadû]]
* [[QtolqjimctadûB]]
* [[QtolqjimctadûTolsi]]

Other languages :

* [[Lodeen]]
* [[Hutala]]

TolsienO

2026-06-05T15:54:24Z

Uvie: Created page with " ==Introduction==      ==Phonology== ===Consonants=== {| class=wikitable style="tex..."

TolsianR

2026-06-05T14:57:16Z

Uvie: /* Alphabet */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/ 1
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

1By analogy with <Æ̊ æ̊>, the grapheme <Y̊ ẙ> can be used to denote /jo/ and disambiguate it from /oj/.
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-03T15:13:09Z

Uvie: /* Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsianR

2026-06-03T15:12:46Z

Uvie: /* Consonants */

=Background=

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.








=Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ t̚ t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ k g
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ β
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"| θ ð
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x ɣ
|colspan="2"| χ ʁ
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

==Vowels==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e ø
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ ɛ̃
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ ɔ̃
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃
|}

==Phonotactics==

blablabliblou

==Orthography==


Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

===Alphabet===
<poem>
Y y - /jo/, /oj/
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/
</poem>

====Composed graphemes====
Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :
<poem>
/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda
</poem>

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <ñ>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ŋ>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <s> ð <ƶ>
|colspan="2"| s <c> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j cf. above
|colspan="2"| w cf. above
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <r̊>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <rͪl>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <g̊>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <w>
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ě>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>, <œ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ɯ>
|}

==New orthography==
However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

===Alphabet===

<poem>
A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/
</poem>

====Composed Graphemes====
<poem>
ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)
</poem>


====Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Uvular
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m <m>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n <n>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɲ <nh>
|colspan="2"| ŋ <ng>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| pʰ <ph> p b 
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"| ɸ <fh> β <bh>
|colspan="2"| f <f> v <v>
|colspan="2"| θ <c> ð <dh>
|colspan="2"| s <s> z <z>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| x <xh> ɣ <gh>
|colspan="2"| χ <x> ʁ <r>
|colspan="2"| h <h>
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <y>
|colspan="2"| w <w>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ʀ <j>, <rr>
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <lh>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l <l>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Prenasalised occlusives
|colspan="2"| ᵐb <mb>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ⁿd <nd>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ᵑg <ngg>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i y <ü>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u 
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <e> ø <ö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o <o>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <a>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <ê>
|}

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

=Grammar=
==Morphology==



There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

===Nouns===

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

====Definiteness====

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Number
! Gender
! Definite + consonant
! Definite + vowel
! Indefinite + consonant
! Indefinite + vowel
|-
! rowspan=2 | Singular
!'''Masculine'''
| ê / ä [ɛ]|| êl / äl [ɛl]|| one / one [one]|| on / on [on]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| la / la [la] || la' / l', la' [l] || ona / ona [ona] || ona' / on', ona' [on]
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural
!'''Masculine'''
| rowspan=3 | lecͪ / le, les' [le] || rowspan=3 | lec / les [les] || onecͪ / one, one' [one] || onec / ones [ones]
|-
!'''Feminine'''
| onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona] || onac / onas [onas]
|-
!'''Neutral'''
| dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale] || dalec / dales [dales]
|}

====Gender====

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -''e'' and -''o'' are masculine markers, while -''a'' and -''i'' are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and ''-do'' for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -''i''. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! Animate
| macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father) || ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
|-
! Inanimate
| sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time) || i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)
|-

|}

====Number====

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

<poem>
A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.
</poem>

====Case====

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : ''dake''- (or ''dak''- before a vowel) in the animate, and ''ke''- (or ''k''- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, ''dake-'' has become ''da-'' (or ''d-'' in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix ''-do'' for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and ''-o'' for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.



The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and ''stem'' includes any plural mark :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Case declension in TolsianR
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Animate
| ''stem'' || dake-C''stem'' (dak-V''stem'') da-C''stem'' (d-V''stem'')|| ''stem''-do
|-
! Inanimate
| ''stem'' || ke-C''stem'' (k-V''stem'') || ''stem''C-o (''stem''V-w)
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of declensions of different substantives
|-
! !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Genitive
|-
! Masculine Animate
| macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac || dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac|| mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
|-
! Masculine Inanimate
| sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz || kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz || sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
|-
! Feminine Animate
| ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh || dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh || ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
|-
! Feminine Inanimate
| i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot) || kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays || i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso
|-

|}

=====Morphophonological adaptations=====

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

<poem>
Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.
</poem>

===Pronouns===

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation.
In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s.
Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example
|-
! !! Nominative (subject) !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Possessive adjective
|-
! 1SG
| æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya || me mebi (mebe) ome || mi mibi omi || mo, moc / mo, mos || mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
|-
! 2SG
| tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu || te tebi (tebe) ote || ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti || to, toc / to, tos || tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
|-
! 3SG.masc
| æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo || wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo|| im imbi (bim) imo (oim)
| rowspan=2 | co, coc / so, sos || cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
|-
! 3SG.fem
| mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay || am ambi amo|| ima imabi (bima) oima
|-
! 1PL
| cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan || ne nebi (nebe) one || ni nibi oni || no, noc / no, nos || nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
|-
! 2PL
| vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu || ve vebi (vebe) ove || vi vibi ovi || vo, voc / vo, vos || vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
|-
! 3PL.masc
| cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)
|rowspan=3 | ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose
|rowspan=3 | ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi
|rowspan=3 | ico, icoc / iso, isos
|rowspan=3 | icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
|-
! 3PL.fem
| mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
|-
! 3PL.neut
| ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya || æe / aye œæe / oaye || æi / ayi œæi / oayi || æo, æoc / ayo, ayos || ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis
|-

|}

====Other types of pronouns====

=====Interrogative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?
</poem>

=====Relative pronouns and words=====
<poem>
who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -
</poem>

===Verbs===

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -''a'' or an -''i'' usually just take an -''r'' to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -''ƃ'' /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

====Tense====

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

====Grammatical Aspect====

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary ''cƿƃ'' "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary ''vuƃ'' "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

<poem>
Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic
</poem>

====Grammatical Mood====

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

====Polarity====

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ''ne'' is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : ''æ̊ cƿ'' "I am" ; ''ne æ̊ cƿ'' "I am not".

====Conjugation====

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.


The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''V-tV || ''stem''V-fV || ''stem''V-rV || ''stem''V-ko || ''stem''V-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-jV || ''stem''V-tjV || ''stem''V-fjV || ''stem''V-rjV || ''stem''V-kjo || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''V-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''V-tVs || ''stem''V-fVs || ''stem''V-rVs || ''stem''V-kos || ''stem''V-nos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-jVs || ''stem''V-tjVs || ''stem''V-fjVs || ''stem''V-rjVs || ''stem''V-kjos || ''stem''V-jos || ''stem''V-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''V-tVt || ''stem''V-fVt || ''stem''V-rVt || ''stem''V-kot || ''stem''V-not || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jVt || ''stem''V-tjVt || ''stem''V-fjVt || ''stem''V-rjVt || ''stem''V-kjot || ''stem''V-jot || ''stem''V-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''V-tVmo || ''stem''V-fVmo || ''stem''V-rVmo || ''stem''V-komys || ''stem''V-nomys || ''stem''V-jof || ''stem''V-jVm || ''stem''V-tjVmo || ''stem''V-fjVmo || ''stem''V-rjVmo || ''stem''V-kjomys || ''stem''V-jomys || ''stem''V-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ti || ''stem''V-tVti || ''stem''V-fVti || ''stem''V-rVti || ''stem''V-kotis || ''stem''V-notis || ''stem''V-joz || ''stem''V-jVti || ''stem''V-tjVti || ''stem''V-fjVti || ''stem''V-rjVti || ''stem''V-kjotis || ''stem''V-jotis || ''stem''V-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''V-tVn || ''stem''V-fVn || ''stem''V-rVn || ''stem''V-kona || ''stem''V-nona || ''stem''V-jon || ''stem''V-jVn || ''stem''V-tjVn || ''stem''V-fjVn || ''stem''V-rjVn || ''stem''V-kjona || ''stem''V-jona || ''stem''V-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-tVne || ''stem''V-fVne || ''stem''V-rVne || ''stem''V-ke || ''stem''V-ne || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-jVjne || ''stem''V-tVjne || ''stem''V-fVjne || ''stem''V-rVjne || ''stem''V-kje || ''stem''V-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''V-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-ita || ''stem''-ifa || ''stem''-ira || ''stem''-iko || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itja || ''stem''-ifja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-itas || ''stem''-ifas || ''stem''-iras || ''stem''-ikos || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itjas || ''stem''-ifjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-itat || ''stem''-ifat || ''stem''-irat || ''stem''-ikot || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itjat || ''stem''-ifjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itimo || ''stem''-ifimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikomys || ''stem''-omys || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itjimo || ''stem''-ifjimo || ''stem''-irjimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-iti || ''stem''-ifiti || ''stem''-iriti || ''stem''-ikotis || ''stem''-otis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jiti || ''stem''-itjiti || ''stem''-ifjiti || ''stem''-irjiti || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-itan || ''stem''-ifan || ''stem''-iran || ''stem''-ikona || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itjan || ''stem''-ifjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itine || ''stem''-ifine || ''stem''-irine || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itje || ''stem''-ifje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''V-∅ || ''stem''-tV || ''stem''-fV || ''stem''-rV || ''stem''-ko || ''stem''-no || ''stem''V-jo || ''stem''-jV || ''stem''-tʃV || ''stem''-fjV || ''stem''-rjV || ''stem''-kjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''V-s || ''stem''-tVs || ''stem''-fVs || ''stem''-rVs || ''stem''-kos || ''stem''-nos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jVs || ''stem''-tʃVs || ''stem''-fjVs || ''stem''-rjVs || ''stem''-kjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''V-t || ''stem''-tVt || ''stem''-fVt || ''stem''-rVt || ''stem''-kot || ''stem''-not || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jVt || ''stem''-tʃVt || ''stem''-fjVt || ''stem''-rjVt || ''stem''-kjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''V-m || ''stem''-to || ''stem''-fo || ''stem''-ro || ''stem''-kus || ''stem''-nus || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jVm || ''stem''-tʃVmo || ''stem''-fjVmo (-fimo) || ''stem''-rjVmo (-rimo) || ''stem''-kjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''V-ts || ''stem''-tVts || ''stem''-fVts || ''stem''-rVts || ''stem''-kis || ''stem''-nis || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jVts || ''stem''-tʃVts || ''stem''-fjVti (-fiti) || ''stem''-rjVti (-riti) || ''stem''-kjots || ''stem''-jots || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''V-n || ''stem''-tVn || ''stem''-fVn || ''stem''-rVn || ''stem''-ka || ''stem''-na || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jVn || ''stem''-tʃVn || ''stem''-fjVn || ''stem''-rjVn || ''stem''-kjona (-ka?) || ''stem''-jona (-ja?) || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-e || ''stem''-te || ''stem''-fe || ''stem''-re || ''stem''-ke || ''stem''-ne || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jVjne (-jine) || ''stem''-tʃe || ''stem''-fje || ''stem''-rje || ''stem''-kje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''V-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

Note : In the table above, ''stem'' represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| ''stem''-a || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-iv || ''stem''-ir || ''stem''-ik || ''stem''-o || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-ja || ''stem''-itʃa || ''stem''-ivja || ''stem''-irja || ''stem''-ikjo || ''stem''-jo || ''stem''-joh
|-
! 2SG
| ''stem''-as || ''stem''-its || ''stem''-ifs || ''stem''-irz || ''stem''-iks || ''stem''-os || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-jas || ''stem''-itʃas || ''stem''-ivjas || ''stem''-irjas || ''stem''-ikjos || ''stem''-jos || ''stem''-joθ
|-
! 3SG
| ''stem''-at || ''stem''-it || ''stem''-ift || ''stem''-ixt || ''stem''-ikt || ''stem''-ot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jat || ''stem''-itʃat || ''stem''-ivjat || ''stem''-irjat || ''stem''-ikjot || ''stem''-jot || ''stem''-jot̚
|-
! 1PL
| ''stem''-im || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivmo || ''stem''-irmo || ''stem''-ikus || ''stem''-us || ''stem''-jof || ''stem''-jim || ''stem''-itʃmo || ''stem''-ivimo || ''stem''-irimo || ''stem''-ikjomys || ''stem''-jomys || ''stem''-joɸ
|-
! 2PL
| ''stem''-its || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ifi || ''stem''-iri || ''stem''-iki || ''stem''-i || ''stem''-joz || ''stem''-jits || ''stem''-itʃi || ''stem''-ivits || ''stem''-irits || ''stem''-ikjotis || ''stem''-jotis || ''stem''-joʒ
|-
! 3PL
| ''stem''-an || ''stem''-in || ''stem''-ivna || ''stem''-irna || ''stem''-ikna || ''stem''-ona || ''stem''-jon || ''stem''-jan || ''stem''-itʃan || ''stem''-ivjan || ''stem''-irjan || ''stem''-ikjona || ''stem''-jona || ''stem''-jowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| ''stem''-ine || ''stem''-itʃne || ''stem''-ivne || ''stem''-irne || ''stem''-ike || ''stem''-e || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-jine || ''stem''-itʃe || ''stem''-ivje || ''stem''-irje || ''stem''-ikje || ''stem''-je || ''stem''-joð ; ''stem''-joː
|}

=====Examples of conjugated verbs=====

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti || barinifi || bariniri || bariniko || barinino || bariniy / bariniyo || barinii͠i / bariniyi || bariniti͠i / barinityi || barinifi͠i / barinifyi || bariniri͠i / bariniryi || bariniki͠o / barinikyo || barinii͠o / bariniyo || bariniyh / bariniyoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic / barinitis || barinific / barinifis || bariniric / bariniris || barinikoc / barinikos || barininoc / barininos || bariniyc / bariniyos || barinii͠ic / bariniyis|| bariniti͠ic / barinityis || barinifi͠ic / barinifyis || bariniri͠ic / bariniryis || bariniki͠oc / barinikyos || barinii͠oc / bariniyos || bariniys / bariniyoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit || barinifit || barinirit || barinikot || barininot || bariniyt / bariniyot || barinii͠it / bariniyit || bariniti͠it / barinityit || barinifi͠it / barinifyit || bariniri͠it / bariniryit || bariniki͠ot / barinikyot || barinii͠ot / bariniyot || bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo || barinifimo || barinirimo || barinikomuc / barinikomüs || barininomuc / barininomüs || bariniyf / bariniyof || barinii͠im / bariniyim || bariniti͠imo / barinityimo || barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo || bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo || bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs || barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs || bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti|| barinititi || barinifiti || bariniriti || barinikotic / barinikotis || barininotic / barininotis || bariniyz / bariniyoz || barinii͠iti / bariniyiti || bariniti͠iti / barinityiti || barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti || bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti || bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis || barinii͠otic / bariniyotis || bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin || barinifin || barinirin || barinikona || barininona || bariniyn / bariniyon || barinii͠in / bariniyin || bariniti͠in/ barinityin || barinifi͠in / barinifyin || bariniri͠in / bariniryin || bariniki͠ona / barinikyona || barinii͠ona / bariniyona || bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine || barinitine || barinifine || barinirine || barinike || barinine || barinii͠e / bariniye || barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne || bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne || barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne || bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne || bariniki͠e / barinikye || barinii͠e / bariniye || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class A Animate : barinir "to want"

|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barini || bariniti → barinti || barinifi → barinfi → barimfi || bariniri → barinri || bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko || barinino → barinno → barino || bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
|-
! 2SG
| barinic / barinis || barinitic → barintic / barintis || barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis || bariniric → barinric / barinris || barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos || barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos || bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
|-
! 3SG
| barinit || barinitit → barintit || barinifit → barinfit → barimfit || barinirit → barinrit || barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot || barininot → barinnot → barinot|| bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
|-
! 1PL
| barinim || barinitimo → barintimo → barinto || barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo || barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro || barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus|| barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus || bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
|-
! 2PL
| bariniti → barinitc / barinits || barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits || barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits || bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits || barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis || barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis || bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
|-
! 3PL
| barinin || barinitin → barintin || barinifin → barinfin → barimfin || barinirin → barinrin || barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka || barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina || bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinine → barinne → barine || barinitine → barintine → barinte || barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe || barinirine → barinrine → barinre || barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke || barinine → barinne → barine || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation table for the verb ''barinir'', to want
|-
!

! colspan="7" | Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi || bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi || barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi || bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi || bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo || barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho || bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
|-
! 2SG
| barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis || bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis || barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis || barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis || barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos || barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos || bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
|-
! 3SG
| barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit || bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit || barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit || bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit || barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot || barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot || bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
|-
! 1PL
| barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim || bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo|| barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo || bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo || barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs || barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs|| bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
|-
! 2PL
| barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits || bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits || barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti || bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti || barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots || barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots || barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
|-
! 3PL
| barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin || barintqin / barintshin || barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin || bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin || barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)|| barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)|| bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine || barintqe / barintshe || barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye || bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye || bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye || barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe || bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo
|}



{| class="wikitable"
|+ Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic) !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita || vekifa || vekira || vekiko || veko || veky / vekyo || veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a / vekitya || vekifi͠a / vekifya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac / vekitas || vekifac / vekifas || vekirac / vekiras || vekikoc / vekikos || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos || veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac / vektyas || vekifi͠ac / vekifyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat || vekifat || vekirat || vekikot || vekot || vekyt / vekyot || veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at / vekityat || vekifi͠at / vekifyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo || vekifimo || vekirimo || vekikomuc / vekikomüs || vekomuc / vekomüs || vekyf / vekyof || veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo / vekityimo || vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo || vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti|| vekititi || vekifiti || vekiriti || vekikotic / vekikotis || vekotic / vekotis || vekyz / vekyoz || veki͠iti / vekyiti || vekiti͠iti / vekityiti || vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti || vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan || vekifan || vekiran || vekikona || vekona || vekyn / vekyon || veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an / vekityan || vekifi͠an / vekifyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine || vekifine || vekirine || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye || veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e / vekitye || vekifi͠e / vekifye || vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veka || vekita → veki  || vekifa → vekiva → vekiv || vekira → vekir || vekiko → vekik || veko || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| vekac / vekas || vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis || vekifac → vekifc / vekifs || vekirac → vekirc → vekirz || vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks || vekoc / vekos || vekyc / vekyos
|-
! 3SG
| vekat || vekitat → vekit  || vekifat → vekift || vekirat → vekirt → vekixt || vekikot → vekikt || vekot || vekyt / vekyot
|-
! 1PL
| vekim || vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo  || vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo || vekirimo → vekirmo || vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus || vekomuc → vekwc / vekus || vekyf / vekyof
|-
! 2PL
| vekiti → vekitc / vekits  || vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi || vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi || vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri|| vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki || vekotic → vekitc → veki || vekyz / vekyoz
|-
! 3PL
| vekan || vekitan → vekitn → vekin || vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna || vekiran → vekirn → vekirna || vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna || vekona || vekyn / vekyon
|-
! 2FORMAL
| vekine || vekitine → vekitʃne || vekifine → vekifne → vekivne || vekirine → vekirne || vekike || veke || veki͠e / vekye
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Modern conjugation of the verb ''vekƃ'', to help
|-
!
! colspan="7" | Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
|-
! Person !! Indicative Present !! Indicative Imperfect Past !! Indicative Perfect Past !! Indicative Future !! Subjunctive !! Conditional !! Absolute (Gnomic)
|-
! 1SG
| veki͠a / vekya || vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha || vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya || vekiri͠a / vekirya || vekiki͠o / vekikyo || veki͠o / vekyo || veky / vekyo
|-
! 2SG
| veki͠ac / vekyas|| vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas || vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas || vekiri͠ac / vekiryas || vekiki͠oc / vekikyos || veki͠oc / vekyos || vekys / vekyoc
|-
! 3SG
| veki͠at / vekyat || vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat || vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat || vekiri͠at / vekiryat || vekiki͠ot / vekikyot || veki͠ot / vekyot || vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
|-
! 1PL
| veki͠im / vekyim || vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo|| vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo || vekiri͠imo → vekirimo || vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs || veki͠omuc / vekyomüs || vekyƥ / vekyofh
|-
! 2PL
| veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits || vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi || vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits || vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits || vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis || veki͠otic / vekyotis || vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
|-
! 3PL
| veki͠an/ vekyan || vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan || vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan || vekiri͠an / vekiryan || vekiki͠ona / vekikyona || veki͠ona / vekyona || vekyƿ / vekyowi
|-
! 2FORMAL
| veki͠ine / vekyine || vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe || vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye|| vekiri͠e / vekirye || vekiki͠e / vekikye || veki͠e / vekye || vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo
|}


'''Participles'''

Verbs have present and past participles :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Class A - Animate !! Class A - Inanimate !! Class B - Animate !! Class B - Inanimate
|-
| '''Present Participle''' || stemV-tɑ̃ || stemV-taɲ || stem-ɑ̃ || stem-aɲ
|-
| '''Past Participle''' || stemV-d || stemV-ʒ || stem-id || stem-iʒ
|}

Illustration : ''barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆''.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :
<poem>
1. -''il'' : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -''li'' : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -''i'' : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -''iC'' : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.
</poem>

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.


====Comparative and superlative====

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel.
The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-''lƿn'' (historically, stemV-''liƿn'') or stem-''ilƿn'', depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-''dƿn'', stemV-''ƶ̆ƿn'', stem-''idƿn'' or stem-''iƶ̆ƿn''. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

===Prepositions===

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

<poem>
al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"
</poem>

==Derivative Morphology==

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

<poem>
'''Prefixes'''
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

'''Suffixes'''
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product
</poem>

==Syntax==

===Declarative Sentences===

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

===Questions===

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").

test edit


[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Tolsian]]

TolsienS

2026-06-03T15:08:29Z

Uvie: /* Example texts */

TolsienS

2026-06-03T15:02:52Z

Uvie: /* Introduction */

Ŧœlsin

2026-06-03T15:02:02Z

Uvie: /* Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes */

Ŧœlsin

2026-06-03T15:01:38Z

Uvie: /* Consonants */

TolsienS

2026-06-03T15:00:22Z

Uvie: /* Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes */

TolsienS

2026-06-03T14:59:35Z

Uvie: /* Phonology */

TolsienS

2026-06-03T14:55:32Z

Uvie: /* Morphology */

TolsienS

2026-06-03T14:44:49Z

Uvie: /* Constituent order */