'''Bis Burunko''' (/bɨs bʉˈɾʉnkɔ/, literally 'the Burungian language'), also known as ''Burunko'' or ''Burungian'', is a language isolate spoken on the island of Burung in the north Atlantic.

==Background==
==Phonology and Orthography==
Bis Burunko has a relatively simple phonology with 21 consonants, 5 pure vowels and 6 true diphthongs. The orthography is almost entirely regular and predictable, based on a 1:1 spelling to pronunciation system.

===Consonants===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 68px; "|
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal
|-
! style="" |Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
! style="" |Plosive
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! style="" |Sibilant
|
| '''s''' /s/
| '''sh''' /ɕ/ '''z''' /ʑ/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Fricative
| '''f''' /ɸ/
|
| '''x''' /ç/
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! style="" |Affricate
|
|
| '''ch''' /t͡ɕ/ '''j''' /d͡ʑ/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Flap or tap
|
| '''r''' /ɾ/
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Approximant
| '''w, u''' /w/
|
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Lateral app.
|
| '''l''' /l/
|
|
|
|}

'''Notes:'''
* ''n'' is realised as /ŋ/ before ''g, k, ng''
* medial ''h'' is often simply hiatus between vowels
* /w/ is spelled ''u'' immediately after a consonant but ''w'' elsewhere
* all consonants except fricatives and glides (''w, y'') may be doubled word-internally; note the trigraphs ''ssh, cch, nng''
For consonant clusters, see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below.

===Vowels===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /ɨ/
| '''u''' /ʉ/
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
| '''e''' /ɛ/
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! style="" |Open
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''biitosh'' 'gender neutral person' /bɨ:'tɔɕ/.

'''Note:''' word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''wu-''.

===Diphthongs===
There are six diphthongs proper: ''ai'' /aɨ/, ''ei'' /ɛɨ/, ''oi'' /ɔɨ/, ''au'' /aʉ/, ''eu'' /ɛʉ/ and ''ou'' /ɔʉ/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.

===Phonotactics===
Bis Burunko has a relatively restricted syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! style="width: 200px; " |C1
! style="width: 200px; " |G
! style="width: 200px; " |V1
! style="width: 200px; " |V2
! style="width: 200px; " |C2
|-
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |
* optional
* any consonant but ''sh, r'' word-initially (''s'' and ''p'' only occur before ''u'')
* any consonant word-medially
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " |
* optional
*only ''y'' or ''w/u''
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* mandatory
* any vowel
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* optional
* only ''i, u'' or the preceding vowel repeated
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* optional
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant, except in the case of geminates
|}

The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:

* ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive or ''j'' is devoiced:
:: ''gis'' 'man' + ''-do'' (collective) = ''giito'' 'group, band'
* ''-sh'' becomes ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced:
:: ''sush'' 'empty' + ''bupung'' 'person' = ''suipupung'' 'vain person'
:: ''arash'' 'night' + ''-te'' (time) = ''araite'' 'night-time'
* ''-ng'' becomes ''-m'' before ''p, b, f'' and ''n'' before any other consonant:
:: ''gyong'' 'man' + ''-bu'' (collective) = ''gyombu'' 'warrior class'
:: ''yong'' 'foot' + ''-ko'' (adjectival) = ''yonko'' 'sock'
* ''-z'' is lost and causes a following consonant to double, except ''x'' which becomes ''s'' and ''h'' which is lost, while ''z'' remains:
:: ''az'' 'male' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'
:: ''haz'' 'old' + ''kora'' 'bitch' = ''hakkora'' 'hag'
:: ''buaz'' 'sun' + ''xu'' 'fire' = ''buasu'' 'heat of the sun'
:: ''fuz'' 'tree' + ''HUZ'' 'lack' = ''fuzuz'' 'treeless'

In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant:
:: ''mei'' 'dark' + ''kezi'' 'stone' = ''meukézi'' 'obsidian'

Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings.

===Stress===
Syllables may be defined as either heavy or light:
* a heavy syllable being either ends in a consonant ('''''az''''', '''''gyom-'''bu'', '''''ut'''-te'') or contains a long vowel ('''''bii''''', '''''gii'''-to'') or diphthong ('''''mei''''', ''a-'''rai'''-te'')
* a light syllable ends in a single vowel ('''''fa-be''''', '''''xu''''').

Monosyllabic words carry stress. In polysyllables, stress is attracted to heavy syllables. In words containing more than one heavy syllable, primary stress is placed on the last such syllable, with secondary stress on the penultimate heavy syllable. In words with no heavy syllables, primary stress falls on the first syllable.

In some instances, stress does not follow these rules and is marked with an acute accent (e.g. ''béyong'' "knee", ''búrus'' "iriji person", ''ugáras'' "breast").

===Orthography===
Bis Burunko was traditionally written in a semi-syllabary called '''''higomido''''', which was originally a rune-like system carved into stone, wood and bone but later developed a more calligraphic style used on paper-like sheets of wood.

The ''higomido'' consist of five specific vowel graphs, 41 consonant-vowel combinations (plosives, fricatives and affricates) and 7 individual consonant symbols (finals ''s, sh, ng'' and the remaining nasals and liquids ''m, n, l, r'').

Other sequences of sounds are formed using these 53 symbols in combination:
* diphthongs and double vowels are written using either a vowel + vowel combination (e.g. ''a + i = ai''), or the relevant syllabic + vowel combination (''ba + i = bai'').
* glide + vowel combinations are written using ''i/u'' + vowel (e.g. ''i + a = ya''), or ''Ci/Cu'' + vowel (e.g. ''bi + a = bya'').
* sequences of ''ch''V and ''j''V are written with the symbols for ''chi'' and ''ji'' + the relevant vowel (e.g. ''chi + a = cha'').
* nasals and liquids are simply followed by the relevant vowel (e.g. ''m + a = ma'').
* while there is a specific symbol for ''pu'', other combinations of ''pV'' - which only occur as a result of devoicing by a preceding (former) sibilant - are formed with the b-syllabics preceded by either ''s'' or ''sh'' (e.g. )

==Words==
The majority of lexical items in Bis Burunko are based on mono- or disyllabic roots that may have verbal, nominal or adjectival meaning - or a combination of these, e.g. ''DANG'' 'drink', ''GI'' 'meat, flesh', MEI 'dark'. In this article, roots are written in capitals to denote them as such.

Some roots can be used as nouns or adjectives without further modification, e.g. ''gi'' 'meat, flesh', ''uz'' 'water', ''mei'' 'dark'. Verbs require the addition of the prefix ''e-, i-, y-'' to create a basic infinitive form (e.g. ''edang'' 'drink'), or they can be compounded with other elements (e.g. ''uddang'' 'drink water' < ''UZ + DANG''). Primarily verbal roots can be nominalised with the prefix ''a-'', e.g. ''adang'' 'a drink'.

==Grammar==
===Natural Gender on Burung===
Grammatical gender does not occur in Bis Burunko, but natural gender is frequently marked on nominals, either by employing different words (e.g. ''az'' 'male', ''deme'' 'female', ''biitosh'' '''iriji'' person') or by derivation (e.g. with the honorative suffixes ''-osh'' (m.) and ''-ez'' (f.), ''-ai'' (mid.)). The concept of natural gender differs somewhat from the usual Western concept.

All things are considered to be either '''animate''' (''bui'') or '''inanimate''' (''nabui''), the primary distinction being whether a thing is capable of acting under its own power. This means humans, deities/spirits, most animals and some natural features, such as the sun and the sea, are considered ''bui'' while plants, rocks and most abstracts are ''nabui''.

Within the category of animate nouns, all things are then considered to be '''masculine''' (''acchi''), '''feminine''' (''demechi'') or '''middle''' (''iriji''). The relevant gender is based partly on biological sex, partly on particular characteristics and partly on social roles. All children are considered ''iriji'' until puberty when they will be assigned one of the three genders.

Each of the four categories has a complex series of associations and is considered an equal part of a harmonious whole.

===Case===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | <big>'''ba'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Topicaliser || colspan="2;" | marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance
|-
! <big>'''ze'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Nominative || colspan="2;" | marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''ke'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Accusative || colspan="2;" | marks the direct object of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''na'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Possessive || colspan="2;" | marks the (animate) possessor of an (inanimate) object. Used only for alienable possession.
|-
! <big>'''le'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2;" | marks the possessor of an inalienable object, or marks an object related to another.
|-
! <big>'''i'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Dative || colspan="2;" | marks the indirect object of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''la'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Allative || colspan="2;" | marks motion towards 'to'
|-
! <big>'''chi'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Ablative || colspan="2;" | marks movement away 'from, of, through'
|-
! <big>'''ang'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Locative || colspan="2;" | marks location 'in, on, at'
|-
! <big>'''mi'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Instrumental || colspan="2;" | marks use of, 'with, by'.
|}

===Nouns===
Nouns are non-inflecting and do not mark grammatical gender, number or definiteness, so e.g. ''puz'' can mean 'dog/dogs/a dog/(some) dogs/the dog/the dogs' etc. Grammatical case is indicated by the particles above after the noun.

Though grammatical number is not marked, nouns may take the following affixes to show a collective sense:
* ''-do'' indicates a discrete group of things, usually located together, e.g. ''binjido'' 'mountain ridge' (''binji'' 'mountain'), ''fuddo'' 'copse, small wood' (''fuz'' 'tree'), ''gyondo'' 'band' (''gyong'' 'man').
* ''-bu'' indicates a totality of things, a class, and also the absract state of being a member of that class, e.g. ''binjibu'' 'mountains; mountain-hood', ''fubbu'' 'trees; treehood', ''gyombu'' 'men; manhood, masculinity'.
* ''i-'' indicates a mass of things, ''ibinji'' 'mountain range', ''ifuz'' 'forest', ''igyong'' 'population'.

Reduplication is used to indicate intensity and in some cases can take on a collective meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, throng', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (''yai'' 'wind').

===Adjectives===
Adjectives are of two types. Verbal adjectives are the participles in ''-ng/na'' or ''-i'' (e.g. ''ekonna'' "growing", ''ewai'' "tired, exhausted, spent"). Nominal adjectives are either primary adjectives (e.g. ''haz'' "old", ''ong'' "good") or derived from a noun, other adjective or a verb (e.g. ''acchi'' "masculine", ''ukko'' "watery, aquatic", ''eyiking'' "pessimistic, defeatist" < ''exi'' "despair").

Any of these adjectives may occur attributively by preceding the noun they qualify unmodified, e.g. ''haz gyong to'' "that old man", ''ekonna fuz'' "a growing tree", ''eyiking heni chiri'' "three pessimistic guards".

When used predicatively, both types of adjective follow the entire noun phrase and precede the relevant form of ''yita'' "to be". Verbal adjectives are unmodified in this usage and, as often with English, the adjectival function of the participle is indistinguishable from the verbal function, e.g. ''fuz tong ba ekonna xiniteng'' "this tree wasn't growing", ''haz gyong to ba ewai jaite'' "that old man is tired".

===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Cardinal Numbers
|-
| width="25px;" | '''1''' || width="100px;" | ''su(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''11''' || width="100px;" | ''xassu(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''21''' || width="100px;" | ''hatorunsu''
|-
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || '''12''' || ''xazai'' || '''22''' || ''hatorunhai''
|-
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || '''13''' || ''xaggi''|| '''30''' || ''gyauka''
|-
| '''4''' || ''xa'' || '''14''' || ''xasa'' || '''40''' || ''xauka''
|-
| '''5''' || ''maka'' || '''15''' || ''xammaka'' || '''50''' || ''makauka''
|-
| '''6''' || ''ute'' || '''16''' || ''xazute'' || '''60''' || ''utauka''
|-
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || '''17''' || ''xaggyeng'' || '''70''' || ''gyengauka''
|-
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || '''18''' || ''xazeileng'' || '''80''' || ''eilengauka''
|-
| '''9''' || ''suneng'' || '''19''' || ''xassuneng'' || '''90''' || ''sunengauka''
|-
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || '''20''' || ''hatrung'' || '''100''' || ''inung''
|}

Numbers are based on a decimal system, though numbers above 10 are, in reality, rarely used. The word ''inung'', translated here as '100', is generally used for any large number. Higher numbers can be created, somewhat artificially, in the form ''su le inung'' '101', ''xaggyeng le inung'' '117'.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ordinal Numbers
|-
| width="25px;" | '''1st''' || width="100px;" | ''sus'' || '''11th''' || ''xassus''
|-
| '''2nd''' || ''haus'' || '''12th''' || ''xazaush''
|-
| '''3rd''' || ''gish'' || '''13th''' || ''xaggish''
|-
| '''4th''' || ''xash'' || '''14th''' || ''xasash''
|-
| '''5th''' || ''makachi'' || '''15th''' || ''xamakachi''
|-
| '''6th''' || ''utechi'' || '''16th''' || ''xazutechi''
|-
| '''7th''' || ''gyenchi'' || '''17th''' || ''xaggyenchi''
|-
| '''8th''' || ''eilenchi'' || '''18th''' || ''xazeilenchi''
|-
| '''9th''' || ''sunenchi'' || '''19th''' || ''xassunenchi''
|-
| '''10th''' || ''hacchi'' || '''20th''' || ''hatrunchi''
|}

===Pronouns===
====Personal====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! colspan="2;" | Standard !! Colspan="2;" | Emphatic
|-
! width="100;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1st
| ''ni'' || ''bi'' (excl.) ''bu'' (incl.) || ''nibez'' || ''bibez'' (excl.) ''bubez'' (incl.)
|-
! 2nd
| ''chi'' || ''fu'' || ''chibez'' || ''fubez''
|-
! Indefinite
| colspan="2;" | ''yeka'' || colspan="2;" | ''yekabez''
|}

Personal pronouns only truly exist for the 1st and 2nd persons, the 3rd person pronouns being demonstratives. There is also an '''indefinite''' pronoun ''yeka'', often used as a formal 1st singular.

Note that the 1st person plural has both exclusive ''bi'' 'us (but not you)' and inclusive ''bu'' 'us all'.

No distinctions of gender case are made, the pronouns being followed by the case particles like nouns. To form possessive pronouns, the forms are followed by the possessive particle ''na'' (when referring to alienable possession) or the genitive particle ''le'' (when inalienable), e.g. ''ni na hato'' 'my knife' but ''ni le ata'' 'my father'.

'''Emphatic''' forms of the personal pronouns are created with the suffix ''-bez'', i.e. ''nibez, chibez, bibez, bubez, fubez, yekabez''. These function as both emphatic pronouns, drawing particular attention to the person, and reflexive pronouns.

There is a tendency to omit pronouns, particularly the subject, where the person referred to is understood from context.

A number of terms of address are used in place of 2nd person pronouns or demonstratives when speaking of high ranking individuals, including: ''fuchi, furung'' (for any addressee), ''burosh, andosh'' (for masc. addressees), ''burez, andez'' (for fem. addressees); ''burai, andai'' (for ''iriji'' addressees).

====Demonstratives====
Demonstratives function as both determiners (preceding the noun) and pronouns and distinguish proximal ''tong'' 'this (near speaker)', medial ''to'' 'that (near listener)' and distal ''taz'' 'that (distant from both listener and speaker, or abstract)'. No distinction is made for gender, and case is marked by particles.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Simple !! width="100px;" | Emphatic
|-
! Proximal
| ''tong'' || ''tombez''
|-
! Medial
| ''to'' || ''tobez''
|-
! Distal
| ''taz'' || ''tabbez''
|}

The plural forms ''tombu, tobu, tabbu'' occur where number is necessary for clarity or emphasis; otherwise the simple forms are used for both singular and plural referents.

====Interrogatives and Indefinites====
Burunko has a related series of adjectives, adverbs and pronouns denoting ...

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! width="100px;" rowspan="2;"| !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Proximal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Medial !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Distal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Interrogative !! colspan="3;" | Indefinite
|-
! width="100px;" | 'any, no' !! width="100px;" | 'every' !! width="100px;" | 'some'
|-
! An.
| rowspan="2;" | ''tong'' 'this' || rowspan="2;" | ''to'' 'that' || rowspan="2;" | ''taz'' 'that' || ''nobuji'' 'who' || ''imbuji'' 'anyone' || ''aubuji'' 'everyone' || ''bujido'' 'someone'
|-
! Inan.
| ''nohez'' 'what' || ''inhez'' 'anything' || ''auhez'' 'everything' || ''heddo'' 'something'
|-
! Place
| ''tonsuki'' 'here' || ''tosuki'' 'there' || ''tassuki'' 'there' || ''nosuki'' 'where' || ''insuki'' 'anywhere' || ''ausuki'' 'everywhere' || ''sukido'' 'somewhere'
|-
! Manner
| ''tombye'' 'like this' || ''tobye'' 'like that' || ''tabbye'' 'like that' || ''nobye'' 'how' || ''imbye'' 'anyhow' || ''aubye'' 'every way' || ''byedo'' 'somehow'
|-
! Time
| ''tombeng'' 'now' || ''tobeng'' 'then' || ''tabbeng'' 'then' || ''nobeng'' 'when' || ''imbeng'' 'anytime' || ''aubeng'' 'always' || ''bendo'' 'sometime(s)'
|-
! Cause
| ''tongeze'' 'because' || || ''tazeze'' 'because' || ''noze'' 'why' || ''ineze'' 'any reason' || ''aweze'' 'all reasons' || ''ezedo'' 'some reason'
|}

===Verbs===
Burunko verbs may be described as '''primary''', '''secondary''' or '''compound'''. At the heart of all verbs is a mono- or disyllabic root, which carries the main meaning but cannot occur alone. Here roots are written in capitals to show that they are not words in their own right, e.g. ''ZUKI'' 'touch', ''AZ'' 'take', ''KASH'' 'learn'. Such roots are essentially a closed class. In some instances, a single root may be both nominal and verbal, so ''DANG'' 'to drink' and ''adang'' 'a drink'.

Primary verbs are composed of the root with the verbalising prefix ''E-'', realised as ''i-'' before a high vowel (''i, u'') in the next syllable, as ''y-'' before vowels and as ''e-'' elsewhere, .e.g. ''izuki'', ''yaz'', ''ekash''. This is the minimal form a verb can take in use.

Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and are also a closed class, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach', ''edanko'' 'sip'. Compound verbs are derived from a primary or secondary verb by prefixing the verb stem with another part of speech, e.g. ''izimizuki'' 'poke, finger', ''uddang'' 'drink water'. This is a large and highly productive class, in which new verbs can be formed easily.

====Aspect====
Verbs do not show tense, but take suffixes to show aspect:

* The '''aorist''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekash'' 'learn', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is aspectless form, referring to an action as an abstract, without any reference to time.
* The '''imperfective''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the infinitive, which is realised as ''-ng'' following vowels and ''-na'' following consonants, e.g. ''izuking'' 'touching', ''yanna'' 'taking', ''ekaina'' 'learning'. It refers to an action or state which is either ongoing or habitual.
* The '''perfective''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the infinitive, e.g. ''izukii'' 'touched', ''yazi'' 'taken, took', ''yommikeyi'' 'kicked'. It is used to denote an action or state in its entirety, without reference to its duration.

====Mood====
Mood is primarily denoted by sentence-final particles to express evidentiality, expectation, and other moods. The unmarked verb denotes a general declarative, e.g. ''taz ze uddang'' 's/he drinks water'.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | <big>'''bi'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang bi'' || 's/he drinks water' (because I've seen it)
|-
| Evidential || colspan="2;" | indicates that the speaker has direct experience or knowledge of the fact
|-
! <big>'''kou'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang kou'' || '(I hear) s/he drinks water'
|-
| Reportative || colspan="2;" | indicates that the speaker has received the information from another source
|-
! <big>'''teng'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang teng'' || '(I assume) s/he drinks water'
|-
| Inferential|| colspan="2;" | the speaker assumes that the information is correct based on other factors
|-
! <big>'''ofu'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ofu'' || 'perhaps s/he drinks water'
|-
| Dubitative|| colspan="2;" | suggests uncertainty, lack of facts or doubt
|-
! <big>'''ite'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ite'' || 's/he may drink water'
|-
| Hypothetical|| colspan="2;" | the event may be true or possible
|-
! <big>'''eiki'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang eiki'' || 'I wish s/he drank water'
|-
| Desiderative || colspan="2;" | the speaker hopes or wishes something to be the case
|-
! <big>'''ai'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ai?'' || 'does s/he drink water?'
|-
| Interrogative 1 || colspan="2;" | to ask simple, direct yes/no questions
|-
! <big>'''wa'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang wa?'' || 'does s/he drink water or not?'
|-
| Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions
|-
! <big>'''bis'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang wa?'' || 'does s/he drink water or not?'
|-
| Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions
|}

====Secondary Verbs====
The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are:
* The '''causative''' infix ''-da-'', which comes between the verbaliser ''E-'' and the root, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach' < ''ekash'' 'learn'. This form of causative is mainly added to intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in which the subject has little or no control over the action (e.g. ''edapush'' 'show' < ''ipush'' 'see').
* The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'.
* The '''applicative''' suffix ''-ki'', which makes an indirect object the direct object and indicates the beneficiary, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb,, e.g. ''edakaiki'' 'teach someone', ''edapuiki'' 'show someone'.
* The '''iterative/frequentative''' suffixes ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'.

A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''.

====Compound Verbs====
The initial element may be:
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''xemmang'' 'to name' < ''xeng'' 'name' + ''MANG'' 'give', ''loging'' 'to sleep' < ''lo'' 'sleep' + ''GING'' 'do'. These verbs may take a new object, e.g. ''...''
* an '''adjective''', denoting various senses of being or becoming a state, or to denote the subject's feelings or opinion, e.g. ''futtoz'' 'turn white' < ''fuz'' 'white' + ''TOZ'' 'come', ''ongushi'' 'like, approve of' < ''ong'' 'good' and ''USHI'' 'consider'.
* an '''adverb''' denoting the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''fimiroz'' 'move quickly' < ''fimiro'' 'quickly' + ''OZ'' 'move'; ''yommikei'' 'kick' < ''yommi'' 'with the foot' + ''KEI'' 'strike, hit'.

==Derivation==
Bis Burunko has a highly productive derivational system, primarily based on suffixes.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
! width="100px;" | Suffix !! width="300px;" | Meaning !! width="100;" | Added To !! width="300;" | Examples
|-
! colspan="4;" | Nouns
|-
| ''-ai'' || augmentative, honorific (mid.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-aro'' || "time, season, right time" || n, adj, vn ||
|-
| ''-ba, -be'' || kinship suffix denoting primary line || n ||
|-
| ''-do'' || collective || n ||
|-
| ''-ez'' || augmentative, honorific (fem.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-fo'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-ji'' || (domesticated) animal || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-jing'' || "period of time, age, era" || n, adj, v ||
|-
| ''-ko1'' || "thing for, connected with" || n ||
|-
| ''-ko2'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-mi'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-ni, -ng'' || agent || v ||
|-
| ''-o'' || instrument, tool || v ||
|-
| ''-osh'' || augmentative, honorific (masc.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-pung'' || "having" || n ||
|-
| ''-taz, -daz''* || "person/thing from" || n ||
|-
| ''-te, -de''* || "(short) stretch of time, period" || n || ''araite'' "nighttime"
|-
| ''-teng, -deng''* || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-to1, -do''* || instrument, tool || n, v, adj
|-
| ''-to2'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-yo'' || kinship suffix denoting 2 removed from ego || n ||
|-
! colspan="4;" | Adjective
|-
| ''-chi, -ji''* || "of, like, pertaining to; characteristic of" || n || ''demechi'' "female, feminine"
|-
| ''-king'' || "tending to, fond of" || n, v ||
|-
| ''-ko'' || "related to, characteristic of" || n ||
|-
! colspan="4;" | Adverbs
|-
| ''-mi'' || means, method || n || ''yommi'' "with the foot"
|-
| ''-ro'' || manner || adj || ''fimiro'' "quickly"
|}

==Vocabulary==
* [[Bis Burunko/Vocabulary| General Vocabulary]]
* [[Bis Burunko/Gender and Age | Gender and Age]]
* [[Bis Burunko/Kinship | Kinship]]
===Gender Terms===
Gender terms for humans and gods are partly based on the individual's age. Burung society sees life divided into four ages:
* '''Childhood''' (''pumebu'') from birth to the onset of puberty, in which all individuals are considered ''iriji''.
* '''Young Adulthood''' (''garaapu'') from the onset of puberty to full initiation into adult life.
* '''Adulthood''' (''koziji'') encompasses the working life, a time for raising a family.
* '''Old Age''' (''hajji'') from retirement to death.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! width="100px;" | Gender !! width="100px;" | Child !! width="100px;" | Young Adult !! width="100px;" | Adult !! width="100px;" | Senior
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Acchi'' (masc.)
| rowspan="4;" style="background-color:gray" | || colspan="3;" | ''az''
|-
| ''goi'' || ''gis, gyong'' || ''hoz''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Demechi'' (fem.)
| colspan="3;" | ''deme''
|-
| ''madash'' || ''xoz'' || ''axoz''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Iriji'' (mid.)
| colspan="4;" | ''haya''
|-
| ''pume'' || ''poda'' || ''búrus'' ||
|}

===Primary Verbs===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Root !! Meanings !! Infinitive !! Gerundive !! Perfective
|-
| '''OZ''' || move || ''yoz'' || ''yonna'' || ''yozi''
|-
| '''ARANG''' || move back and forth, swing, sway || ''yarang'' || ''yaranna'' || ''yarangi''
|-
| '''GA''' || go up; ascend, climb; improve || ''ega'' || ''egang'' || ''egai''
|-
| '''BE''' || go down, descend; fall; deteriorate || ''ebe'' || ''ebeng'' || ''ebei''
|-
| '''IGI''' || go past, pass; exceed; change state || ''yigi'' || ''yiging'' || ''yigii''
|-
| '''XAZ''' || go in(to), enter; penetrate || ''exaz'' || ''exanna'' || ''exai''
|-
| '''ZUKI'''1 || go out, exit, leave || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii''
|-
| '''LIPU''' || go || ''ilipu'' || ''ilipung ''|| ''ilipui''
|-
| '''TOZ''' || come || ''etoz'' || ''etonna'' || ''etozi''
|-
| '''ES''' || approach; press || ''yes'' || ''yeena'' || ''yeshi''
|-
| '''ZUKI'''2 || touch, come into contact; mention || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii''
|}

===Swadesh List===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! No. !! English !! Burunko
|-
! width="30px;" | 1 !! width="100px;" | I
| width="150px;" | ''ni''
|-
! 2 !! you (sg.)
| ''chi''
|-
! 3 !! he
| ''az'' (m.)
|-
! 4 !! we (inc.)
| ''bi''
|-
! 5 !! you (pl.)
| ''fu''
|-
! 6 !! they
| ''abbu'' (m.)
|-
! 7 !! this
| ''tong''
|-
! 8 !! that
| ''taz''
|-
! 9 !! here
| ''sukitong''
|-
! 10 !! there
| ''sukitaz''
|-
! 11 !! who (int.)
| ''nosha''
|-
! 12 !! what (int.)
| ''nohez''
|-
! 13 !! when (int.)
| ''nobeng''
|-
! 14 !! where (int.)
| ''nusuki''
|-
! 15 !! how (int.)
| ''nubide''
|-
! 16 !! not
| ''-no-''
|-
! 17 !! all
| ''alo''
|-
! 18 !! many
| ''mupu''
|-
! 19 !! some
| ''xama''
|-
! 20 !! few
| ''
|-
! 21 !! other
| ''ai''
|-
! 22 !! one
|
|-
! 23 !! two
|
|-
! 24 !! three
|
|-
! 25 !! four
|
|-
! 26 !! five
|
|-
! 27 !! big
| ''enji''
|-
! 28 !! long
| ''los''
|-
! 29 !! wide
|
|-
! 30 !! thick
|
|-
! 31 !! heavy
|
|-
! 32 !! small
| ''bing''
|-
! 33 !! short
| ''dobuz''
|-
! 34 !! narrow
|
|-
|}

thin
woman
man (adult male)
man (human being)
child
wife
husband
mother
father
animal
fish
bird
dog
louse
snake
worm
tree
forest
stick
fruit

Bis Burunko

2024-04-23T13:59:56Z

Psammead: /* Verbs */

'''Bis Burunko''' (/bɨs bʉˈɾʉnkɔ/, literally 'the Burungian language'), also known as ''Burunko'' or ''Burungian'', is a language isolate spoken on the island of Burung in the north Atlantic.

==Background==
==Phonology and Orthography==
Bis Burunko has a relatively simple phonology with 21 consonants, 5 pure vowels and 6 true diphthongs. The orthography is almost entirely regular and predictable, based on a 1:1 spelling to pronunciation system.

===Consonants===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 68px; "|
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal
|-
! style="" |Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
! style="" |Plosive
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! style="" |Sibilant
|
| '''s''' /s/
| '''sh''' /ɕ/ '''z''' /ʑ/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Fricative
| '''f''' /ɸ/
|
| '''x''' /ç/
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! style="" |Affricate
|
|
| '''ch''' /t͡ɕ/ '''j''' /d͡ʑ/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Flap or tap
|
| '''r''' /ɾ/
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Approximant
| '''w, u''' /w/
|
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Lateral app.
|
| '''l''' /l/
|
|
|
|}

'''Notes:'''
* ''n'' is realised as /ŋ/ before ''g, k, ng''
* medial ''h'' is often simply hiatus between vowels
* /w/ is spelled ''u'' immediately after a consonant but ''w'' elsewhere
* all consonants except fricatives and glides (''w, y'') may be doubled word-internally; note the trigraphs ''ssh, cch, nng''
For consonant clusters, see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below.

===Vowels===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /ɨ/
| '''u''' /ʉ/
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
| '''e''' /ɛ/
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! style="" |Open
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''biitosh'' 'gender neutral person' /bɨ:'tɔɕ/.

'''Note:''' word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''wu-''.

===Diphthongs===
There are six diphthongs proper: ''ai'' /aɨ/, ''ei'' /ɛɨ/, ''oi'' /ɔɨ/, ''au'' /aʉ/, ''eu'' /ɛʉ/ and ''ou'' /ɔʉ/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.

===Phonotactics===
Bis Burunko has a relatively restricted syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! style="width: 200px; " |C1
! style="width: 200px; " |G
! style="width: 200px; " |V1
! style="width: 200px; " |V2
! style="width: 200px; " |C2
|-
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |
* optional
* any consonant but ''sh, r'' word-initially (''s'' and ''p'' only occur before ''u'')
* any consonant word-medially
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " |
* optional
*only ''y'' or ''w/u''
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* mandatory
* any vowel
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* optional
* only ''i, u'' or the preceding vowel repeated
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* optional
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant, except in the case of geminates
|}

The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:

* ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive or ''j'' is devoiced:
:: ''gis'' 'man' + ''-do'' (collective) = ''giito'' 'group, band'
* ''-sh'' becomes ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced:
:: ''sush'' 'empty' + ''bupung'' 'person' = ''suipupung'' 'vain person'
:: ''arash'' 'night' + ''-te'' (time) = ''araite'' 'night-time'
* ''-ng'' becomes ''-m'' before ''p, b, f'' and ''n'' before any other consonant:
:: ''gyong'' 'man' + ''-bu'' (collective) = ''gyombu'' 'warrior class'
:: ''yong'' 'foot' + ''-ko'' (adjectival) = ''yonko'' 'sock'
* ''-z'' is lost and causes a following consonant to double, except ''x'' which becomes ''s'' and ''h'' which is lost, while ''z'' remains:
:: ''az'' 'male' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'
:: ''haz'' 'old' + ''kora'' 'bitch' = ''hakkora'' 'hag'
:: ''buaz'' 'sun' + ''xu'' 'fire' = ''buasu'' 'heat of the sun'
:: ''fuz'' 'tree' + ''HUZ'' 'lack' = ''fuzuz'' 'treeless'

In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant:
:: ''mei'' 'dark' + ''kezi'' 'stone' = ''meukézi'' 'obsidian'

Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings.

===Stress===
Syllables may be defined as either heavy or light:
* a heavy syllable being either ends in a consonant ('''''az''''', '''''gyom-'''bu'', '''''ut'''-te'') or contains a long vowel ('''''bii''''', '''''gii'''-to'') or diphthong ('''''mei''''', ''a-'''rai'''-te'')
* a light syllable ends in a single vowel ('''''fa-be''''', '''''xu''''').

Monosyllabic words carry stress. In polysyllables, stress is attracted to heavy syllables. In words containing more than one heavy syllable, primary stress is placed on the last such syllable, with secondary stress on the penultimate heavy syllable. In words with no heavy syllables, primary stress falls on the first syllable.

In some instances, stress does not follow these rules and is marked with an acute accent (e.g. ''béyong'' "knee", ''búrus'' "iriji person", ''ugáras'' "breast").

===Orthography===
Bis Burunko was traditionally written in a semi-syllabary called '''''higomido''''', which was originally a rune-like system carved into stone, wood and bone but later developed a more calligraphic style used on paper-like sheets of wood.

The ''higomido'' consist of five specific vowel graphs, 41 consonant-vowel combinations (plosives, fricatives and affricates) and 7 individual consonant symbols (finals ''s, sh, ng'' and the remaining nasals and liquids ''m, n, l, r'').

Other sequences of sounds are formed using these 53 symbols in combination:
* diphthongs and double vowels are written using either a vowel + vowel combination (e.g. ''a + i = ai''), or the relevant syllabic + vowel combination (''ba + i = bai'').
* glide + vowel combinations are written using ''i/u'' + vowel (e.g. ''i + a = ya''), or ''Ci/Cu'' + vowel (e.g. ''bi + a = bya'').
* sequences of ''ch''V and ''j''V are written with the symbols for ''chi'' and ''ji'' + the relevant vowel (e.g. ''chi + a = cha'').
* nasals and liquids are simply followed by the relevant vowel (e.g. ''m + a = ma'').
* while there is a specific symbol for ''pu'', other combinations of ''pV'' - which only occur as a result of devoicing by a preceding (former) sibilant - are formed with the b-syllabics preceded by either ''s'' or ''sh'' (e.g. )

==Grammar==
===Natural Gender on Burung===
Grammatical gender does not occur in Bis Burunko, but natural gender is frequently marked on nominals, either by employing different words (e.g. ''az'' 'male', ''deme'' 'female', ''biitosh'' '''iriji'' person') or by derivation (e.g. with the honorative suffixes ''-osh'' (m.) and ''-ez'' (f.), ''-ai'' (mid.)). The concept of natural gender differs somewhat from the usual Western concept.

All things are considered to be either '''animate''' (''bui'') or '''inanimate''' (''nabui''), the primary distinction being whether a thing is capable of acting under its own power. This means humans, deities/spirits, most animals and some natural features, such as the sun and the sea, are considered ''bui'' while plants, rocks and most abstracts are ''nabui''.

Within the category of animate nouns, all things are then considered to be '''masculine''' (''acchi''), '''feminine''' (''demechi'') or '''middle''' (''iriji''). The relevant gender is based partly on biological sex, partly on particular characteristics and partly on social roles. All children are considered ''iriji'' until puberty when they will be assigned one of the three genders.

Each of the four categories has a complex series of associations and is considered an equal part of a harmonious whole.

===Case===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | <big>'''ba'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Topicaliser || colspan="2;" | marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance
|-
! <big>'''ze'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Nominative || colspan="2;" | marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''ke'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Accusative || colspan="2;" | marks the direct object of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''na'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Possessive || colspan="2;" | marks the (animate) possessor of an (inanimate) object. Used only for alienable possession.
|-
! <big>'''le'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2;" | marks the possessor of an inalienable object, or marks an object related to another.
|-
! <big>'''i'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Dative || colspan="2;" | marks the indirect object of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''la'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Allative || colspan="2;" | marks motion towards 'to'
|-
! <big>'''chi'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Ablative || colspan="2;" | marks movement away 'from, of, through'
|-
! <big>'''ang'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Locative || colspan="2;" | marks location 'in, on, at'
|-
! <big>'''mi'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Instrumental || colspan="2;" | marks use of, 'with, by'.
|}

===Nouns===
Nouns are non-inflecting and do not mark grammatical gender, number or definiteness, so e.g. ''puz'' can mean 'dog/dogs/a dog/(some) dogs/the dog/the dogs' etc. Grammatical case is indicated by the particles above after the noun.

Though grammatical number is not marked, nouns may take the following affixes to show a collective sense:
* ''-do'' indicates a discrete group of things, usually located together, e.g. ''binjido'' 'mountain ridge' (''binji'' 'mountain'), ''fuddo'' 'copse, small wood' (''fuz'' 'tree'), ''gyondo'' 'band' (''gyong'' 'man').
* ''-bu'' indicates a totality of things, a class, and also the absract state of being a member of that class, e.g. ''binjibu'' 'mountains; mountain-hood', ''fubbu'' 'trees; treehood', ''gyombu'' 'men; manhood, masculinity'.
* ''i-'' indicates a mass of things, ''ibinji'' 'mountain range', ''ifuz'' 'forest', ''igyong'' 'population'.

Reduplication is used to indicate intensity and in some cases can take on a collective meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, throng', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (''yai'' 'wind').

===Adjectives===
Adjectives are of two types. Verbal adjectives are the participles in ''-ng/na'' or ''-i'' (e.g. ''ekonna'' "growing", ''ewai'' "tired, exhausted, spent"). Nominal adjectives are either primary adjectives (e.g. ''haz'' "old", ''ong'' "good") or derived from a noun, other adjective or a verb (e.g. ''acchi'' "masculine", ''ukko'' "watery, aquatic", ''eyiking'' "pessimistic, defeatist" < ''exi'' "despair").

Any of these adjectives may occur attributively by preceding the noun they qualify unmodified, e.g. ''haz gyong to'' "that old man", ''ekonna fuz'' "a growing tree", ''eyiking heni chiri'' "three pessimistic guards".

When used predicatively, both types of adjective follow the entire noun phrase and precede the relevant form of ''yita'' "to be". Verbal adjectives are unmodified in this usage and, as often with English, the adjectival function of the participle is indistinguishable from the verbal function, e.g. ''fuz tong ba ekonna xiniteng'' "this tree wasn't growing", ''haz gyong to ba ewai jaite'' "that old man is tired".

===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Cardinal Numbers
|-
| width="25px;" | '''1''' || width="100px;" | ''su(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''11''' || width="100px;" | ''xassu(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''21''' || width="100px;" | ''hatorunsu''
|-
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || '''12''' || ''xazai'' || '''22''' || ''hatorunhai''
|-
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || '''13''' || ''xaggi''|| '''30''' || ''gyauka''
|-
| '''4''' || ''xa'' || '''14''' || ''xasa'' || '''40''' || ''xauka''
|-
| '''5''' || ''maka'' || '''15''' || ''xammaka'' || '''50''' || ''makauka''
|-
| '''6''' || ''ute'' || '''16''' || ''xazute'' || '''60''' || ''utauka''
|-
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || '''17''' || ''xaggyeng'' || '''70''' || ''gyengauka''
|-
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || '''18''' || ''xazeileng'' || '''80''' || ''eilengauka''
|-
| '''9''' || ''suneng'' || '''19''' || ''xassuneng'' || '''90''' || ''sunengauka''
|-
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || '''20''' || ''hatrung'' || '''100''' || ''inung''
|}

Numbers are based on a decimal system, though numbers above 10 are, in reality, rarely used. The word ''inung'', translated here as '100', is generally used for any large number. Higher numbers can be created, somewhat artificially, in the form ''su le inung'' '101', ''xaggyeng le inung'' '117'.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ordinal Numbers
|-
| width="25px;" | '''1st''' || width="100px;" | ''sus'' || '''11th''' || ''xassus''
|-
| '''2nd''' || ''haus'' || '''12th''' || ''xazaush''
|-
| '''3rd''' || ''gish'' || '''13th''' || ''xaggish''
|-
| '''4th''' || ''xash'' || '''14th''' || ''xasash''
|-
| '''5th''' || ''makachi'' || '''15th''' || ''xamakachi''
|-
| '''6th''' || ''utechi'' || '''16th''' || ''xazutechi''
|-
| '''7th''' || ''gyenchi'' || '''17th''' || ''xaggyenchi''
|-
| '''8th''' || ''eilenchi'' || '''18th''' || ''xazeilenchi''
|-
| '''9th''' || ''sunenchi'' || '''19th''' || ''xassunenchi''
|-
| '''10th''' || ''hacchi'' || '''20th''' || ''hatrunchi''
|}

===Pronouns===
====Personal====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! colspan="2;" | Standard !! Colspan="2;" | Emphatic
|-
! width="100;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1st
| ''ni'' || ''bi'' (excl.) ''bu'' (incl.) || ''nibez'' || ''bibez'' (excl.) ''bubez'' (incl.)
|-
! 2nd
| ''chi'' || ''fu'' || ''chibez'' || ''fubez''
|-
! Indefinite
| colspan="2;" | ''yeka'' || colspan="2;" | ''yekabez''
|}

Personal pronouns only truly exist for the 1st and 2nd persons, the 3rd person pronouns being demonstratives. There is also an '''indefinite''' pronoun ''yeka'', often used as a formal 1st singular.

Note that the 1st person plural has both exclusive ''bi'' 'us (but not you)' and inclusive ''bu'' 'us all'.

No distinctions of gender case are made, the pronouns being followed by the case particles like nouns. To form possessive pronouns, the forms are followed by the possessive particle ''na'' (when referring to alienable possession) or the genitive particle ''le'' (when inalienable), e.g. ''ni na hato'' 'my knife' but ''ni le ata'' 'my father'.

'''Emphatic''' forms of the personal pronouns are created with the suffix ''-bez'', i.e. ''nibez, chibez, bibez, bubez, fubez, yekabez''. These function as both emphatic pronouns, drawing particular attention to the person, and reflexive pronouns.

There is a tendency to omit pronouns, particularly the subject, where the person referred to is understood from context.

A number of terms of address are used in place of 2nd person pronouns or demonstratives when speaking of high ranking individuals, including: ''fuchi, furung'' (for any addressee), ''burosh, andosh'' (for masc. addressees), ''burez, andez'' (for fem. addressees); ''burai, andai'' (for ''iriji'' addressees).

====Demonstratives====
Demonstratives function as both determiners (preceding the noun) and pronouns and distinguish proximal ''tong'' 'this (near speaker)', medial ''to'' 'that (near listener)' and distal ''taz'' 'that (distant from both listener and speaker, or abstract)'. No distinction is made for gender, and case is marked by particles.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Simple !! width="100px;" | Emphatic
|-
! Proximal
| ''tong'' || ''tombez''
|-
! Medial
| ''to'' || ''tobez''
|-
! Distal
| ''taz'' || ''tabbez''
|}

The plural forms ''tombu, tobu, tabbu'' occur where number is necessary for clarity or emphasis; otherwise the simple forms are used for both singular and plural referents.

====Interrogatives and Indefinites====
Burunko has a related series of adjectives, adverbs and pronouns denoting ...

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! width="100px;" rowspan="2;"| !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Proximal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Medial !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Distal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Interrogative !! colspan="3;" | Indefinite
|-
! width="100px;" | 'any, no' !! width="100px;" | 'every' !! width="100px;" | 'some'
|-
! An.
| rowspan="2;" | ''tong'' 'this' || rowspan="2;" | ''to'' 'that' || rowspan="2;" | ''taz'' 'that' || ''nobuji'' 'who' || ''imbuji'' 'anyone' || ''aubuji'' 'everyone' || ''bujido'' 'someone'
|-
! Inan.
| ''nohez'' 'what' || ''inhez'' 'anything' || ''auhez'' 'everything' || ''heddo'' 'something'
|-
! Place
| ''tonsuki'' 'here' || ''tosuki'' 'there' || ''tassuki'' 'there' || ''nosuki'' 'where' || ''insuki'' 'anywhere' || ''ausuki'' 'everywhere' || ''sukido'' 'somewhere'
|-
! Manner
| ''tombye'' 'like this' || ''tobye'' 'like that' || ''tabbye'' 'like that' || ''nobye'' 'how' || ''imbye'' 'anyhow' || ''aubye'' 'every way' || ''byedo'' 'somehow'
|-
! Time
| ''tombeng'' 'now' || ''tobeng'' 'then' || ''tabbeng'' 'then' || ''nobeng'' 'when' || ''imbeng'' 'anytime' || ''aubeng'' 'always' || ''bendo'' 'sometime(s)'
|-
! Cause
| ''tongeze'' 'because' || || ''tazeze'' 'because' || ''noze'' 'why' || ''ineze'' 'any reason' || ''aweze'' 'all reasons' || ''ezedo'' 'some reason'
|}

===Verbs===
Burunko verbs may be described as '''primary''', '''secondary''' or '''compound'''. At the heart of all verbs is a mono- or disyllabic root, which carries the main meaning but cannot occur alone. Here roots are written in capitals to show that they are not words in their own right, e.g. ''ZUKI'' 'touch', ''AZ'' 'take', ''KASH'' 'learn'. Such roots are essentially a closed class. In some instances, a single root may be both nominal and verbal, so ''DANG'' 'to drink' and ''adang'' 'a drink'.

Primary verbs are composed of the root with the verbalising prefix ''E-'', realised as ''i-'' before a high vowel (''i, u'') in the next syllable, as ''y-'' before vowels and as ''e-'' elsewhere, .e.g. ''izuki'', ''yaz'', ''ekash''. This is the minimal form a verb can take in use.

Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and are also a closed class, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach', ''edanko'' 'sip'. Compound verbs are derived from a primary or secondary verb by prefixing the verb stem with another part of speech, e.g. ''izimizuki'' 'poke, finger', ''uddang'' 'drink water'. This is a large and highly productive class, in which new verbs can be formed easily.

====Aspect====
Verbs do not show tense, but take suffixes to show aspect:

* The '''aorist''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekash'' 'learn', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is aspectless form, referring to an action as an abstract, without any reference to time.
* The '''imperfective''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the infinitive, which is realised as ''-ng'' following vowels and ''-na'' following consonants, e.g. ''izuking'' 'touching', ''yanna'' 'taking', ''ekaina'' 'learning'. It refers to an action or state which is either ongoing or habitual.
* The '''perfective''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the infinitive, e.g. ''izukii'' 'touched', ''yazi'' 'taken, took', ''yommikeyi'' 'kicked'. It is used to denote an action or state in its entirety, without reference to its duration.

====Mood====
Mood is primarily denoted by sentence-final particles to express evidentiality, expectation, and other moods. The unmarked verb denotes a general declarative, e.g. ''taz ze uddang'' 's/he drinks water'.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | <big>'''bi'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang bi'' || 's/he drinks water' (because I've seen it)
|-
| Evidential || colspan="2;" | indicates that the speaker has direct experience or knowledge of the fact
|-
! <big>'''kou'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang kou'' || '(I hear) s/he drinks water'
|-
| Reportative || colspan="2;" | indicates that the speaker has received the information from another source
|-
! <big>'''teng'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang teng'' || '(I assume) s/he drinks water'
|-
| Inferential|| colspan="2;" | the speaker assumes that the information is correct based on other factors
|-
! <big>'''ofu'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ofu'' || 'perhaps s/he drinks water'
|-
| Dubitative|| colspan="2;" | suggests uncertainty, lack of facts or doubt
|-
! <big>'''ite'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ite'' || 's/he may drink water'
|-
| Hypothetical|| colspan="2;" | the event may be true or possible
|-
! <big>'''eiki'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang eiki'' || 'I wish s/he drank water'
|-
| Desiderative || colspan="2;" | the speaker hopes or wishes something to be the case
|-
! <big>'''ai'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ai?'' || 'does s/he drink water?'
|-
| Interrogative 1 || colspan="2;" | to ask simple, direct yes/no questions
|-
! <big>'''wa'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang wa?'' || 'does s/he drink water or not?'
|-
| Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions
|-
! <big>'''bis'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang wa?'' || 'does s/he drink water or not?'
|-
| Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions
|}

====Secondary Verbs====
The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are:
* The '''causative''' infix ''-da-'', which comes between the verbaliser ''E-'' and the root, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach' < ''ekash'' 'learn'. This form of causative is mainly added to intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in which the subject has little or no control over the action (e.g. ''edapush'' 'show' < ''ipush'' 'see').
* The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'.
* The '''applicative''' suffix ''-ki'', which makes an indirect object the direct object and indicates the beneficiary, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb,, e.g. ''edakaiki'' 'teach someone', ''edapuiki'' 'show someone'.
* The '''iterative/frequentative''' suffixes ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'.

A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''.

====Compound Verbs====
The initial element may be:
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''xemmang'' 'to name' < ''xeng'' 'name' + ''MANG'' 'give', ''loging'' 'to sleep' < ''lo'' 'sleep' + ''GING'' 'do'. These verbs may take a new object, e.g. ''...''
* an '''adjective''', denoting various senses of being or becoming a state, or to denote the subject's feelings or opinion, e.g. ''futtoz'' 'turn white' < ''fuz'' 'white' + ''TOZ'' 'come', ''ongushi'' 'like, approve of' < ''ong'' 'good' and ''USHI'' 'consider'.
* an '''adverb''' denoting the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''fimiroz'' 'move quickly' < ''fimiro'' 'quickly' + ''OZ'' 'move'; ''yommikei'' 'kick' < ''yommi'' 'with the foot' + ''KEI'' 'strike, hit'.

==Derivation==
Bis Burunko has a highly productive derivational system, primarily based on suffixes.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
! width="100px;" | Suffix !! width="300px;" | Meaning !! width="100;" | Added To !! width="300;" | Examples
|-
! colspan="4;" | Nouns
|-
| ''-ai'' || augmentative, honorific (mid.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-aro'' || "time, season, right time" || n, adj, vn ||
|-
| ''-ba, -be'' || kinship suffix denoting primary line || n ||
|-
| ''-do'' || collective || n ||
|-
| ''-ez'' || augmentative, honorific (fem.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-fo'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-ji'' || (domesticated) animal || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-jing'' || "period of time, age, era" || n, adj, v ||
|-
| ''-ko1'' || "thing for, connected with" || n ||
|-
| ''-ko2'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-mi'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-ni, -ng'' || agent || v ||
|-
| ''-o'' || instrument, tool || v ||
|-
| ''-osh'' || augmentative, honorific (masc.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-pung'' || "having" || n ||
|-
| ''-taz, -daz''* || "person/thing from" || n ||
|-
| ''-te, -de''* || "(short) stretch of time, period" || n || ''araite'' "nighttime"
|-
| ''-teng, -deng''* || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-to1, -do''* || instrument, tool || n, v, adj
|-
| ''-to2'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-yo'' || kinship suffix denoting 2 removed from ego || n ||
|-
! colspan="4;" | Adjective
|-
| ''-chi, -ji''* || "of, like, pertaining to; characteristic of" || n || ''demechi'' "female, feminine"
|-
| ''-king'' || "tending to, fond of" || n, v ||
|-
| ''-ko'' || "related to, characteristic of" || n ||
|-
! colspan="4;" | Adverbs
|-
| ''-mi'' || means, method || n || ''yommi'' "with the foot"
|-
| ''-ro'' || manner || adj || ''fimiro'' "quickly"
|}

==Vocabulary==
* [[Bis Burunko/Vocabulary| General Vocabulary]]
* [[Bis Burunko/Gender and Age | Gender and Age]]
* [[Bis Burunko/Kinship | Kinship]]
===Gender Terms===
Gender terms for humans and gods are partly based on the individual's age. Burung society sees life divided into four ages:
* '''Childhood''' (''pumebu'') from birth to the onset of puberty, in which all individuals are considered ''iriji''.
* '''Young Adulthood''' (''garaapu'') from the onset of puberty to full initiation into adult life.
* '''Adulthood''' (''koziji'') encompasses the working life, a time for raising a family.
* '''Old Age''' (''hajji'') from retirement to death.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! width="100px;" | Gender !! width="100px;" | Child !! width="100px;" | Young Adult !! width="100px;" | Adult !! width="100px;" | Senior
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Acchi'' (masc.)
| rowspan="4;" style="background-color:gray" | || colspan="3;" | ''az''
|-
| ''goi'' || ''gis, gyong'' || ''hoz''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Demechi'' (fem.)
| colspan="3;" | ''deme''
|-
| ''madash'' || ''xoz'' || ''axoz''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Iriji'' (mid.)
| colspan="4;" | ''haya''
|-
| ''pume'' || ''poda'' || ''búrus'' ||
|}

===Primary Verbs===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Root !! Meanings !! Infinitive !! Gerundive !! Perfective
|-
| '''OZ''' || move || ''yoz'' || ''yonna'' || ''yozi''
|-
| '''ARANG''' || move back and forth, swing, sway || ''yarang'' || ''yaranna'' || ''yarangi''
|-
| '''GA''' || go up; ascend, climb; improve || ''ega'' || ''egang'' || ''egai''
|-
| '''BE''' || go down, descend; fall; deteriorate || ''ebe'' || ''ebeng'' || ''ebei''
|-
| '''IGI''' || go past, pass; exceed; change state || ''yigi'' || ''yiging'' || ''yigii''
|-
| '''XAZ''' || go in(to), enter; penetrate || ''exaz'' || ''exanna'' || ''exai''
|-
| '''ZUKI'''1 || go out, exit, leave || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii''
|-
| '''LIPU''' || go || ''ilipu'' || ''ilipung ''|| ''ilipui''
|-
| '''TOZ''' || come || ''etoz'' || ''etonna'' || ''etozi''
|-
| '''ES''' || approach; press || ''yes'' || ''yeena'' || ''yeshi''
|-
| '''ZUKI'''2 || touch, come into contact; mention || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii''
|}

===Swadesh List===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! No. !! English !! Burunko
|-
! width="30px;" | 1 !! width="100px;" | I
| width="150px;" | ''ni''
|-
! 2 !! you (sg.)
| ''chi''
|-
! 3 !! he
| ''az'' (m.)
|-
! 4 !! we (inc.)
| ''bi''
|-
! 5 !! you (pl.)
| ''fu''
|-
! 6 !! they
| ''abbu'' (m.)
|-
! 7 !! this
| ''tong''
|-
! 8 !! that
| ''taz''
|-
! 9 !! here
| ''sukitong''
|-
! 10 !! there
| ''sukitaz''
|-
! 11 !! who (int.)
| ''nosha''
|-
! 12 !! what (int.)
| ''nohez''
|-
! 13 !! when (int.)
| ''nobeng''
|-
! 14 !! where (int.)
| ''nusuki''
|-
! 15 !! how (int.)
| ''nubide''
|-
! 16 !! not
| ''-no-''
|-
! 17 !! all
| ''alo''
|-
! 18 !! many
| ''mupu''
|-
! 19 !! some
| ''xama''
|-
! 20 !! few
| ''
|-
! 21 !! other
| ''ai''
|-
! 22 !! one
|
|-
! 23 !! two
|
|-
! 24 !! three
|
|-
! 25 !! four
|
|-
! 26 !! five
|
|-
! 27 !! big
| ''enji''
|-
! 28 !! long
| ''los''
|-
! 29 !! wide
|
|-
! 30 !! thick
|
|-
! 31 !! heavy
|
|-
! 32 !! small
| ''bing''
|-
! 33 !! short
| ''dobuz''
|-
! 34 !! narrow
|
|-
|}

thin
woman
man (adult male)
man (human being)
child
wife
husband
mother
father
animal
fish
bird
dog
louse
snake
worm
tree
forest
stick
fruit

Bis Burunko

2024-04-23T13:12:31Z

Psammead: /* Verbs */

'''Bis Burunko''' (/bɨs bʉˈɾʉnkɔ/, literally 'the Burungian language'), also known as ''Burunko'' or ''Burungian'', is a language isolate spoken on the island of Burung in the north Atlantic.

==Background==
==Phonology and Orthography==
Bis Burunko has a relatively simple phonology with 21 consonants, 5 pure vowels and 6 true diphthongs. The orthography is almost entirely regular and predictable, based on a 1:1 spelling to pronunciation system.

===Consonants===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 68px; "|
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal
|-
! style="" |Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
|
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
! style="" |Plosive
| '''p''' /p/ '''b''' /b/
| '''t''' /t/ '''d''' /d/
|
| '''k''' /k/ '''g''' /g/
|
|-
! style="" |Sibilant
|
| '''s''' /s/
| '''sh''' /ɕ/ '''z''' /ʑ/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Fricative
| '''f''' /ɸ/
|
| '''x''' /ç/
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! style="" |Affricate
|
|
| '''ch''' /t͡ɕ/ '''j''' /d͡ʑ/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Flap or tap
|
| '''r''' /ɾ/
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Approximant
| '''w, u''' /w/
|
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
|-
! style="" |Lateral app.
|
| '''l''' /l/
|
|
|
|}

'''Notes:'''
* ''n'' is realised as /ŋ/ before ''g, k, ng''
* medial ''h'' is often simply hiatus between vowels
* /w/ is spelled ''u'' immediately after a consonant but ''w'' elsewhere
* all consonants except fricatives and glides (''w, y'') may be doubled word-internally; note the trigraphs ''ssh, cch, nng''
For consonant clusters, see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below.

===Vowels===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 90px; "|
! style="width: 90px; " |Front
! style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /ɨ/
| '''u''' /ʉ/
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
| '''e''' /ɛ/
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
! style="" |Open
| '''a''' /a/
|
|}

Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''biitosh'' 'gender neutral person' /bɨ:'tɔɕ/.

'''Note:''' word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''wu-''.

===Diphthongs===
There are six diphthongs proper: ''ai'' /aɨ/, ''ei'' /ɛɨ/, ''oi'' /ɔɨ/, ''au'' /aʉ/, ''eu'' /ɛʉ/ and ''ou'' /ɔʉ/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.

===Phonotactics===
Bis Burunko has a relatively restricted syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
! style="width: 200px; " |C1
! style="width: 200px; " |G
! style="width: 200px; " |V1
! style="width: 200px; " |V2
! style="width: 200px; " |C2
|-
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |
* optional
* any consonant but ''sh, r'' word-initially (''s'' and ''p'' only occur before ''u'')
* any consonant word-medially
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " |
* optional
*only ''y'' or ''w/u''
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* mandatory
* any vowel
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* optional
* only ''i, u'' or the preceding vowel repeated
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
* optional
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant, except in the case of geminates
|}

The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:

* ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive or ''j'' is devoiced:
:: ''gis'' 'man' + ''-do'' (collective) = ''giito'' 'group, band'
* ''-sh'' becomes ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced:
:: ''sush'' 'empty' + ''bupung'' 'person' = ''suipupung'' 'vain person'
:: ''arash'' 'night' + ''-te'' (time) = ''araite'' 'night-time'
* ''-ng'' becomes ''-m'' before ''p, b, f'' and ''n'' before any other consonant:
:: ''gyong'' 'man' + ''-bu'' (collective) = ''gyombu'' 'warrior class'
:: ''yong'' 'foot' + ''-ko'' (adjectival) = ''yonko'' 'sock'
* ''-z'' is lost and causes a following consonant to double, except ''x'' which becomes ''s'' and ''h'' which is lost, while ''z'' remains:
:: ''az'' 'male' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'
:: ''haz'' 'old' + ''kora'' 'bitch' = ''hakkora'' 'hag'
:: ''buaz'' 'sun' + ''xu'' 'fire' = ''buasu'' 'heat of the sun'
:: ''fuz'' 'tree' + ''HUZ'' 'lack' = ''fuzuz'' 'treeless'

In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant:
:: ''mei'' 'dark' + ''kezi'' 'stone' = ''meukézi'' 'obsidian'

Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings.

===Stress===
Syllables may be defined as either heavy or light:
* a heavy syllable being either ends in a consonant ('''''az''''', '''''gyom-'''bu'', '''''ut'''-te'') or contains a long vowel ('''''bii''''', '''''gii'''-to'') or diphthong ('''''mei''''', ''a-'''rai'''-te'')
* a light syllable ends in a single vowel ('''''fa-be''''', '''''xu''''').

Monosyllabic words carry stress. In polysyllables, stress is attracted to heavy syllables. In words containing more than one heavy syllable, primary stress is placed on the last such syllable, with secondary stress on the penultimate heavy syllable. In words with no heavy syllables, primary stress falls on the first syllable.

In some instances, stress does not follow these rules and is marked with an acute accent (e.g. ''béyong'' "knee", ''búrus'' "iriji person", ''ugáras'' "breast").

===Orthography===
Bis Burunko was traditionally written in a semi-syllabary called '''''higomido''''', which was originally a rune-like system carved into stone, wood and bone but later developed a more calligraphic style used on paper-like sheets of wood.

The ''higomido'' consist of five specific vowel graphs, 41 consonant-vowel combinations (plosives, fricatives and affricates) and 7 individual consonant symbols (finals ''s, sh, ng'' and the remaining nasals and liquids ''m, n, l, r'').

Other sequences of sounds are formed using these 53 symbols in combination:
* diphthongs and double vowels are written using either a vowel + vowel combination (e.g. ''a + i = ai''), or the relevant syllabic + vowel combination (''ba + i = bai'').
* glide + vowel combinations are written using ''i/u'' + vowel (e.g. ''i + a = ya''), or ''Ci/Cu'' + vowel (e.g. ''bi + a = bya'').
* sequences of ''ch''V and ''j''V are written with the symbols for ''chi'' and ''ji'' + the relevant vowel (e.g. ''chi + a = cha'').
* nasals and liquids are simply followed by the relevant vowel (e.g. ''m + a = ma'').
* while there is a specific symbol for ''pu'', other combinations of ''pV'' - which only occur as a result of devoicing by a preceding (former) sibilant - are formed with the b-syllabics preceded by either ''s'' or ''sh'' (e.g. )

==Grammar==
===Natural Gender on Burung===
Grammatical gender does not occur in Bis Burunko, but natural gender is frequently marked on nominals, either by employing different words (e.g. ''az'' 'male', ''deme'' 'female', ''biitosh'' '''iriji'' person') or by derivation (e.g. with the honorative suffixes ''-osh'' (m.) and ''-ez'' (f.), ''-ai'' (mid.)). The concept of natural gender differs somewhat from the usual Western concept.

All things are considered to be either '''animate''' (''bui'') or '''inanimate''' (''nabui''), the primary distinction being whether a thing is capable of acting under its own power. This means humans, deities/spirits, most animals and some natural features, such as the sun and the sea, are considered ''bui'' while plants, rocks and most abstracts are ''nabui''.

Within the category of animate nouns, all things are then considered to be '''masculine''' (''acchi''), '''feminine''' (''demechi'') or '''middle''' (''iriji''). The relevant gender is based partly on biological sex, partly on particular characteristics and partly on social roles. All children are considered ''iriji'' until puberty when they will be assigned one of the three genders.

Each of the four categories has a complex series of associations and is considered an equal part of a harmonious whole.

===Case===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | <big>'''ba'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Topicaliser || colspan="2;" | marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance
|-
! <big>'''ze'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Nominative || colspan="2;" | marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''ke'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Accusative || colspan="2;" | marks the direct object of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''na'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Possessive || colspan="2;" | marks the (animate) possessor of an (inanimate) object. Used only for alienable possession.
|-
! <big>'''le'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Genitive || colspan="2;" | marks the possessor of an inalienable object, or marks an object related to another.
|-
! <big>'''i'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Dative || colspan="2;" | marks the indirect object of a verb (where it is not the topic)
|-
! <big>'''la'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Allative || colspan="2;" | marks motion towards 'to'
|-
! <big>'''chi'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Ablative || colspan="2;" | marks movement away 'from, of, through'
|-
! <big>'''ang'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Locative || colspan="2;" | marks location 'in, on, at'
|-
! <big>'''mi'''<big>
| Example || Example
|-
| Instrumental || colspan="2;" | marks use of, 'with, by'.
|}

===Nouns===
Nouns are non-inflecting and do not mark grammatical gender, number or definiteness, so e.g. ''puz'' can mean 'dog/dogs/a dog/(some) dogs/the dog/the dogs' etc. Grammatical case is indicated by the particles above after the noun.

Though grammatical number is not marked, nouns may take the following affixes to show a collective sense:
* ''-do'' indicates a discrete group of things, usually located together, e.g. ''binjido'' 'mountain ridge' (''binji'' 'mountain'), ''fuddo'' 'copse, small wood' (''fuz'' 'tree'), ''gyondo'' 'band' (''gyong'' 'man').
* ''-bu'' indicates a totality of things, a class, and also the absract state of being a member of that class, e.g. ''binjibu'' 'mountains; mountain-hood', ''fubbu'' 'trees; treehood', ''gyombu'' 'men; manhood, masculinity'.
* ''i-'' indicates a mass of things, ''ibinji'' 'mountain range', ''ifuz'' 'forest', ''igyong'' 'population'.

Reduplication is used to indicate intensity and in some cases can take on a collective meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, throng', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (''yai'' 'wind').

===Adjectives===
Adjectives are of two types. Verbal adjectives are the participles in ''-ng/na'' or ''-i'' (e.g. ''ekonna'' "growing", ''ewai'' "tired, exhausted, spent"). Nominal adjectives are either primary adjectives (e.g. ''haz'' "old", ''ong'' "good") or derived from a noun, other adjective or a verb (e.g. ''acchi'' "masculine", ''ukko'' "watery, aquatic", ''eyiking'' "pessimistic, defeatist" < ''exi'' "despair").

Any of these adjectives may occur attributively by preceding the noun they qualify unmodified, e.g. ''haz gyong to'' "that old man", ''ekonna fuz'' "a growing tree", ''eyiking heni chiri'' "three pessimistic guards".

When used predicatively, both types of adjective follow the entire noun phrase and precede the relevant form of ''yita'' "to be". Verbal adjectives are unmodified in this usage and, as often with English, the adjectival function of the participle is indistinguishable from the verbal function, e.g. ''fuz tong ba ekonna xiniteng'' "this tree wasn't growing", ''haz gyong to ba ewai jaite'' "that old man is tired".

===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Cardinal Numbers
|-
| width="25px;" | '''1''' || width="100px;" | ''su(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''11''' || width="100px;" | ''xassu(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''21''' || width="100px;" | ''hatorunsu''
|-
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || '''12''' || ''xazai'' || '''22''' || ''hatorunhai''
|-
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || '''13''' || ''xaggi''|| '''30''' || ''gyauka''
|-
| '''4''' || ''xa'' || '''14''' || ''xasa'' || '''40''' || ''xauka''
|-
| '''5''' || ''maka'' || '''15''' || ''xammaka'' || '''50''' || ''makauka''
|-
| '''6''' || ''ute'' || '''16''' || ''xazute'' || '''60''' || ''utauka''
|-
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || '''17''' || ''xaggyeng'' || '''70''' || ''gyengauka''
|-
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || '''18''' || ''xazeileng'' || '''80''' || ''eilengauka''
|-
| '''9''' || ''suneng'' || '''19''' || ''xassuneng'' || '''90''' || ''sunengauka''
|-
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || '''20''' || ''hatrung'' || '''100''' || ''inung''
|}

Numbers are based on a decimal system, though numbers above 10 are, in reality, rarely used. The word ''inung'', translated here as '100', is generally used for any large number. Higher numbers can be created, somewhat artificially, in the form ''su le inung'' '101', ''xaggyeng le inung'' '117'.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ordinal Numbers
|-
| width="25px;" | '''1st''' || width="100px;" | ''sus'' || '''11th''' || ''xassus''
|-
| '''2nd''' || ''haus'' || '''12th''' || ''xazaush''
|-
| '''3rd''' || ''gish'' || '''13th''' || ''xaggish''
|-
| '''4th''' || ''xash'' || '''14th''' || ''xasash''
|-
| '''5th''' || ''makachi'' || '''15th''' || ''xamakachi''
|-
| '''6th''' || ''utechi'' || '''16th''' || ''xazutechi''
|-
| '''7th''' || ''gyenchi'' || '''17th''' || ''xaggyenchi''
|-
| '''8th''' || ''eilenchi'' || '''18th''' || ''xazeilenchi''
|-
| '''9th''' || ''sunenchi'' || '''19th''' || ''xassunenchi''
|-
| '''10th''' || ''hacchi'' || '''20th''' || ''hatrunchi''
|}

===Pronouns===
====Personal====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! !! colspan="2;" | Standard !! Colspan="2;" | Emphatic
|-
! width="100;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural
|-
! 1st
| ''ni'' || ''bi'' (excl.) ''bu'' (incl.) || ''nibez'' || ''bibez'' (excl.) ''bubez'' (incl.)
|-
! 2nd
| ''chi'' || ''fu'' || ''chibez'' || ''fubez''
|-
! Indefinite
| colspan="2;" | ''yeka'' || colspan="2;" | ''yekabez''
|}

Personal pronouns only truly exist for the 1st and 2nd persons, the 3rd person pronouns being demonstratives. There is also an '''indefinite''' pronoun ''yeka'', often used as a formal 1st singular.

Note that the 1st person plural has both exclusive ''bi'' 'us (but not you)' and inclusive ''bu'' 'us all'.

No distinctions of gender case are made, the pronouns being followed by the case particles like nouns. To form possessive pronouns, the forms are followed by the possessive particle ''na'' (when referring to alienable possession) or the genitive particle ''le'' (when inalienable), e.g. ''ni na hato'' 'my knife' but ''ni le ata'' 'my father'.

'''Emphatic''' forms of the personal pronouns are created with the suffix ''-bez'', i.e. ''nibez, chibez, bibez, bubez, fubez, yekabez''. These function as both emphatic pronouns, drawing particular attention to the person, and reflexive pronouns.

There is a tendency to omit pronouns, particularly the subject, where the person referred to is understood from context.

A number of terms of address are used in place of 2nd person pronouns or demonstratives when speaking of high ranking individuals, including: ''fuchi, furung'' (for any addressee), ''burosh, andosh'' (for masc. addressees), ''burez, andez'' (for fem. addressees); ''burai, andai'' (for ''iriji'' addressees).

====Demonstratives====
Demonstratives function as both determiners (preceding the noun) and pronouns and distinguish proximal ''tong'' 'this (near speaker)', medial ''to'' 'that (near listener)' and distal ''taz'' 'that (distant from both listener and speaker, or abstract)'. No distinction is made for gender, and case is marked by particles.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Simple !! width="100px;" | Emphatic
|-
! Proximal
| ''tong'' || ''tombez''
|-
! Medial
| ''to'' || ''tobez''
|-
! Distal
| ''taz'' || ''tabbez''
|}

The plural forms ''tombu, tobu, tabbu'' occur where number is necessary for clarity or emphasis; otherwise the simple forms are used for both singular and plural referents.

====Interrogatives and Indefinites====
Burunko has a related series of adjectives, adverbs and pronouns denoting ...

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! width="100px;" rowspan="2;"| !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Proximal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Medial !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Distal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Interrogative !! colspan="3;" | Indefinite
|-
! width="100px;" | 'any, no' !! width="100px;" | 'every' !! width="100px;" | 'some'
|-
! An.
| rowspan="2;" | ''tong'' 'this' || rowspan="2;" | ''to'' 'that' || rowspan="2;" | ''taz'' 'that' || ''nobuji'' 'who' || ''imbuji'' 'anyone' || ''aubuji'' 'everyone' || ''bujido'' 'someone'
|-
! Inan.
| ''nohez'' 'what' || ''inhez'' 'anything' || ''auhez'' 'everything' || ''heddo'' 'something'
|-
! Place
| ''tonsuki'' 'here' || ''tosuki'' 'there' || ''tassuki'' 'there' || ''nosuki'' 'where' || ''insuki'' 'anywhere' || ''ausuki'' 'everywhere' || ''sukido'' 'somewhere'
|-
! Manner
| ''tombye'' 'like this' || ''tobye'' 'like that' || ''tabbye'' 'like that' || ''nobye'' 'how' || ''imbye'' 'anyhow' || ''aubye'' 'every way' || ''byedo'' 'somehow'
|-
! Time
| ''tombeng'' 'now' || ''tobeng'' 'then' || ''tabbeng'' 'then' || ''nobeng'' 'when' || ''imbeng'' 'anytime' || ''aubeng'' 'always' || ''bendo'' 'sometime(s)'
|-
! Cause
| ''tongeze'' 'because' || || ''tazeze'' 'because' || ''noze'' 'why' || ''ineze'' 'any reason' || ''aweze'' 'all reasons' || ''ezedo'' 'some reason'
|}

===Verbs===
Burunko verbs may be described as '''primary''', '''secondary''' or '''compound'''. At the heart of all verbs is a mono- or disyllabic root, which carries the main meaning but cannot occur alone. Here roots are written in capitals to show that they are not words in their own right, e.g. ''ZUKI'' 'touch', ''AZ'' 'take', ''KASH'' 'learn'. Such roots are essentially a closed class. In some instances, a single root may be both nominal and verbal, so ''DANG'' 'to drink' and ''adang'' 'a drink'.

Primary verbs are composed of the root with the verbalising prefix ''E-'', realised as ''i-'' before a high vowel (''i, u'') in the next syllable, as ''y-'' before vowels and as ''e-'' elsewhere, .e.g. ''izuki'', ''yaz'', ''ekash''. This is the minimal form a verb can take in use.

Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and are also a closed class, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach', ''edanko'' 'sip'. Compound verbs are derived from a primary or secondary verb by prefixing the verb stem with another part of speech, e.g. ''izimizuki'' 'poke, finger', ''uddang'' 'drink water'. This is a large and highly productive class, in which new verbs can be formed easily.

====Aspect====
Verbs do not show tense, but take suffixes to show aspect:

* The '''aorist''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekash'' 'learn', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is aspectless form, referring to an action as an abstract, without any reference to time.
* The '''imperfective''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the infinitive, which is realised as ''-ng'' following vowels and ''-na'' following consonants, e.g. ''izuking'' 'touching', ''yanna'' 'taking', ''ekaina'' 'learning'. It refers to an action or state which is either ongoing or habitual.
* The '''perfective''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the infinitive, e.g. ''izukii'' 'touched', ''yazi'' 'taken, took', ''yommikeyi'' 'kicked'. It is used to denote an action or state in its entirety, without reference to its duration.

====Mood====
Mood is primarily denoted by sentence-final particles to express evidentiality, expectation, and other moods. The unmarked verb denotes a general declarative.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100px;" | <big>'''bi'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang bi'' || 's/he drinks water' (because I've seen it)
|-
| Evidential || colspan="2;" | indicates that the speaker has direct experience or knowledge of the fact
|-
! <big>'''kou'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang kou'' || '(I hear) s/he drinks water'
|-
| Reportative || colspan="2;" | indicates that the speaker has received the information from another source
|-
! <big>'''teng'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang teng'' || '(I assume) s/he drinks water'
|-
| Inferential|| colspan="2;" | the speaker assumes that the information is correct based on other factors
|-
! <big>'''ofu'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ofu'' || 'perhaps s/he drinks water'
|-
| Dubitative|| colspan="2;" | suggests uncertainty, lack of facts or doubt
|-
! <big>'''ite'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ite'' || 's/he may drink water'
|-
| Hypothetical|| colspan="2;" | the event may be true or possible
|-
! <big>'''eiki'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang eiki'' || 'I wish s/he drank water'
|-
| Desiderative || colspan="2;" | the speaker hopes or wishes something to be the case
|-
! <big>'''ai'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang ai?'' || 'does s/he drink water?'
|-
| Interrogative 1 || colspan="2;" | to ask simple, direct yes/no questions
|-
! <big>'''wa'''<big>
| ''taz ze uddang wa?'' || 'does s/he drink water or not?'
|-
| Interrogative 2 || colspan="2;" | to ask tentative yes/no questions
|}

====Secondary Verbs====
The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are:
* The '''causative''' infix ''-da-'', which comes between the verbaliser ''E-'' and the root, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach' < ''ekash'' 'learn'. This form of causative is mainly added to intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in which the subject has little or no control over the action (e.g. ''edapush'' 'show' < ''ipush'' 'see').
* The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'.
* The '''applicative''' suffix ''-ki'', which makes an indirect object the direct object and indicates the beneficiary, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb,, e.g. ''edakaiki'' 'teach someone', ''edapuiki'' 'show someone'.
* The '''iterative/frequentative''' suffixes ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'.

A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''.

====Compound Verbs====
The initial element may be:
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''xemmang'' 'to name' < ''xeng'' 'name' + ''MANG'' 'give', ''loging'' 'to sleep' < ''lo'' 'sleep' + ''GING'' 'do'. These verbs may take a new object, e.g. ''...''
* an '''adjective''', denoting various senses of being or becoming a state, or to denote the subject's feelings or opinion, e.g. ''futtoz'' 'turn white' < ''fuz'' 'white' + ''TOZ'' 'come', ''ongushi'' 'like, approve of' < ''ong'' 'good' and ''USHI'' 'consider'.
* an '''adverb''' denoting the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''fimiroz'' 'move quickly' < ''fimiro'' 'quickly' + ''OZ'' 'move'; ''yommikei'' 'kick' < ''yommi'' 'with the foot' + ''KEI'' 'strike, hit'.

==Derivation==
Bis Burunko has a highly productive derivational system, primarily based on suffixes.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
! width="100px;" | Suffix !! width="300px;" | Meaning !! width="100;" | Added To !! width="300;" | Examples
|-
! colspan="4;" | Nouns
|-
| ''-ai'' || augmentative, honorific (mid.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-aro'' || "time, season, right time" || n, adj, vn ||
|-
| ''-ba, -be'' || kinship suffix denoting primary line || n ||
|-
| ''-do'' || collective || n ||
|-
| ''-ez'' || augmentative, honorific (fem.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-fo'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-ji'' || (domesticated) animal || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-jing'' || "period of time, age, era" || n, adj, v ||
|-
| ''-ko1'' || "thing for, connected with" || n ||
|-
| ''-ko2'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-mi'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-ni, -ng'' || agent || v ||
|-
| ''-o'' || instrument, tool || v ||
|-
| ''-osh'' || augmentative, honorific (masc.) || n, adj ||
|-
| ''-pung'' || "having" || n ||
|-
| ''-taz, -daz''* || "person/thing from" || n ||
|-
| ''-te, -de''* || "(short) stretch of time, period" || n || ''araite'' "nighttime"
|-
| ''-teng, -deng''* || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-to1, -do''* || instrument, tool || n, v, adj
|-
| ''-to2'' || diminutive || n ||
|-
| ''-yo'' || kinship suffix denoting 2 removed from ego || n ||
|-
! colspan="4;" | Adjective
|-
| ''-chi, -ji''* || "of, like, pertaining to; characteristic of" || n || ''demechi'' "female, feminine"
|-
| ''-king'' || "tending to, fond of" || n, v ||
|-
| ''-ko'' || "related to, characteristic of" || n ||
|-
! colspan="4;" | Adverbs
|-
| ''-mi'' || means, method || n || ''yommi'' "with the foot"
|-
| ''-ro'' || manner || adj || ''fimiro'' "quickly"
|}

==Vocabulary==
* [[Bis Burunko/Vocabulary| General Vocabulary]]
* [[Bis Burunko/Gender and Age | Gender and Age]]
* [[Bis Burunko/Kinship | Kinship]]
===Gender Terms===
Gender terms for humans and gods are partly based on the individual's age. Burung society sees life divided into four ages:
* '''Childhood''' (''pumebu'') from birth to the onset of puberty, in which all individuals are considered ''iriji''.
* '''Young Adulthood''' (''garaapu'') from the onset of puberty to full initiation into adult life.
* '''Adulthood''' (''koziji'') encompasses the working life, a time for raising a family.
* '''Old Age''' (''hajji'') from retirement to death.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! width="100px;" | Gender !! width="100px;" | Child !! width="100px;" | Young Adult !! width="100px;" | Adult !! width="100px;" | Senior
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Acchi'' (masc.)
| rowspan="4;" style="background-color:gray" | || colspan="3;" | ''az''
|-
| ''goi'' || ''gis, gyong'' || ''hoz''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Demechi'' (fem.)
| colspan="3;" | ''deme''
|-
| ''madash'' || ''xoz'' || ''axoz''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | ''Iriji'' (mid.)
| colspan="4;" | ''haya''
|-
| ''pume'' || ''poda'' || ''búrus'' ||
|}

===Primary Verbs===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Root !! Meanings !! Infinitive !! Gerundive !! Perfective
|-
| '''OZ''' || move || ''yoz'' || ''yonna'' || ''yozi''
|-
| '''ARANG''' || move back and forth, swing, sway || ''yarang'' || ''yaranna'' || ''yarangi''
|-
| '''GA''' || go up; ascend, climb; improve || ''ega'' || ''egang'' || ''egai''
|-
| '''BE''' || go down, descend; fall; deteriorate || ''ebe'' || ''ebeng'' || ''ebei''
|-
| '''IGI''' || go past, pass; exceed; change state || ''yigi'' || ''yiging'' || ''yigii''
|-
| '''XAZ''' || go in(to), enter; penetrate || ''exaz'' || ''exanna'' || ''exai''
|-
| '''ZUKI'''1 || go out, exit, leave || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii''
|-
| '''LIPU''' || go || ''ilipu'' || ''ilipung ''|| ''ilipui''
|-
| '''TOZ''' || come || ''etoz'' || ''etonna'' || ''etozi''
|-
| '''ES''' || approach; press || ''yes'' || ''yeena'' || ''yeshi''
|-
| '''ZUKI'''2 || touch, come into contact; mention || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii''
|}

===Swadesh List===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! No. !! English !! Burunko
|-
! width="30px;" | 1 !! width="100px;" | I
| width="150px;" | ''ni''
|-
! 2 !! you (sg.)
| ''chi''
|-
! 3 !! he
| ''az'' (m.)
|-
! 4 !! we (inc.)
| ''bi''
|-
! 5 !! you (pl.)
| ''fu''
|-
! 6 !! they
| ''abbu'' (m.)
|-
! 7 !! this
| ''tong''
|-
! 8 !! that
| ''taz''
|-
! 9 !! here
| ''sukitong''
|-
! 10 !! there
| ''sukitaz''
|-
! 11 !! who (int.)
| ''nosha''
|-
! 12 !! what (int.)
| ''nohez''
|-
! 13 !! when (int.)
| ''nobeng''
|-
! 14 !! where (int.)
| ''nusuki''
|-
! 15 !! how (int.)
| ''nubide''
|-
! 16 !! not
| ''-no-''
|-
! 17 !! all
| ''alo''
|-
! 18 !! many
| ''mupu''
|-
! 19 !! some
| ''xama''
|-
! 20 !! few
| ''
|-
! 21 !! other
| ''ai''
|-
! 22 !! one
|
|-
! 23 !! two
|
|-
! 24 !! three
|
|-
! 25 !! four
|
|-
! 26 !! five
|
|-
! 27 !! big
| ''enji''
|-
! 28 !! long
| ''los''
|-
! 29 !! wide
|
|-
! 30 !! thick
|
|-
! 31 !! heavy
|
|-
! 32 !! small
| ''bing''
|-
! 33 !! short
| ''dobuz''
|-
! 34 !! narrow
|
|-
|}

thin
woman
man (adult male)
man (human being)
child
wife
husband
mother
father
animal
fish
bird
dog
louse
snake
worm
tree
forest
stick
fruit