Linguifex - User contributions [en]

Seventh Linguifex Relay

2025-08-28T19:49:17Z

Lili21: /* Seats */ added Dundulanyä translation

{{Relay_navigation_sidebar}}

{{Relaynotice|deadline=20250609042000}}

The '''{{PAGENAME}}''' is an ongoing conlang relay, a game of conlingual telephone, on Linguifex.

==Rules==
The game is similar to [[w:Chinese whispers|Chinese whispers]]. The procedure is simple: you will receive a conlang text, a ''whisper'' or ''torch'', from the previous ''seat'' with an interlinear/gloss which you are to translate into your own conlang and add information so that the next person can decipher it and make a new translation. You will have '''48''' hours from the time of having received the whisper to prepare a translation of it into your conlang, gloss it and then send it to the next person in the chain. You are free to include either a glossary and grammar notes or an interlinear (or both!). The choice is up to you, but it is always recommended to at least add an interlinear.

In the event that you fail to whisper within your allotted 48 hours, the turn will skip your seat and go to the next participant.

The relaymaster reserves the right to determine when a relay is to start; you can sign up freely until then. Everyone is welcome to partake, but for reasons of convenience, an account on Linguifex is required. Every person is restricted to one entry, but the choice of conlang is up to them. In the case that two people chose the same language, a first-come first-served basis will be adopted (unless, say, the language creator chooses to join in).

==Signup==
===Seats===

The final seat will be a retranslation into the source conlang, as well as the first translation into English. In conjunction, the original text will be published in English.
*'''Seat 0''' - [[User:Учхљёная|Учхљёная]], with '''[[Dãterške]]''' [[/Dãterške|✔️]]
*'''Seat 1''' - [[User:Dillon|Dillon]], with '''[[Soc'ul']]''' [[/Soc'ul'|✔️]]
*<s>'''Seat 2''' - [[User:Nicomega|Nicomega]], with '''[[Tulvan]]'''</s> 🔄
*<s>'''Seat 3''' - [[User:Samstag|Samstag]], with '''[[Azkali]]'''</s> ❌
*<s>'''Seat 4''' - [[User:Anyar|Anyar]], with '''[[Minhast]]'''</s> ❌
*<s>'''Seat 5''' - [[User:Val-Zho|Val-Zho]], with '''[[Kryptonian]]'''</s> ❌
*'''Seat 6''' - [[User:Lëtzelúcia|Lëtzelúcia]], with '''[[Luthic]]''' [[/Luthic|✔️]]
*'''Seat 7''' - [[User:Hazer|Hazer]], with '''[[Natalician]]''' [[/Natalician|✔️]]
*'''Seat 8''' - [[User:Helperman|Helperman]], with '''[[Cybertronian]]''' [[/Cybertronian|✔️]]
*'''Seat 9''' - [[User:Lili21|Lili21]], with '''[[Dundulanyä]]''' [[/Dundulanyä|✔️]]
*'''Seat 10''' - [[User:Jukethatbox|Jukethatbox]] with '''[[Bemé]]'''
*'''Seat 11''' - [[User:Nicomega|Nicomega]], with '''[[Tulvan]]'''
*'''Seat 12''' - [[User:Saqvareli|Saqvareli]], with '''[[Azimasi]]'''
*'''Seat 13''' - [[User:SleepyAks|SleepyAks]], with '''[[Vonurustrusty]]'''
*'''Seat 14''' - [[User:Vrianne|Vrianne]], with '''[[Gothevian]]'''
*'''Seat 15''' - [[User:ManuStorm|ManuStorm]], with '''[[Lęga Lecna]]'''
*'''Final seat''' - Retranslation into the original language and English. The original text will be published in English as well.

==How-to==
Once you've received the conlang text with glosses and all, create a page using the button below:

<inputbox>
type=create
break=no
prefix={{FULLPAGENAME}}/
placeholder=Name of your language
</inputbox>

Translate and gloss the text into your conlang (try to include an interlinear gloss), and check the '''Seats''' list on this page: Take a look who's next after you and go to their talk page and create a new topic called "{{PAGENAME}}"; and link the page where you keep your translation.

[[Category:Relays]]

User talk:Jukethatbox

2025-08-28T19:48:18Z

Lili21: /* Seventh Linguifex Relay */

Feel free to use this talk page to ask questions!

Just create new '''sections''' using two "==" around a topic heading.

== A couple things that might help ==

(Continuing from the other message over on my Talk thing)

A big thing that helps with doing entries quicker is having page templates and a hub for those templates, like [[Template:Socl-page-n]] and [[Dillon%27s_shortcuts/Soc%27ul%27]]. If you wanna set some stuff like that up I'm glad to help.

[[User:Dillon|Dillon]] ([[User talk:Dillon|talk]]) 9:39, 16 December 2023 (UTC)

== Seventh Linguifex Relay ==

Hi, here's my entry for the Relay: [[Seventh Linguifex Relay/Dundulanyä]]. Good luck, feel free to ask if there's any info I should add.--[[User:Lili21|lilaë]] ([[User talk:Lili21|talk]]) 19:48, 28 August 2025 (UTC)

User talk:Jukethatbox

2025-08-28T19:47:56Z

Lili21: /* Seventh Linguifex Relay */ new section

Seventh Linguifex Relay/Dundulanyä

2025-08-28T19:45:09Z

Lili21: Created page with "==Text== emile dītare<ref>{{IPA|[ʔemile di:tɐre]}}. As a general rule, Standard Dundulanyä has a weak, predictable pitch accent peaking on either the last long vowel or diphthong or the third-to-last syllable, whichever is closer to the end of the word.</ref> inyo nähibe. ikridha ṣārah ba kekīke<ref>{{IPA|[keki:ke]}}</ref> inīyūvai luṣṭī, odṛśvī kekīkē nīmyūnī. kekīke ba myatrat ikridhurait tho nīnī. vośchārah turevelkat<ref>Lemm..."

==Text==
emile dītare<ref>{{IPA|[ʔemile di:tɐre]}}. As a general rule, Standard Dundulanyä has a weak, predictable pitch accent peaking on either the last long vowel or diphthong or the third-to-last syllable, whichever is closer to the end of the word.</ref> inyo nähibe. 
ikridha ṣārah ba kekīke<ref>{{IPA|[keki:ke]}}</ref> inīyūvai luṣṭī, odṛśvī kekīkē nīmyūnī. 
kekīke ba myatrat ikridhurait tho nīnī. 
vośchārah turevelkat<ref>Lemma: {{IPA|[tureʋelke]}}</ref> kridhonūnī vīṣṇunīṅ. 
kekīke niṃtūndi nīyūnī nīndāmitat luṣṭūnīṅ. 
śuyive<ref>{{IPA|[ɕujiʋe]}}</ref> ba kekīkat ikridhonūvai luṣṭī viṣṇunīṅ. 
kekīkat vairiggevu va trī roṅgevu. 
uluṣṭa līdda idu śodda, taśivi rärgāhai va. 
aidelāhai tabdṛhoṭu raṅgrī vairikevu; rīḍhai ga śaniḫnayandayonta. 
naṃśāleṣu naṃśāleṣu selakat lilai thip̃ali śaniḫlārvak śaṃḫat nadūliṅ. 
lallāmitā anutū vosthaih lilai vairikiṣya.

==Glosses==
{{Gloss
| phrase = emile dītare inyo nähibe.
| morphemes = emil-e dītar-e inyo nähib-e.
| gloss = Emile.DIR.SG. Dītare.DIR.SG. BENEF. tale-DIR.SG.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ikridha ṣārah ba kekīke inīyūvai luṣṭī, odṛśvī kekīkē nīmyūnī.
| morphemes = ikridh-∅-∅-a ṣārar-∅ ba kekīk-e inī-∅-ū-ai luṣṭ-∅-∅-ī, odṛśv-∅-∅-ī kekīk-ē nīmyū-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = die.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. leader-DIR.SG. TOPIC. Kekīke-DIR.SG. say.PERF-EXP-AG-3.SUBJ. force-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. be_unable-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. Kekīke-ERG.SG. admit.EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kekīke ba myatrat ikridhurait tho nīnī.
| morphemes = kekīk-e ba myatra=t ikridhur-ai=t tho nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = Kekīke-DIR.SG. TOPIC. darkness.DIR.SG=and. dead_person-DIR.PL=and. about. talk.EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = vośchārah turevelkat kridhonūnī vīṣṇunīṅ.
| morphemes = vosth-ṣārar-∅ turevelk-at kridh-∅-on-ū-(n)ī vīṣṇun-∅-∅-ī=ṅ
| gloss = enemy-leader-DIR.SG. Turevelke-ACC.SG. die-EXP-CAUS-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. flee-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kekīke niṃtūndi nīyūnī nīndāmitat luṣṭūnīṅ.
| morphemes = kekīk-e niṃtūn-di nī-∅-ū-(n)ī nīndāmita-t luṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = Kekīke-DIR.SG. convince-ADV. say-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. guidance-ACC.SG. force-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = śuyive ba kekīkat ikridhonūvai luṣṭī viṣṇunīṅ.
| morphemes = śuyiv-e ba kekīk-at ikridh-∅-on-ū-ai luṣṭ-∅-∅-ī vīṣṇun-∅-∅-ī=ṅ
| gloss = Śuyive-DIR.SG. TOPIC. Kekīke-ACC.SG. die.-PERF-EXP-CAUS-AG-3.SUBJ. force-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. flee-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kekīkat vairiggevu va trī roṅgevu.
| morphemes = kekīk-at vai-rik-∅-g-∅-evu=va trī roṅk-∅-g-∅-evu
| gloss = Kekīke-ACC.SG. with-feel_pain-EXP-IRREALIS-PAT-PRES.1PL.IND=NEG. else. be_weak-EXP-IRREALIS-PAT-PRES.1PL.IND.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = uluṣṭa līdda idu śodda, taśivi rärgāhai va.
| morphemes = uluṣṭ-∅-∅-a līdda idu śodda taśiv-i rär-∅-g-∅-āhai=va
| gloss = force.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. lesson.DIR.SG. NEG. knowledge.DIR.SG. idea-DIR.PL. comfortable-EXP-IRREALIS-PAT-PRES.3PL.IND=NEG.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = aidelāhai tabdṛhoṭu raṅgrī vairikevu; rīḍhai ga śaniḫnayandayonta.
| morphemes = aidel-∅-∅-āhai tabdṛh-oṭu raṅgr-ī vai-rik-∅-∅-evu rīdh-ai ga śaniḫnayandayonta
| gloss = cry.INTENS-EXP-PAT-IMPERF.3PL. mistake-ESS.PL. reality-ESS.SG. with-feel_pain-EXP-PAT-PRES.1PL.IND. strategy-DIR.PL. COPULA. arrogance.DIR.SG.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = naṃśāleṣu naṃśāleṣu selakat lilai thip̃ali śaniḫlārvak śaṃḫat nadūliṅ.
| morphemes = naṃśāl-eṣu naṃśāl-eṣu selakat lil-ai thip̃-∅-∅-li śaniḫlārvak śaṃḫ-at nad-∅-ū-li=ṅ
| gloss = year-ABL.PL. year-ABL.PL. ago. person-DIR.PL. be_different-EXP-PAT-PAST.3PL.IND. sacrifice-DAT.SG. self-ACC.SG. guide-EXP-AG-PAST.3PL.IND=and.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lallāmitā anutū vosthaih lilai vairikiṣya.
| morphemes = lallāmit-ā anut-ū vosth-aih lil-ai vai-rik-iṣy-∅-∅-a
| gloss = future-LOC.SG. space-ABL.SG. enemy-ACC.PL. person-DIR.PL. with-feel_pain-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
}}

==General notes==
# Dundulanyä is strongly head-final: verbs always come at the end of a sentence (except for a small number of final particles); non-sentence final verbs are usually juxtaposed attributive verbs.
# Evidentiality is mandatorily marked on all verbs, with a zero morpheme marking direct knowledge... which is conventionally used in telling stories.
# Dundulanyä has symmetrical voice (i.e. Austronesian-like alignment), however all roles which do not agree with the verb are explicitely marked either by cases (accusative, ergative, etc.) or postpositions.
# Impersonal sentences (e.g. English "One should", "one's", etc.) are generally translated as first person plural in Dundulanyä (e.g. "We should", "ours", etc.).
# Dundulanyä marks irrealis verbs with a specific morpheme. The negative marker ''va'' requires a verb to be irrealis.
# Hint: to really cry is to be honest.

==Footnotes==

User:Lili21

2025-07-13T12:16:08Z

Lili21:

==About me==
Hi, I’m '''lili21''' (he/him) and I’m a conlanger currently working mostly on two conlangs: [[Dundulanyä]] (a priori) and [[Elodian]] (a posteriori, Indo-European). My best-developed conlangs on this site are [[Chlouvānem]] (a conlang I consider finished, part of the conworld [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]]; both the conlang and the conworld have a spiritual successor respectively in Dundulanyä and [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]) and [[Atlantic]] (Romlang, a dormant project).

Concerning languages, I’m mostly interested in historical linguistics, in the evolution of Indo-European languages, particularly Romance and Slavic ones, and in Gallo-Italic languages. I’m also interested in various other things like literature, geography, history, anthropology, ecology, and urbanism. 
I'm asymmetrically bilingual in Italian and Lombard, and I also speak English, Portuguese, Russian, and German to various degrees, and can understand basic Ligurian, French, and Swedish (in decreasing order).

'''Since July 1, 2025 the main resource for my active conlangs, except for Elodian, is now located at [https://lilae21.github.io/conlangs/index.htm my personal website]; the pages here remain the only source of documentation for pre-Eventoan conlangs and Elodian. The Atlantic page on the website is a mirror of the one here.'''

==My conlangs==
Conlangs in '''bold''' are those that I am actively developing (or will work on in the foreseeable future; as of April 10, 2023):
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoan languages]]
** '''[[Dundulanyä]]'''
**: ([[Dundulanyä/Names|personal names]])
** [[Seraltonian languages]]
*** [[Íscégon]]
**** [[Cerian]]
* [[Verse:Calémere|Calémerian languages]]
** [[Lahob languages]]
*** [[Chlouvānem]]
***:([[Chlouvānem/Morphology|morphology]] ([[Chlouvānem/Verbs|verbs]]) · [[Chlouvānem/Syntax|syntax]] · [[Chlouvānem/Phonology|phonology]] · [[Chlouvānem/Positional and motion verbs|positional and motion verbs]] · [[Chlouvānem/Exterior and interior verbs|exterior and interior verbs]] · [[Verse:Chlouvānem Inquisition|the Inquisition]] ([[Verse:Chlouvānem Inquisition/Līlasuṃghāṇa|city of Līlasuṃghāṇa]]) · [[Chlouvānem/Literature|literature]] · [[Verse:Yunyalīlta|the Yunyalīlta]] · [[Chlouvānem/Names|personal names]] · [[Chlouvānem/Calendar and time|calendar and time]] · [[Chlouvānem/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]] · [[Chlouvānem/Phrasebook|phrasebook]] · [[Chlouvānem/Lexicon|thematic wordlists]] · [[Chlouvānem/218_Sample_Sentences|syntax test]] · [[:Category:Chlouvānem words|Contionary entries]])
** [[Evandorian languages]]
*** Íscégon (moved to the Eventoa conworld)
**** Cerian (moved to the Eventoa conworld)
**** [[Besagren]]
*** [[Nordulaki]]
*** [[Kalese]]
*** [[Ancient Nivarese]]
*** [[Auralian]]
*** [[Holenagic]]
** [[Yombu-Raina languages]]
** [[Fargulyn languages]]
*** [[Skyrdagor]]
** Samaidulic languages
*** [[Brono-Fathanic]]
*** [[Qualdomelic]]
** [[Spocian]]
** [[Rufian-Kädd]]
** [[Tarueb]]
** Kenengyry languages
*** [[Soenjoan]]
*** [[Kuyugwazian]]
*** [[Lenyan]]
** [[Lällshag]]
** [[Yuyši]]

* A posteriori languages
** [[Atlantic]] ([[w:Romance languages|romlang]])
**: ([[:Category:Atlantic words|Contionary entries]])
** [[Elodian]] ([[w:Indo-European languages|IE-lang]])

Talk:Seventh Linguifex Relay

2025-07-13T11:04:19Z

Lili21: /* Continuation? */ new section

== How to join ==

How do I join this? Just edit in name, or is it something else? [[User:Helperman|Helperman]] ([[User talk:Helperman|talk]]) 23:45, 5 February 2025 (UTC)

Actually, I am confident in my understanding that I will just do it and hope I'm not wrong. If I am, feel free to edit out my name and instruct me on how to actually sign up [[User:Helperman|Helperman]] ([[User talk:Helperman|talk]]) 02:23, 6 February 2025 (UTC)
: @[[User:Helperman|Helperman]]: Thanks for signing up! Yes, you were right, you just need to include your name at the end of the list. However, this relay is now on hold because it's missing a relaymaster (seat #0). There's another one currently ongoing in the [https://discord.gg/Q425AeNxtj Discord server] so be sure to join in if you like. Cheers, [[User:Sware|'''swar''''''e''']] • [[User talk:Sware#top|🗣]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sware|🏲]] 10:14, 6 February 2025 (UTC)

== Continuation? ==

Has the relay been stopped without any notice? It's been stalled at the same seat for more than two weeks now and in the meantime other fellow conlangers have signed up. Yet the page still says signup is closed. How and when will it continue? --[[User:Lili21|лилие21]] ([[User talk:Lili21|talk]]) 11:04, 13 July 2025 (UTC)

User:Lili21

2025-07-12T16:29:28Z

Lili21:

==About me==
Hi, I’m '''lili21''' (he/him) and I’m a conlanger currently working mostly on two conlangs: [[Dundulanyä]] (a priori) and [[Elodian]] (a posteriori, Indo-European). My best-developed conlangs on this site are [[Chlouvānem]] (a conlang I consider finished, part of the conworld [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]]; both the conlang and the conworld have a spiritual successor respectively in Dundulanyä and [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]) and [[Atlantic]] (Romlang, a dormant project).

Concerning languages, I’m mostly interested in historical linguistics, in the evolution of Indo-European languages, particularly Romance and Slavic ones, and in Gallo-Italic languages. I’m also interested in various other things like literature, geography, history, anthropology, ecology, and urbanism. 
I'm asymmetrically bilingual in Italian and Lombard, and I also speak English, Portuguese, Russian, and German to various degrees, and can understand basic Ligurian, French, and Swedish (in decreasing order).

'''Since July 1, 2025 the main resource for my active conlangs, except for Elodian, is now located at [https://lilae21.github.io/conlangs/index.htm]; the pages here remain the only source of documentation for pre-Eventoan conlangs and Elodian. The Atlantic page on the website is a mirror of the one here.'''

==My conlangs==
Conlangs in '''bold''' are those that I am actively developing (or will work on in the foreseeable future; as of April 10, 2023):
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoan languages]]
** '''[[Dundulanyä]]'''
**: ([[Dundulanyä/Names|personal names]])
** [[Seraltonian languages]]
*** [[Íscégon]]
**** [[Cerian]]
* [[Verse:Calémere|Calémerian languages]]
** [[Lahob languages]]
*** [[Chlouvānem]]
***:([[Chlouvānem/Morphology|morphology]] ([[Chlouvānem/Verbs|verbs]]) · [[Chlouvānem/Syntax|syntax]] · [[Chlouvānem/Phonology|phonology]] · [[Chlouvānem/Positional and motion verbs|positional and motion verbs]] · [[Chlouvānem/Exterior and interior verbs|exterior and interior verbs]] · [[Verse:Chlouvānem Inquisition|the Inquisition]] ([[Verse:Chlouvānem Inquisition/Līlasuṃghāṇa|city of Līlasuṃghāṇa]]) · [[Chlouvānem/Literature|literature]] · [[Verse:Yunyalīlta|the Yunyalīlta]] · [[Chlouvānem/Names|personal names]] · [[Chlouvānem/Calendar and time|calendar and time]] · [[Chlouvānem/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]] · [[Chlouvānem/Phrasebook|phrasebook]] · [[Chlouvānem/Lexicon|thematic wordlists]] · [[Chlouvānem/218_Sample_Sentences|syntax test]] · [[:Category:Chlouvānem words|Contionary entries]])
** [[Evandorian languages]]
*** Íscégon (moved to the Eventoa conworld)
**** Cerian (moved to the Eventoa conworld)
**** [[Besagren]]
*** [[Nordulaki]]
*** [[Kalese]]
*** [[Ancient Nivarese]]
*** [[Auralian]]
*** [[Holenagic]]
** [[Yombu-Raina languages]]
** [[Fargulyn languages]]
*** [[Skyrdagor]]
** Samaidulic languages
*** [[Brono-Fathanic]]
*** [[Qualdomelic]]
** [[Spocian]]
** [[Rufian-Kädd]]
** [[Tarueb]]
** Kenengyry languages
*** [[Soenjoan]]
*** [[Kuyugwazian]]
*** [[Lenyan]]
** [[Lällshag]]
** [[Yuyši]]

* A posteriori languages
** [[Atlantic]] ([[w:Romance languages|romlang]])
**: ([[:Category:Atlantic words|Contionary entries]])
** [[Elodian]] ([[w:Indo-European languages|IE-lang]])

Seventh Linguifex Relay

2025-03-14T19:10:24Z

Lili21: Joining the relay

The '''{{PAGENAME}}''' is an upcoming conlang relay, a game of conlingual telephone, on Linguifex.

==Rules==
The game is similar to [[w:Chinese whispers|Chinese whispers]]. The procedure is simple: you will receive a conlang text, a ''whisper'' or ''torch'', from the previous ''seat'' with an interlinear/gloss which you are to translate into your own conlang and add information so that the next person can decipher it and make a new translation. You will have '''48''' hours from the time of having received the whisper to prepare a translation of it into your conlang, gloss it and then send it to the next person in the chain. You are free to include either a glossary and grammar notes or an interlinear (or both!). The choice is up to you, but it is always recommended to at least add an interlinear.

In the event that you fail to whisper within your allotted 48 hours, the turn will skip your seat and go to the next participant.

The relaymaster reserves the right to determine when a relay is to start; you can sign up freely until then. Everyone is welcome to partake, but for reasons of convenience, an account on Linguifex is required. Every person is restricted to one entry, but the choice of conlang is up to them. In the case that two people chose the same language, a first-come first-served basis will be adopted (unless, say, the language creator chooses to join in).

==Signup==
===Seats===

The final seat will be a retranslation into the source conlang, as well as the first translation into English. In conjunction, the original text will be published in English.
*'''Seat 0''' - [[User:Учхљёная|Учхљёная]], with '''[[Dãterške]]'''
*'''Seat 1''' - [[User:Dillon|Dillon]], with '''[[Soc'ul']]'''
*'''Seat 2''' - [[User:Nicomega|Nicomega]], with '''[[Tulvan]]'''
*'''Seat 3''' - [[User:Samstag|Samstag]], with '''[[Azkali]]'''
*'''Seat 4''' - [[User:Anyar|Anyar]], with '''[[Minhast]]'''
*'''Seat 5''' - [[User:Val-Zho|Val-Zho]], with '''[[Kryptonian]]'''
*'''Seat 6''' - [[User:Lëtzelúcia|Lëtzelúcia]], with '''[[Luthic]]'''
*'''Seat 7''' - [[User:Hazer|Hazer]], with '''[[Natalician]]'''
*'''Seat 8''' - [[User:Hhelperman|Helperman]], with '''[[Cybertronian]]'''
*'''Seat 9''' - [[User:Lili21|Lili21]], with '''[[Dundulanyä]]'''
*'''Seat ''n''-1''' -
*'''Final seat''' - Retranslation into the original language and English. The original text will be published in English as well.

==How-to==
Once you've received the conlang text with glosses and all, create a page called "{{PAGENAME}}/X", where X is your language. Translate and gloss the text into your conlang (try to include an interlinear gloss), and check the '''Seats''' list on this page: Take a look who's next after you and go to their talk page and create a new topic called "{{PAGENAME}}"; and link the page where you keep your translation.

[[Category:Relays]]

Dundulanyä

2025-02-05T21:02:26Z

Lili21: /* Brif, bruf, braf */

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = User:Lili21
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, the pluricultural political entity which occupies the majority of the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where the language itself originated - and Jūhma, where it is the main lingua franca.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2600 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, in the region of Taktapṣikha, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through religious, cultural and political expansion, people and language spread across many areas of the continent, most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the most advanced civilization on Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; then, the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the Northern hemisphere civilizations effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other cultures had been dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''); the standard language is a heavily prescriptive and codified version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a second language for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms no longer used in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, coexisting in diglossia with hundreds of languages - its own daughter languages, creoles based on Dundulanyä, or completely unrelated ones - together known as the "vernaculars" or ''tūsahufāni'', is the main language for the 1,9 billion people living in the Confederation, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''līdad naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''līdad'' being the bound form of ''līdade'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-'' "image, representation, photo"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
! Vocative
| śiv
|-
! Ergative
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
! Accusative
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
! Dative
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
! Ablative
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
! Locative
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''līdad nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''līdad'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau nindade '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' nindade.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
The word ''didya'' "more" is either a copular adjective on its own, or part of a copular adjective phrase, therefore not considered a form of the copula:
: ''śārepai '''didya'''.'' "The dogs are more/in a greater number/There are more dogs."
: ''maihasin '''didya lalla'''.'' "Your daughter is taller."
: ''p̃aiṣubin '''idu didya lalla'''.'' "Our son is not taller."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = more. now. all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Dundulanyä

2025-02-05T20:58:23Z

Lili21:

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = User:Lili21
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, the pluricultural political entity which occupies the majority of the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where the language itself originated - and Jūhma, where it is the main lingua franca.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2600 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, in the region of Taktapṣikha, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through religious, cultural and political expansion, people and language spread across many areas of the continent, most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the most advanced civilization on Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; then, the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the Northern hemisphere civilizations effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other cultures had been dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''); the standard language is a heavily prescriptive and codified version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a second language for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms no longer used in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, coexisting in diglossia with hundreds of languages - its own daughter languages, creoles based on Dundulanyä, or completely unrelated ones - together known as the "vernaculars" or ''tūsahufāni'', is the main language for the 1,9 billion people living in the Confederation, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''līdad naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''līdad'' being the bound form of ''līdade'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
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Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
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# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-'' "image, representation, photo"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
! Vocative
| śiv
|-
! Ergative
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
! Accusative
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
! Dative
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
! Ablative
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
! Locative
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
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# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
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Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''līdad nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''līdad'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau nindade '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' nindade.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
The word ''didya'' "more" is either a copular adjective on its own, or part of a copular adjective phrase, therefore not considered a form of the copula:
: ''śārepai '''didya'''.'' "The dogs are more/in a greater number/There are more dogs."
: ''maihasin '''didya lalla'''.'' "Your daughter is taller."
: ''p̃aiṣubin '''idu didya lalla'''.'' "Our son is not taller."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Dundulanyä

2025-02-05T17:54:57Z

Lili21: /* Copula */

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''līdad naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''līdad'' being the bound form of ''līdade'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-'' "image, representation, photo"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
! Vocative
| śiv
|-
! Ergative
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
! Accusative
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
! Dative
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
! Ablative
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
! Locative
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''līdad nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''līdad'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau nindade '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' nindade.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
The word ''didya'' "more" is either a copular adjective on its own, or part of a copular adjective phrase, therefore not considered a form of the copula:
: ''śārepai '''didya'''.'' "The dogs are more/in a greater number/There are more dogs."
: ''maihasin '''didya lalla'''.'' "Your daughter is taller."
: ''p̃aiṣubin '''idu didya lalla'''.'' "Our son is not taller."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Dundulanyä

2025-02-05T17:54:09Z

Lili21: /* Copula */

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''līdad naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''līdad'' being the bound form of ''līdade'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-'' "image, representation, photo"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
! Vocative
| śiv
|-
! Ergative
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
! Accusative
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
! Dative
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
! Ablative
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
! Locative
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''līdad nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''līdad'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau nindade '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
The word ''didya'' "more" is either a copular adjective on its own, or part of a copular adjective phrase, therefore not considered a form of the copula:
: ''śārepai '''didya'''.'' "The dogs are more/in a greater number/There are more dogs."
: ''maihasin '''didya lalla'''.'' "Your daughter is taller."
: ''p̃aiṣubin '''idu didya lalla'''.'' "Our son is not taller."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Dundulanyä

2025-02-05T17:35:37Z

Lili21: /* Possessive suffixes */

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''līdad naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''līdad'' being the bound form of ''līdade'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
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Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
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# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-'' "image, representation, photo"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
! Vocative
| śiv
|-
! Ergative
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
! Accusative
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
! Dative
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
! Ablative
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
! Locative
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
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# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
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Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
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{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''līdad nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''līdad'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a dancer."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a dancer."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Dundulanyä

2025-02-05T17:35:13Z

Lili21: /* Bound forms */

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''līdad naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''līdad'' being the bound form of ''līdade'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-'' "image, representation, photo"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
! Vocative
| śiv
|-
! Ergative
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
! Accusative
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
! Dative
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
! Ablative
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
! Locative
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''imut nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''imut'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a dancer."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a dancer."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Dundulanyä

2025-02-05T17:34:36Z

Lili21: /* Declension tables */

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-'' "image, representation, photo"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
! Vocative
| śiv
|-
! Ergative
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
! Accusative
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
! Dative
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
! Ablative
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
! Locative
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''imut nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''imut'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a dancer."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a dancer."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
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'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
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{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Elodian

2025-01-01T12:45:02Z

Lili21: /* Nouns */

{{Infobox language
|name = Elodian
|nativename = ɂelodīru, (la) gulkā ɂelodīrā
|pronunciation = ˈguɬkɑː ʔelɔˈdiːraː
|states (state) = ʔelodīhūto
|region = Pontus
|ethnicity = Elodians (''ɂelodī'')
|speakers = {{formatnum:12000000}}
|date = 2021
|familycolor = Indo-European
|creator = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|created = Jul 2022
|setting = Alt-Earth
|script = Elodian alphabet
|nation = ʔelodīhūto
|agency = National Language Academy of ʔelodīhūto ''Kalēmīa mellī twā gulkā twā ʔelodīhūto''
|image = DarLifasyam-flag.png
|imagealt = Flag of ʔelodīhūto
|notice=IPA
}}

'''Important note:''' Elodian is, fundamentally, a rethinking of [[Lifashian]] intended as a kind of drop-in replacement in its setting.

'''Elodian''', natively referred to as ''ɂelodīru'' or ''(la) gulkā ɂelodīrā'', is an [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language, an isolate inside the family, spoken in an alternate timeline of Earth in the northeastern corner of [[w:Anatolia|Asia Minor]], i.e. the historical region of [[w:Pontus (region)|Pontus]] and neighboring areas across the Pontic Alps into the [[w:Armenian highlands|Armenian highlands]]. It is the official language of the republic of ''ʔelodīhūto'', spoken by the majority of its population. Elodian is the native language of about twelve million people in the world, the majority of which in ʔelodīhūto, with smaller communities in Eastern Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq.

Elodian developed on its own, distinctly from other Indo-European languages,
although it is definitely closer to the [[w:Anatolian languages|Anatolian languages]], particularly the [[w:Luwian language|Luwian]] subgroup, than to other languages in the family, despite sharing some traits with [[w:Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[w:Greek language|Greek]]. It is particularly noteworthy due to its system of split ergativity, which makes it virtually an ergative-absolutive language (although not syntactically ergative) except with first- and second-person referents, which require a nominative-accusative alignment.

Its vocabulary has a substantial number of inherited roots, but through millennia the language absorbed many loanwords, especially from [[w:Persian language|Persian]] and [[w:Arabic language|Arabic]] (through the former), and to smaller extents from its neighbours Armenian, the [[w:Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian languages]] and [[w:Turkish language|Turkish]], as well as from Greek and [[w:Russian language|Russian]]. Long-term Genoese colonization and reciprocal contacts also introduced many [[w:Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]] loans, as well as forming one of the main ethnic minorities in the country, Elodian Ligurians, which had a marked influence on the culture of coastal urban areas.

It is written in the Elodian alphabet, a bicameral script ultimately related to other ancient scripts of Asia Minor like the [[w:Lydian alphabet|Lydian alphabet]].

==Miscellanea==
(This section exists mostly as a placeholder for "interesting things" about the language to justify the existence of this page, until I write the full phonology, morphology, syntax sections.)

Proto-Elodian underwent a change similar to Grimm's Law in Proto-Germanic or even closer to the one in Proto-Armenian; however, it did not affect labiovelars. The most strikingly Elodian correspondence is PIE *t > Elodian ''l'', through an intermediate *ð stage.

The endonym ''ɂelodi'' is from PIE *h₁léwdʰis.

Most letters have their IPA values, except '''c''' {{IPA|/tʃ/}} '''j''' {{IPA|/dʒ/}} '''ng''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, '''ǝ''' {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, '''ṛ''' {{IPA|/ɽ~ɻ/}}, '''š''' {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, '''o''' {{IPA|/ɔ/}}. Long vowels are marked with a macron.

==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Elodian nouns decline for six cases: nominative-absolutive, ergative, accusative, dative, equative and locative, with a seventh one, the genitive, still found in some relic uses. Nouns are categorized according to the ending of their citation form (nominative-absolutive singular) and the corresponding oblique form, i.e. the stem to which the case endings are added. The PIE inflection system, overall, has been simplified, although the stem/ending combinations maintain a certain degree of complexity.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Pattern !! Nominative/Absolutive !! Oblique !! Notes
|-
! colspan=4 | Masculine
|-
! I
| -∅ || -∅- ||
|-
! II
| -a || -o- || No longer productive
|-
! III
| -ē || -or- || Same as feminine pattern II
|-
! IV
| -i || -i- || Moderately productive (borrowings ending in voiced obstruents)
|-
! V
| -o || -u- || Not productive ''per se'', limited to a few nouns (e.g. ''hūlo'' "son", ''šargo'' "lion") and the derivational suffix ''-aždo''.
|-
! colspan=4 | Feminine
|-
! I
| -ā, -īa || -eh-V, -ā-C (-īeh-V, -īa-C) || ''-īa'' nouns are borrowings
|-
! I-b
| -ā || -ǝt- or -at- || Arabic nouns in ''tāʾ marbūṭah''. In contemporary Elodian these nouns generally follow pattern I, except in compounding.
|-
! II
| -ē || -or- || Same as masculine pattern III
|-
! III
| -ī || -ih-V, -ī-C ||
|-
! IV
| -ū || -uh-V, -ū-C || No longer productive
|-
! colspan=4 | Neuter
|-
! I
| -e || -i- ||
|-
! II
| -u || rowspan=2 | -o- ||
|-
! III
| -o ||
|-
! IV
| -mā || -mon- ||
|-
! V
| -mo || -mot- || Greek nouns in ''-μα(τ-)''
|-
! VI
| -nē || -ni- || Mostly collectives
|}

The following table shows the case endings. The ergative and accusative singular forms vary depending on whether the stem ends in a consonant or a vowel (feminine patterns I, III and IV use the prevocalic form here); the locative singular is generally ''-hu'', with ''-šu'' depending on the preceding sound (historical RUKI law). In the nominative-absolutive plural ''-i'' is for masculine and feminine nouns, while ''-ā'' for neuters; ''-ī'' is exclusively used for masculine pattern IV. The equative, a distinctive trait of Elodian, is likely an influence from Hurrian or a lost Hurro-Urartian language.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative-absolutive
| -- || -i (-ī) / -ā
|-
! Ergative
| -š, -eš || -ex
|-
! Accusative
| -w, -o || -ā
|-
! Dative
| -ē || -(o)bo
|-
! Equative
| -(e)ɂār || -(o)bīṛ
|-
! Locative
| -hu / -šu || -ēšu
|-
! Genitive (relic)
| -ay (masculine) -ē (feminine) -i (neuter) || -ow
|}

The predominant use of the genitive today is not syntactical, but merely as a derivational element forming nominal compounds. Its use in marking possession has been completely taken by the particle ''twe'', which declines according to the gender of the possessed noun: ''twe'' is the masculine singular form; ''twā'' the feminine singular; ''tō'' the neuter singular; ''twī'' masculine and feminine plural and ''tā'' neuter plural.

''Twe-''genitives are attested throughout all of Elodian history but became predominant around the late 18th and early 19th century. Lexicalized genitive compounds include, predictably, many proper nouns, mostly dating back to the earliest attestations of Elodian (such as the Manichaean sacred texts: ''Fūš Hullehē'' "Treasure of Life" and ''Tuwfā Īnuhow'' "Arzhang" (lit. "Book of Arts"), or also ''Mālē Hiwozoɂlā'' (lit. "self-born mother"), which in Elodian Manichaeism corresponds to the Father of Greatness), but also common nouns which date back to some centuries (''falem nehtay'' "bedroom") as well as many recently coined words (''goys nehtay'' "bedroom community" (lit. "village of the bed"), ''ball mosǝ̄bakehē'' "match point", ''falem karaokey'' "karaoke club").

===Articles===
The articles in Elodian are ''lu'', ''la'', ''ot'' for the singular (m/f/n) and ''li'', ''lē'', ''lā'' for the plural. Despite the similarities, the Elodian articles are false cognates of the common Romance ones; on the other hand, they are cognates with the accusative forms of the Ancient Greek article. All inflected forms (except for nominative-absolutive and accusative) are new formations in Elodian, not inherited from PIE.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Elodian definite articles
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | Singular !! colspan=3 | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! Nominative-absolutive
| lu, l' || la, leh' || ot, t' || li || lē || lā
|-
! Ergative
| luš || lāš || loš || lūx || layx || lōx
|-
! Accusative
| lu, l' || la, leh' || ot, t' || li || lē || lā
|-
! Dative
| luē || lehē || loē || lubo || lābo || lobo
|-
! Equative
| luɂār || lehār || loɂār || lubīṛ || lābīṛ || lobīṛ
|-
! Locative
| lušu || lāhu || lohu || lūšu || layšu || lōšu
|-
! Genitive (relic)
| lūy || lehē || lōy || lūw || lāw || lōw
|}

===Demonstratives===
The two demonstratives used in contemporary Elodian are proximal ''sī, sīa, sīt'' and distal ''nū, nūa, nūt''. Except for the nominative-absolutive and accusative forms in both the singular and plural, the others are synchronically formed from the articles and a prefix:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Elodian proximal demonstratives
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | Singular !! colspan=3 | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! Nominative-absolutive
| sī || sīa || sīt || sēli || sīhe || sīa
|-
! Ergative
| seluš || selāš || seloš || selūx || selayx || selōx
|-
! Accusative
| sī || sīa || sīt || sēli || sīhe || sīa
|-
! Dative
| seluē || selehē || seloē || selubo || selābo || selobo
|-
! Equative
| seluɂār || selehār || seloɂār || selubīṛ || selābīṛ || selobīṛ
|-
! Locative
| selušu || selāhu || selohu || selūšu || selayšu || selōšu
|-
! Genitive (relic)
| selūy || selehē || selōy || selūw || selāw || selōw
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Elodian distal demonstratives
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | Singular !! colspan=3 | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! Nominative-absolutive
| nū || nūa || nūt || nōli || nūhe || nūa
|-
! Ergative
| noluš || nolāš || nološ || nolūx || nolayx || nolōx
|-
! Accusative
| nū || nūa || nūt || nōli || nūhe || nūa
|-
! Dative
| noluē || nolehē || noloē || nolubo || nolābo || nolobo
|-
! Equative
| noluɂār || nolehār || noloɂār || nolubīṛ || nolābīṛ || nolobīṛ
|-
! Locative
| nolušu || nolāhu || nolohu || nolūšu || nolayšu || nolōšu
|-
! Genitive (relic)
| nolūy || nolehē || nolōy || nolūw || nolāw || nolōw
|}

==History and vocabulary==
Elodian is an isolate among the broader Indo-European family, although many Elodian linguists, in line with common nationalist claims, propose the existence of an Elodian-Anatolian grouping. While this hypothesis is generally refused due to phonetics, non-Elodian linguists still point out that Elodian and the Anatolian languages, particularly the Luwian subgroup, have a set of so-called "shared archaisms" not found in other IE languages: the consonantal reflexes of laryngeals are one (even though Elodian preserves all three laryngeals as consonants in the onset - more consonantal reflexes than all Anatolian languaes), but often cited are the lexical ones, with Elodian roots often having meanings closer to Anatolian than to languages elsewhere in the Indo-European world (e.g. ''manim'' "I see, I watch" (< *men(h₂)-mi), cf. Luwian ''manā-ti''), or shared lexical items, particularly with Luwic (e.g. ''hūrgmā'' "wheel" < *h₂wérg-mṇ, cf. Hittite ''ḫūrkis''; ''ɂodwāha'' "person" < *h₁ṇdʰwéh₂ōs, cf. Hitt. ''antuwaḫḫaš''; ''siw'' "and" < *ḱe-?, cf. Lycian B ''sebe'', Carian ''sb''; ''hūlām'' "I live", cf. Luwian ''ḫuit-'', Lycian B ''qid-'', Carian ''qt-''; ''fun'' "all", cf. Luwian ''pūna-'', Lycian B ''puna-'', Carian ''pñ-''). Many shared lexical items with Anatolian languages are, though, probably borrowings.

While the IE origin of Elodian is today undisputed, it is to be noted that Hurro-Urartian and languages of the Caucasus definitely had a marked influence over Elodian, as shown by the development of split ergativity.

The history of Elodians has had a major impact on the vocabulary of their language, having lived for millennia at the crossroads of Europe and Asia and having been subjects of multiple foreign powers. A sizable amount of the Elodian lexicon is composed of foreign loans, sometimes integrating borrowed morphemes in the morphology (as with certain Arabic and Greek nouns), nevertheless, the vast majority of loanwords is considered to be fully integrated in the language, as all of them are fully transcribed into the Elodian script and, with the exception of a few proper nouns, all of them are transcribed as pronounced in Elodian and adapted to fit native morphology.

The share of loanwords is not uniform: the vast majority of them, in all stages of the language, are nouns, with a smaller number of borrowed adjectives with no corresponding noun. Borrowed verbs are few and rare, as Elodian has only two suffixes that form verbs from other parts of speech (''-ez-ām'' and ''-haz-ēm'', originally two contextual variants of the same PIE root), already attested in the very first Elodian attestations in the 6th century CE; even those suffixes generally stopped being productive by the 15th century, replaced in productivity by compound verbs, with new compound verbs sometimes even replacing full verbs; the verbal part of compound verbs, which contributes little meaning of its own, is nearly always a native root. Verbal roots loaned from other languages are even rarer and all of them date to the prehistory of the Elodian language, being generally of Hurro-Urartian, Akkadian or Kartvelian origin.
Moreover, loanwords are not evenly distributed in terms of frequency; all function words are native, inherited from Proto-Indo-European, as are many of the most commonly used words, so that the most basic forms of the language contain mostly native roots. However, very basic words are not always native, sometimes due to semantic drift that has caused loanwords to fit into the other meaning. Almost as a counterpoint to basic words being mostly inherited roots, words such as those for "man" and "woman" are borrowings (from Hurrian and Byzantine Greek respectively - but see below for the latter) and nearly all Elodians carry given names that are borrowed: most of them from Middle Persian, Armenian or Kartvelian languages, while Western names are typically borrowed through Medieval Greek or through Ligurian; Islamic theophoric names are borrowed from Arabic.

The most ancient layer of loanwords dates back to Elodian prehistory, and it is probably the most represented layer of loanwords in non-technical speech. Such words date back from the arrival of Elodians in eastern Anatolia up to the first few centuries AD (roughly up until the influx of Christianity shown by Aramaic loanwords and the Parthian period); prehistoric loanwords generally include words of multiple origin: Akkadian, Hurro-Urartian, Anatolian, Proto-Iranian, Hattic, Kartvelian or from other Caucasian languages. Nearly all of the proposed etymologies attributed to these languages belong to (or originally entered the language in) the semantic fields of animals, plants, agriculture and early technology; see e.g. ''šorōn'' "cat", ''lešp'' "honey", ''notwāx'' "knife", ''osmon'' "oil" (all from Akkadian), ''neht'' "bed", ''norāt'' "pomegranate", ''waṛā'' "countryside" (from Hurrian), ''hēr'' "road", ''ebēnā'' "country" (from Urartian), ''zižǝn'' "smile", ''ğuygā'' "juniper", ''šewnī'' "beautiful", ''somlart'' "medlar", ''toğoy'' "mouse" (all with proposed Kartvelian cognates), ''žūto'' "owl", ''božāmā'' "wasp", ''xafrōšā'' "butterfly", ''loncā'' "maple", ''yǝyjā'' "ash" (all of likely Northwest Caucasian origin, especially with cognates in Ubykh and Abkhaz), as well as toponyms (the name ''Fulahmīwā'' of the capital city of ʔelodīhūto has been traced back to Hattic goddess Furušemu) and other proper nouns (as with the names of the first six planets, excluding Earth, also found in the names of the days of the week due to ''interpretatio Elodica'', which are likely Akkadian-mediated loans of ancient Mesopotamian words). A few dozen words are categorized as unspecified Iranian loans, either early loans from Proto-Iranian or mediated by other unidentified languages, cf. ''gōbām'' "I read", ''calīr'' "splendour" (likely from *ćriHrás and therefore cognate with Sanskrit ''śrī''), ''xašrā'' "world", ''sūftā'' "milk", possibly ''mirǝ̄jē'' "rice". As shown by ''gōbām'', prehistoric loanwords include loaned verbal roots, something not found at any other stage of the language.

The largest share of loanwords into Elodian comes from Persian, including words borrowed from Parthian and Middle (Sasanian) Persian, Classical Persian, and a very small number of words from contemporary Iranian Persian. Persian words are found in every semantic field, including everyday words (''cǝtor'' "umbrella", ''obēl'' "necessary", ''pahrest'' "list, menu"); words related to general urban life (''šahr'' "city", ''bandar'' "port", ''doftar'' "office", ''moydān'' "square"), knowledge and literature (''nāmē'' "book", ''lānešn'' "knowledge", ''cāmē'' "poetry"); agriculture and food (, ''bālong'' "wine"), as well as more abstract concepts (''owlēn'' "doctrine", ''kārfron'' "hero", ''lēnā'' "religion"). More abstract concepts, ethnonyms, and Islam-related words come from Arabic, but in vast majority of cases they entered Elodian through Persian (with partially Persianized phonology), so that they are often considered among Persian loanwords; such words include e.g. ''farīk'' "group, unit, section", ''haylā'' "family", ''harzi'' "latitude, parallel" and ''tūl'' "longitude, meridian", ''nesf'' "hemisphere", ''ɂentefāzā'' "rebellion", ''sāhebi'' "companion, colleague", ''seyǝ̄sā'' "politics".

Dating back to the first millennium CE are also likely most Armenian loans, which also cover many semantic fields, but more everyday words than Persian loans (except a few Parthian- or Sasanian-era loans). Armenian loans include even common verbs such as ''gurēm'' "I write" and ''sirēm'' "I like", but also words such as ''ōrēn'' "law", ''tolay'' "boy", ''nošan'' "mark, token, code", ''oromp'' "javelin, bullet", ''parew'' "hello", ''daktex'' "bell pepper". Also dating back from those times (around the earliest attestations of Elodian) are the Aramaic loans, introduced alongside Syriac Christianity and generally limited to that semantic field (or originally from it, later extended to more broad usage), such as ''kodīš'' "saint", ''ināš'' "human", ''pošītā'' "Peshitta (more generally the Bible for any Christian denomination)", ''Išoh Mošiho'' "Jesus Christ", but there are also words not strictly related to Christianity such as ''lap'' "paper", ''tewfā'' "box" or ''sfentā'' "ship".

Greek loanwords belong to two layers: an earlier one with more varied semantic fields (''falem'' "room", ''ninfā'' "woman"<ref>The etymology of Elodian ''ninfā'' is debated: while the Greek origin is the most commonly cited one, many contemporary linguists do not agree: the existence of dialectal forms such as ''ninwā'', ''nimwā'' and even ''nimbā'' point to a non-IE source - perhaps linked with Sumerian ''nin'' - plus an unknown bilabial morpheme; folk etymology linking it to the Greek word then would have made the form with ''-f-'' prevalent in literary usage and in the modern standard (both written and spoken).</ref>, ''kal'' "jar", ''līlā'' "afternoon", ''kurfā'' "helmet"<ref>Many loanwords from Ancient Greek are feminine words due to Elodian having adopted the accusative form, whose ending in -α was generally interpreted as feminine unless the word explicitely referred to a male human.</ref>, ''sotālo'' "stadion; (colloquially) two hundred meters") and a later one, generally used in scientific terms, but using a sound correspondence that hints to the original (ancient) loanwords (''epatā'' "hallucination", ''linosawr'' "dinosaur", ''owtomot'' "ATM" (mediated from German)). 
During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Era, and - with few sporadic exceptions - up to 1971 the language of the ruling economical (and most recently political) élite was Ligurian, and many words entered Elodian from it, either from the more "rural" variety closer to Intemelio of most settlers, or from the more "refined" speech closer to Genoese of the élite. Many of these relate to administration or commerce (''palāng'' "money", ''dyugangā'' "customs", ''awǝntaji'' "profit, gain", ''bitēgā'' "shop", ''mazanggīng'' "warehouse", ''purpuzisyung'' "bill (legislation proposal)"), nautical terms (''bekezi'' "pitching"), but also quite a few general words (''bunamang'' "tip (monetary)", ''cǝ̄w'' "OK", ''turna'' "again") and some foodstuffs (''galetā'' "(salted) biscuit", ''pǝrbujūng'' "pasta- or dough filling from mostly spontaneous herbs, or a vegetable soup").

Words from other languages - mainly Turkish, Russian, French, more recently English - are rarer.

Throughout the 20th century and particularly since the Emancipation - the ethnic riots of 1969-1971 which terminated the ''de facto'' hegemony of Pontic Ligurians over the country and led to the appointment of the first ethnically Elodian head of state in recorded history - newly coined Elodian words and particularly calques have been the predominant form of enriching the language's lexicon: over 90% of new entries in Elodian dictionaries since 1980 have been calques, either partial or complete. Some calques are new coinings (cf. ''xazi rasmok'' "comic", calque of Fr. ''bande dessinée'', or ''suhitmā'' "committee, council", a calque of Greek ''συνέδριον''), while some are meaning extensions of preexisting words (sometimes loans), e.g. ''moydān'' "square > forum" ''robbān'' "(ship) captain > Internet browser". There are also a few phonosemantic matches such as ''bǝndǝ̄dā'' "band-aid", the first part of which is from English ''band-'' while the matching part corresponds to the ending of ''zemǝ̄dā'' "bandage".

===Colors===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! IPA !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''xǝršon'' || {{IPA|[xɛr’ʃɔn]}} || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue || ''sōm'', ''kownī'' || {{IPA|[so:m]}}, {{IPA|[kɔw'ni:]}} || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Light blue || ''fīrūzi'' || {{IPA|[fi:'ru:zi]}} || style="background:#80FFFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''donew'' || {{IPA|[dɔ'new]}} || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Gray || ''hafrā'' || {{IPA|[haf'ra:]}} || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''jelf'' || {{IPA|[dʒelf]}} || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Yellow || ''bītǝr'' || {{IPA|['bi:tɛr]}} || style="background:#FFFF00" |
|-
| Orange || ''donul'' || {{IPA|['dɔnul]}} || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''bulbī'' || {{IPA|[buɮ'bi:]}} || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''cǝtil'' || {{IPA|[tʃɛ’til]}} || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet || ''orğoban'' || {{IPA|[ɔr’ɣɔban]}} || style="background:#9966FF" |
|-
| White || ''swīl'' || {{IPA|[swi:l]}} || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

==Texts==
===Schleicher's Fable (''La mewsā siw li ɂešuki'')===
: ʔešuki omanyor 'mīš mewsāš ene mēnā hangolnā lāo. Hǝngeš 'mī orikā longgīkā elēgo; hǝngeš 'ng longt xoštār obǝro, siw hǝngeš 'ng turǝniš obǝro ɂelenge.
: Olā lāš mewsāš lubo ɂešukobo: «Mǝk sǝrteɂuš momš felte gārohezām pota manim 'ngo turǝnišo ene tē ɂešukobo tūxin gāde.»
: Olā lūx ɂešukex lehē mewsehē: «Herɂ, ō mewsā! Dī sǝrteɂux dongox felte gārohezāmo pota sī manmo: 'ng turǝniš, lu foli, lehē hangolnehē twā mewsā mey 'ngo raxto for hiwoē purin gāde. Siw la mewsā mēnā hangolnā lāo.»
: Su hiwoē sī herɂā, la mewsā mey 't fetinino obūko.

: {{IPA|/'ʔeʃuki ɔ'maɲɔr mi:ʃ 'mewsa:ʃ ene 'me:na: 'haŋɔlna: 'la:.ɔ/ /'hɛŋeʃ mi: ɔ'rika: lɔŋ'gi:ka: e'le:gɔ . 'hɛŋeʃ ɔŋ 'lɔŋt xɔʃ'ta:r ɔ'bɛrɔ . si(w) 'hɛŋeʃ ɔŋ tu'rɛniʃ ɔ'bɛrɔ 'ʔeleŋe/}}
: {{IPA|/ɔ'la: la:ʃ 'mewsa:ʃ lubɔ 'ʔeʃukɔbɔ . mɛk 'sɛrteʔuʃ 'mɔmʃ 'felte ga:rɔhe'za:m 'pɔta 'manim ɔŋɔ tu'rɛniʃɔ ene 'te: 'ʔeʃukɔbɔ 'tu:xin 'ga:de/}}
: {{IPA|/ɔ'la: lu:x 'ʔeʃukex lehe: 'mewsehe: . 'herʔ . o: 'mewsa: . di: 'sɛrteʔux 'dɔŋɔx 'felte ga:rɔhe'za:mɔ 'pɔta 'si: 'maŋmɔ . ɔŋ tu'rɛniʃ . lu 'fɔli . lehe: 'haŋɔlnehe: twa: 'mewsa: mej ŋɔ 'raxtɔ fɔr hi'wɔ.e: 'purin 'ga:de . si(w) la 'mewsa: 'me:na: 'haŋɔlna: 'la:.ɔ/}}
: {{IPA|/su hi'wɔ.e: si: 'herʔa: . la 'mewsa: mejt feti'ninɔ ɔ'bu:kɔ/}}

==See also==
* [[Lifashian]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Elodian]]

Dundulanyä

2024-12-24T20:13:25Z

Lili21: /* Noun-forming morphemes */

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''imut-'' "teacher"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''imute''' || rowspan=2 | imutive || rowspan=2 | imuti
|-
! Vocative
| imut
|-
! Ergative
| imutē || imutīyat || imutām
|-
! Accusative
| imutat || imutītha || imutaih
|-
! Dative
| imutak || imutīma || imutumi
|-
! Ablative
| imutū || imuteṣu || imutenī
|-
! Locative
| imutā || rowspan=2 | imutehe || imutän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | imutī || imutoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| imutāl || imutenīka
|-
! Bound form
| imut || imutiv || imutī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''imut nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''imut'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a dancer."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a dancer."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Dundulanyä

2024-12-24T14:56:04Z

Lili21: /* Ablaut (camiyāṃsachiṣa) */

{{Infobox language

|name = Dundulanyä
|nativename = dundulanyä ḫamfafa
|pronunciation = dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ
|pronunciation_key = IPA
|setting = [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
|region = Lusaṃrīte, western and central Jūhma
|ethnicity = Dundulanyä; Neo-Dundulanyä
|speakers = {{formatnum:1946000000}}
|date = 4140
|created = Dec 2021
|familycolor = australian
|fam1 = East Taktapṣaikhulu ''(areal)''
|ancestor = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|stand1 = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1 = Dundulanyä abugida
|nation = Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics

|notice = IPA
}}

'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.

Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.

Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.

==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.

==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
Dundulanyä has a moderately large, but asymmetrical, vowel inventory with six short and four long vowels, along with two diphthongs and two consonants (short and long versions of the same one) that can fill the syllable nucleus.
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Vowels - ''camiyāṃsai''
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i iː}} || || {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! Close-mid
| {{IPA|e eː}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|o~ɔ}}
|-
! Open-mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} ||
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|ɐ äː}} ||
|-
! Diphthongs
| {{IPA|aɪ̯}} || || {{IPA|aʊ̯}}
|-
! Syllabic consonants
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.

The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.

Dundulanyä has, among many points of articulations, a series of linguolabial consonants, which are common in its geographical area (in most of northern and central Lūsaṃrīte) but are otherwise extremely rare on Eventoa.

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+ Consonants - ''hīmbayāṃsai''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! colspan=2 | Labials !! colspan=2 | Linguolabials !! colspan=2 | Dentals !! colspan=2 | Retroflexes !! colspan=2 | Palatals !! colspan=2 | Velars !! colspan=2 | Laryngeals
|-
! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard !! Soft !! Hard
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|m}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|n}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɳ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɲ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ŋ}}1 || colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stops !! Unvoiced
| {{IPA|p}} || ''{{IPA|pʰ}}''2 || {{IPA|t̼}} || {{IPA|t̼ʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕ}} || {{IPA|c͡ɕʰ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! Voiced
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̼}} || {{IPA|d̼ʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖ}}3 || {{IPA|ɖʱ}}3 || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑ}} || {{IPA|ɟ͡ʑʱ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ~ɣ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɢ}}4
|-
! colspan=2 | Fricatives
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɸ~f}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|s}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʂ}} || colspan=2 |{{IPA|ɕ}} || || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|ħ}}
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʋ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɹ̼}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|l}} || colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | {{IPA|j}} || colspan=2 | || {{IPA|ʀ}}
|}
Table notes:
# '''ṅ''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is phonemic only in the name of the corresponding letter and, diachronically, through saṃdhi in simplifications of {{IPA|/N/}} + velar stop clusters; such instances are, however, to be considered phonemic as the original form is only apparent either throughout the declension or in different styles, see e.g. ''ṣṭhīṭaṅ'' "yesterday", ''tataṅ'' "today" (← ''ṣṭhīṭaṅga, tataṅga'', used in the declension of the nominal forms except for the direct singular).
# The {{IPA|/pʰ/}} phoneme is marginal; it has a separate letter in the script, but as a phoneme it is only found in the name of the letter itself, in a few words of onomatopoeic origin, and as the result of saṃdhi (from the clusters ''-p h-'' or ''-p ḫ-''); the vast majority of contemporary speakers merge it with {{IPA|/ɸ~f/}}.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").

With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.

===Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'')===
Saṃdhi (''mīraṃdīdda'' "reaction") in Dundulanyä is mostly internal saṃdhi only.

====Internal saṃdhi====
Saṃdhi assimilations are fairly straightforward; in the vast majority of cases, the second consonant assimilates the preceding one(s).

The most basic rules are:
* Nasals assimilate to the PoA of any following consonant except for '''y''' (no assimilation occurs), '''l''' (all become '''ṃ''', phonetically realized as vowel nasalization), and before '''d dh s ṣ c ch j jh ś''', where there is a phonemic contrast between the homorganic nasal and '''ṃ'''; the latter is, in saṃdhi, the result of a preceding '''m'''.
* All plosives assimilate in voicing to a following stop; if the first one is aspirated, then aspiration shifts to the second one.
** Dentals also assimilate to any adjacent (preceding or following) retroflexes, while labials assimilate to adjacent linguolabials.

In stop saṃdhi, a few further changes apart from basic voicing, retroflex and linguolabial assimilation occur. Note that any such combination also applies to aspirated stops.

-'''pc'''- → -'''ṃc'''-; 
-'''p̃ṭ'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''p̃c'''- → -'''p̃ś'''-; 
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-; 
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; 
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-; 
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.

All combinations involving glottal stops, '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop), as well as -''pṭ''-, -''pk''-, -''p̃t''-, -''p̃k''-, -''tp''-, -''ṭp''-, -''kp''-, -''kp̃''-, -''kt''- and -''kṭ''- remain unchanged.

Saṃdhi involving voiced stops mostly mirrors the changes of voiceless ones with, however, a few differences:

-'''b̃ḍ'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; -'''b̃j'''- → -'''b̃l'''-; 
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-; 
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-; 
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-; 
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.

All combinations with '''b''' as the first consonant, all other ones involving glottal stops and '''q''' (lenited to a glottal stop before other plosives), as well as -''b̃d''-, -''b̃g''-, -''gb''-, -''gb̃''-, -''gd''- and -''gḍ''- remain unchanged.

'''h''' and '''ḫ''' fortify preceding plosives (except '''ɂ'''), turning them into aspirated ones; -'''Ch'''- results in an aspirate, while -'''Cḫ'''- in a geminated and aspirated plosive (e.g. ''śud-ḫana'' → ''śuddhana'' "rule"; ''nisakh-ḫamfa'' → ''nisakkhamfa'' "conlang"). The sequences -'''ɂh'''- and -'''ɂḫ'''- both result in -'''ḫḫ'''-.

'''h''' changes to '''r̃''' in front of linguolabials; the sequence -'''hh'''- changes to -'''hl'''-.

Sibilants trigger various different changes:
* Among themselves, '''-s s-''' remains '''ss''' (but simplified to '''s''' if the latter is followed by a consonant other than ''y''), but any other combination becomes '''kṣ''';
* '''ṣ''', if followed by a dental stop, turns it into '''ṭ''' or '''ṭh''' according to aspiration;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.

In internal saṃdhi, doubled stops are degeminated (like -''mpp''- > -''mp''-).

====Doubling saṃdhi====
In a few cases of consonant doubling due to saṃdhi, there are irregular results:
* -'''yy'''- → '''-jñ-''';
** This also applies to instances of -'''aiy'''-, which become -'''ājñ'''-;
* -'''vv'''- → '''-bb-''';
** Similarly to the preceding change, -'''auv'''- becomes -'''ābb'''-;
* -'''rr'''- → '''-hr-'''.

====Epenthetic vowels====
Epenthetic vowels are usually discussed together with saṃdhi. They are often used in verbal conjugations, as no Dundulanyä word may end in two consonants. The epenthetic vowel used depends on the preceding consonant:
* '''u''' is inserted after labials and linguolabials;
* '''i''' is inserted after palatals;
* '''a''' is inserted after all other consonants.

Note that '''y''', '''v''', and '''r''' in these cases turn into the corresponding vowels '''i''', '''u''', and '''ṛ'''.

====Saṃdhi in consonant stems====
Consonant stem nouns ending in a sonorant (i.e. m-stem, n-stem and l-stem nouns) undergo special saṃdhi processes if the final ''-a-'' is preceded by a -CR- cluster, where R is any sonorant.

All such nouns are reconstructed as having a syllabic consonant in Pre-Dundulanyä (PreD), but such syllabic consonants - m̥, n̥ and l̥ - are no longer found in Dundulanyä:
* ''-Cna-'' and ''-Cma-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Ca-'' (through intermediate *-Cn̥-, *-Cm̥-), e.g. ''yasmam'' "tooth" → oblique stem ''yasam-'' (PreD *yasm̥m-), whence e.g. ergative ''yasamē'';
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.

==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==

Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change. The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.

The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.

Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.

The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.

Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla (labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla (linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla (dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla (retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla (palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla (velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla (laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}

==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
Dundulanyä is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns and correlatives, numerals, and particles.

Dundulanyä inflectional morphology is almost entirely suffixing, save for a system of apophony (ablaut) and a marginal number of inflectional prefixes, mostly in verbs. Derivational morphology, on the other hand, employs up to four different strategies: suffixes, prefixes, and to a lesser extent circumfixes and infixes, or the combination of more or them, as well as eventually ablaut on top of that.

===Ablaut (''camiyāṃsachiṣa'')===
Dundulanyä is characterized by a complex system of vowel alternations (apophony, in Dundulanyä ''camiyāṃsachiṣa'', literally "vowel stairs") that was inherited from its proto-language. There are, depending on definition, either nine or twelve ablaut patterns, which Dundulanyä verbal roots may belong to, in addition to those that do not undergo ablaut. The overwhelming majority of Dundulanyä verbal roots are monosyllabic, and the few bi- or polysyllabic ones are all non-ablauting.

Each root has three different grades: the middle grade, citation form of roots, is called ''būcūya'' (from √būc- "flat"); the zero grade (or lower grade) is called ''ślūtya'' (literally "remnant", from √ślo- "to be left"), while the higher grade is called ''udhyukṣṇise'' (literally "grown within").

Nominal examples:
* class I root √bhaṭ- (zero ''abḍh-''; higher ''bhāṭ-'') ''bhaṭuṣa'' (''bhaṭ-uṣ-'') "expansion": ABS ''bhaṭuṣa'', ERG ''bhaṭuṣē'', DAT ''abḍhoṣak'', LOC ''abḍhoṣā'', LOC.PL ''abḍhauṣän''
* class II root √deh- (zero ''dih-'', higher ''daih-''): ''dehuṣa'' (''deh-uṣ-'') "usage": ABS ''dehuṣa'', ERG ''dehuṣē'', DAT ''dihoṣak'', LOC ''dihoṣā'', LOC.PL ''dihauṣän''
* class I root √haf-, synchronically irregular (zero ''iṣf-''; higher ''hāf-''): ''hāṅka'' (''haf-n-ka-'' < *śǝ́f-ṇ-ko-) "socket": ABS ''hāṅka'', ERG ''hāṅkē'', DAT ''iṣfaṅkak'', LOC ''iṣfaṅkā'', LOC.PL ''iṣfāṅkän''

A substantial part of nouns in Dundulanyä is derived from verbal roots, and these may have ablaut patterns throughout their declension as in the examples above, or the derivational suffix may require the root to be in a certain ablaut grade (which is then a fixed stem throughout the declension). However, as a general rule, the majority of nouns relating to flora, fauna, and many elements of the natural world are not formed from verbal roots and do not show ablaut.

Dundulanyä roots belong to one out of nine classes (eight ablaut classes or non-ablauting), called ''dhoptai'' (sg. ''dhopta''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
! Class ''dhopta''<ref>Class 0 is known as ''kuḍachiṣadīra dhopta'' "non-ablauting class"; the others are referred to with ordinals: ''lumpyä dhopta, hälinaika dhopta, kiṅkesi dhopta'' and so on, up to ''mbulesi dhopta''.</ref> !! Zero grade ''ślūtya'' !! Middle grade ''būcūya'' !! Higher grade ''udhyukṣṇise''
|-
! 0
| colspan=3 | no ablaut
|-
! I
| ∅ || a || ā
|-
! II
| i ī (CV- roots) || e || ai
|-
! III
| u ū (CV- roots) || o || au
|-
! IV
| ṛ || ar || ār
|-
! V
| i || ä || ē
|-
! VI
| ya || i || ī
|-
! VII
| va || u || ū
|-
! VIII
| ra || ṛ || ṝ
|}

The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.

Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.

Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.

===Nouns (''rāñjiḫi'')===
The Dundulanyä noun (''rañjiḫe'', pl. ''rāñjiḫi'') is highly inflected - it declines for:
* Three numbers (''smuḍai''):
:: '''Singular''' (''emibundīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Dual''' (''rirändīra smuḍa'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailindīra smuḍa'')
* Nine cases (''dirūṃrūkṣāri''):
:: '''Direct''' (''drādhūṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''ṛjadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''drīyadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''darūltuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Dative''' (''mälindīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''smrāṇuṅga dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Locative''' (''tadyapadīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalīndīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''dṛvundīra dirūṃrūkṣah'')

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''tambīya'' "lips"), other ones are plural only - most notably including all ethnicities, whose singular form is analytical, made by using the bound form (see below) to the word ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''dundulanyä lilarān'' (a Dundulanyä).

The consensus among linguists is that Dundulanyä does not have grammatical gender or noun classes; however, it should be noted that natural gender is shown on some nouns referring to humans, and furthermore there are some verbs that have a complementary distribution - most notably the existential "to be" - where one verb can only be used for inanimate subjects and another only for animate ones; in a few cases, the animate "class" is also split between humans and non-humans. None of this, however, is reflected in morphology.

Dundulanyä nouns are complex, due to the existence of multiple declension patterns. They are primarily categorized by whether they refer to nouns that undergo ablaut or not; secondarily, they are categorized by their stem type.

'''Ablauting''' declensions are all unproductive (although some of the derivational suffixes that form ablauting nouns are still productive) and include the following ones:
* Root nouns
* ''-e'' declension
* ''-a'' declension
* Zero-ending nouns with vowel suffixes (''-u'', ''-i'', ''-ṛ'').
Except for root nouns, ablauting nouns are formed by a root and a suffix, and ablaut alternates between them. Many such suffixes are derivational and productive, but some are no longer productive and limited to a small number of terms (such as ''-in-'' forming certain male kinship terms). In a few cases, the suffix may actually be an infix, such as the (non-productive) one in the word ''lorbhe'' "stele", ultimately from the root ''lobh-'' "to write" (cf. direct singular ''lorbhe'' but locative singular ''lūrabhā'', dative plural ''lūrābhumi'').

'''Non-ablauting''' declensions are the following ones:
* ''-e'' declension (first consonant stem declension)
* Zero-ending nouns with stems ending in liquids (''-l'' or ''-r''), nasals (''-m'' or ''-n'') or the glottal stop (''-h'') (second consonant stem declension). Nouns belonging to this declension have a prop vowel ''-a-'' in their citation form; nouns with other vowels belong to the first consonant stem declension (and end in ''-e'' in their citation form), cf. second declension ''glūḫam'' (glūḫ-(a)m-) vs. first declension ''kämbune'' "berry" (kämbun-). This is because liquids and nasals could be syllabic in Dundulanyä's ancestor language, but among them only ''r''/''ṛ'' remains as a consonant/vowel pair in Dundulanyä itself.
* Nouns with vowel-final stems.
** The extremely common ''-a'' declension is a particular case, as it behaves in some forms like a consonant stem declension, and like a vowel stem in others. Both for ablauting and non-ablauting declensions, ''-a'' and ''-e'' declensions most likely marked some kind of noun class distinction in the proto-language, which has been lost in the evolution of what became Dundulanyä.

====Bound forms====
Dundulanyä nouns have a further, non-case form, which is called the '''bound form''' (''avraḍūrūkṣah'', pl. ''avraḍūrūkṣāri'') by native grammarians. For nouns whose stems end in vowels, it is usually identical to the direct case; for other nouns, it is usually the endingless stem (with some exceptions). It is used when the noun is the possessor (a form syntactically reminescent of the Afroasiatic construct state, albeit with the roles reversed); to mark the argument governed by a positional verb; and when governed by many adpositions.

In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:

* ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''tūrgib sure'' "without fear", where the postposition ''sure'' "without" forces the noun ''tūrgibe'' to assume its bound form ''tūrgib''.

====Declension tables====
The first and second ablauting declensions have the same ablaut patterns, but slightly different endings; the first ablauting declension has the same endings as the (non-ablauting) first consonant stem declension, while the second the same endings as non-ablauting ''-a'' nouns (with the exception of locative singular and the singular and plural bound forms).

Root ablaut nouns have the same ablaut pattern as ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' nouns, but the endings are directly added to the root, triggering the appropriate saṃdhi changes.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Root nouns
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuṭ-'' (VIII) "wind"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śūṭ''' || rowspan=2 | śuṭve || rowspan=2 | śūṭi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śūṭē || śuṭyat || śvaṭām
|-
! Accusative
| śūṭ || śuṭṭha || śvaṭaih
|-
! Dative
| śuk || śuṭma || śvaṭmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuṭū || śucu || śvaṭṇī
|-
! Locative
| śuṭā || rowspan=2 | śuṭhe || śvaṭän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuṭī || śvaṭoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuṭāl || śvaṭṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| śūṭ || śuṭu || śūṭī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1st ablauting declension (-e)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''helk-iḫ-'' "hue, shade"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''helkiḫe''' || rowspan=2 | helkiḫive || rowspan=2 | hailkiḫi
|-
! Vocative
| hailkiḫ
|-
! Ergative
| helkiḫē || helkiḫīyat || hilkeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| helkiḫat || helkiḫītha || hilkeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| hilkeḫak || helkiḫīma || hilkaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| hilkeḫū || helkiḫeṣu || hilkaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| hilkeḫā || rowspan=2 | helkiḫehe || hilkaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | hilkeḫī || hilkaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| hilkeḫāl || hilkaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| helkiḫ || helkiḫiv || hailkiḫ
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+2nd ablauting declension (-a)
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kor-uṣ-'' "vote"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''koruṣa''' || rowspan=2 | koruṣeve || rowspan=2 | kauruṣai
|-
! Vocative
| kauruṣ
|-
! Ergative
| koruṣē || koruṣīyat || kuroṣām
|-
! Accusative
| koruṣat || koruṣītha || kuroṣaih
|-
! Dative
| kuroṣak || koruṣāma || kurauṣumi
|-
! Ablative
| kuroṣū || koruṣeṣu || kurauṣenī
|-
! Locative
| kuroṣā || rowspan=2 | koruṣehe || kurauṣän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kuroṣī || kurauṣoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kuroṣāl || kurauṣenīka
|-
! Bound form
| koruṣ || koruṣev || kauruṣa
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Ablauting nouns ending in ''-i, -u, -ṛ'' are mainly distinguished by having different ablaut patterns from other ablauting nouns. ''-ṛ'' nouns are extremely rare, and only three such nouns figure among the general usage vocabulary: ''khaikṛ'' (II) "goose", ''gāṃsṛ'' "passage, ford" (I, with the synchronically irregular zero grade ''gas-''), and ''mētṛ'' (V) "vessel, pot, cooking pot".
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-i''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''mārj-i'' "needle"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''mārji''' || rowspan=2 | marjeve || rowspan=2 | mārjī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| mārjē || marjeyat || mṛjāyam
|-
! Accusative
| mārjit || marjetha || mṛjāyaih
|-
! Dative
| marjek || marjema || mṛjaimi
|-
! Ablative
| marjayū || marjeṣu || mṛjainī
|-
! Locative
| marjayā || rowspan=2 | marjehe || mṛjāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | marjayī || mṛjāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| marjayāl || mṛjainīka
|-
! Bound form
| mārji || marjev || mārjī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-u''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃aiṣ-u'' "son"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃aiṣu''' || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣove || rowspan=2 | p̃aiṣū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃aiṣvē || p̃eṣoyat || p̃iṣāvam
|-
! Accusative
| p̃aiṣut || p̃eṣotha || p̃iṣāvaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃eṣok || p̃eṣoma || p̃iṣaumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃eṣavū || p̃eṣoṣu || p̃iṣaunī
|-
! Locative
| p̃eṣavā || rowspan=2 | p̃eṣohe || p̃iṣāvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃eṣavī || p̃iṣāvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃eṣavāl || p̃iṣaunīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃aiṣu || p̃eṣov || p̃aiṣū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablauting nouns in ''-ṛ''
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''khaik-ṛ'' "goose"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''khaikṛ''' || rowspan=2 | khekarve || rowspan=2 | khaikāri
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| khaikrē || khekaryat || khikāram
|-
! Accusative
| khaikṛt khaikaṭ1 || khekartha || khikāraih
|-
! Dative
| khekāk || khekarma || khikārmi
|-
! Ablative
| khekarū || khekarṣu || khikārṇī
|-
! Locative
| khekarā || rowspan=2 | khekarhe || khikārän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | khekarī || khikāroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| khekarāl || khikārṇīka
|-
! Bound form
| khaikṛ || khekaru || khaikāh2
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# The form in ''-ṛt'' is from Classical Dundulanyä and is preferred in formal usage, especially in writing; the form in ''-aṭ'', taken from the corresponding non-ablauting paradigm, is however more commonly used.
# The underlying form is ''-ār''.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''imut-'' "teacher"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''imute''' || rowspan=2 | imutive || rowspan=2 | imuti
|-
! Vocative
| imut
|-
! Ergative
| imutē || imutīyat || imutām
|-
! Accusative
| imutat || imutītha || imutaih
|-
! Dative
| imutak || imutīma || imutumi
|-
! Ablative
| imutū || imuteṣu || imutenī
|-
! Locative
| imutā || rowspan=2 | imutehe || imutän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | imutī || imutoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| imutāl || imutenīka
|-
! Bound form
| imut || imutiv || imutī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 2nd decl. (glottal)<ref>In colloquial Dundulanyä, such nouns are often declined like ''-a'' nouns, given that their declensions are similar, the main difference being vowel lengthening in most forms.</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''nād-(a)ɂ-'' "leg"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''nādah''' || rowspan=2 | nādēve || rowspan=2 | nādai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| nādē || nādeɂat || nādaɂām
|-
! Accusative
| nādāt || nādētha || nādaih
|-
! Dative
| nādā || nādaima || nādūmi
|-
! Ablative
| nādū || nādēṣu || nādēnī
|-
! Locative
| nādā || rowspan=2 | nādēhe || nādän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | nādī || nādāṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| nādāl || nādānīka
|-
! Bound form
| nādah || nādēv || nādē
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-a'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''buney-a'' "(female's) older sister"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''buneya''' || rowspan=2 | buneyeve || rowspan=2 | buneyai
|-
! Vocative
| bunī1
|-
! Ergative
| buneyē || buneyīyat || buneyām
|-
! Accusative
| buneyat || buneyītha || buneyaih
|-
! Dative
| buneyak || buneyāma || buneyumi
|-
! Ablative
| buneyū || buneyeṣu || buneyenī
|-
! Locative
| buneyā || rowspan=2 | buneyehe || buneyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | buneyī || buneyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| buneyāl || buneyanīka
|-
! Bound form
| buneya || buneyev || buneye
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
# Morphemically ''buney-'', as the vocative of ''-a'' nouns is the stem without the final ''-a''; as per regular saṃdhi, syllable-final ''ey'' becomes ''ī''.

The following declensions - ''-i, -u, -o, -e, -ä'' have their final vowel as part of the stem, and it is regularly kept throughout the declension. ''-e'' stems are therefore different from the consonant stems (which end in ''-e'' in their citation form), but are a very small number of nouns, mainly proper nouns<ref>The few e-stem common nouns in general usage include, however, frequently used words such as most notably ''eme'' "star", ''hāreṇe'' "dawn", or ''lilene'' "clan".</ref> (as are, furthermore, nearly all ''-o'' stems; ''p̃op̃o'' "face" is the only o-stem noun in common vocabulary).

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-i'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''ilūvi-'' "girl"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''ilūvi''' || rowspan=2 | ilūvīve || rowspan=2 | ilūvī
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| ilūvyē || ilūvīyat || ilūvyām
|-
! Accusative
| ilūvit || ilūvītha || ilūvyaih
|-
! Dative
| ilūvik || ilūvīma || ilūvyumi
|-
! Ablative
| ilūvyū || ilūviṣu || ilūvinī
|-
! Locative
| ilūvyā || rowspan=2 | ilūvihe || ilūvyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | ilūvī || ilūvyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| ilūvīl || ilūvinīka
|-
! Bound form
| ilūvi || ilūvīv || ilūvī
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-u'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''kulāru-'' "frog"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''kulāru''' || rowspan=2 | kulārūve || rowspan=2 | kulārū
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| kulārvē || kulārūyat || kulārvām
|-
! Accusative
| kulārut || kulārūtha || kulārvaih
|-
! Dative
| kulāruk || kulārūma || kulārūmi
|-
! Ablative
| kulārū || kulāruṣu || kulārunī
|-
! Locative
| kulārvā || rowspan=2 | kulāruhe || kulārvän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | kulāruvī || kulārvoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kulārūl || kulārunīka
|-
! Bound form
| kulāru || kulārūv || kulārū
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-o'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''p̃op̃o-'' "face"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''p̃op̃o''' || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ove || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| p̃op̃avē || p̃op̃oyat || p̃op̃avām
|-
! Accusative
| p̃op̃ot || p̃op̃otha || p̃op̃avaih
|-
! Dative
| p̃op̃ok || p̃op̃oma || p̃op̃avumi
|-
! Ablative
| p̃op̃avū || p̃op̃oṣu || p̃op̃onī
|-
! Locative
| p̃op̃avā || rowspan=2 | p̃op̃ohe || p̃op̃avän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | p̃op̃avī || p̃op̃avoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| p̃op̃ol || p̃op̃onīka
|-
! Bound form
| p̃op̃o || p̃op̃ov || p̃op̃avi
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-e'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''eme-'' "star"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''eme''' || rowspan=2 | emeve || rowspan=2 | emayi
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| emayē || emeyat || emayām
|-
! Accusative
| emet || emetha || emayaih
|-
! Dative
| emek || emema || emayumi
|-
! Ablative
| emayū || emeṣu || emenī
|-
! Locative
| emayā || rowspan=2 | emehe || emayän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | emayī || emayoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| emēl || emenīka
|-
! Bound form
| eme || emev || emayi
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ä'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śośä-'' (hare- or rabbit-like animal)
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''śośä''' || rowspan=2 | śośäve || rowspan=2 | śośä
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| śośäyē || śośäyat || śośām
|-
! Accusative
| śośät || śośätha || śośaih
|-
! Dative
| śośäk || śośäma || śośumi
|-
! Ablative
| rowspan=5 | śośä || śośäṣu || śośänī
|-
! Locative
| rowspan=2 | śośähe || śośän
|-
! Essive
| śośäṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śośäl || śośänīka
|-
! Bound form
| śośäv || śośä1
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

Dundulanyä nouns generally do not end in long vowels; the few exceptions that do (generally of onomatopoeic or baby talk origin) are treated as irregular nouns. The most common nouns ending in long vowels are certainly ''amamū'' "mother" and ''atabū'' (or ''batū'') "father", which (due to regular saṃdhi) have ''ūv'' before vocalic endings (e.g. ergative plural ''amamūvām''), but an irregular direct plural in ''-ūv-i'', i.e. ''amamūvi'', ''atabūvi'', ''batūvi''.

The ''-ṛ'' declension diverges from those ending in other vowels in various forms, such as the direct singular, where nouns end in ''-ah'' (''-ar'', reduced to the corresponding soft consonant) instead of the simple vowel ''-ṛ''; their lemma form is in fact identical in shape to ''-ah'' nouns, although adding particles reveals the true nature of the final consonant (cf. ''ñältah, ñältahbu'' "sister, my sister"; ''śuthah, śutharbu'' "husband, my husband"; ''ñältahin śutharin'' "either [the] sister or [the] husband").

''-ai'' nouns and the much rarer ''-au'' nouns are variants of the ''-i'' and ''-u'' declensions respectively: these nouns end in ''-ā-i'' and ''-ā-u'' and are otherwise regularly declined. Due to saṃdhi, there is, however, more case syncretism than in the normal declensions. While these nouns are somewhat rare in the general lexicon, quite a few of them are basic lexical items and therefore often used, such as ''mbai'' "bread", ''junai'' "foot", ''lunai'' "tea", ''lanai'' "island", ''havau'' "gold" or ''prānilau'' "tomorrow" (the latter an irregular derivation).
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Non-ablauting ''-ṛ'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śuthṛ-'' "husband"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śuthah'''1 || rowspan=2 | śuthṛve || rowspan=2 | śuthāri
|-
! Vocative
| śuthāh1
|-
! Ergative
| śuthrē || śuthrīyat || śuthrām
|-
! Accusative
| śuthaṭ || śuthṝtha || śuthraih
|-
! Dative
| śuthṛk || śuthṝma || śuthrūmi
|-
! Ablative
| śuthrū || śuthṝṣu || śuthṝnī
|-
! Locative
| śuthrā || rowspan=2 | śuthṝhe || śuthrän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śuthrī || śuthroṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śuthṝl || śuthṝnīka
|-
! Bound form
| śuthah1 || śuthru || śuthāh1
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''-ai'' stems
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lanai'' "island"
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| rowspan=2 | '''lanai''' || rowspan=2 | lanaive || rowspan=2 | lanai
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Ergative
| lanāyē || lanājñat || lanāyām
|-
! Accusative
| lanait || lanaitha || lanāyaih
|-
! Dative
| lanaik || lanaima || lanāyumi
|-
! Ablative
| lanāyū || lanaiṣu || lanainī
|-
! Locative
| lanāyā || rowspan=2 | lanaihe || lanāyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=3 | lanai || lanāyoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| lanail || lanainīka
|-
! Bound form
| lanaiv || lanai
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The underlying form of the final consonant of the direct and vocative singular, as well as singular and plural bound forms, is ''-r''.

====Singularia and pluralia tantum====
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Dundulanyä include the following nouns or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:
#: ''sūmi'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''rälsi'' "limbs", ''padagṇyauṣi'' "sons and daughters", ''gauṃsiḫi'' "cutlery", ''lampai'' "dishes, dishware"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvi'' "banquet, buffet"; ''frāṇagi'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''kuntilatiri'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiri'' is the plural of ''latire'' (wave, ray), but the compound itself does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''läjñyai'' "magic", ''ucururai'' "savings", ''rudhmai'' "resin", ''ḍotvi'' "fat", ''prāvṛḍḍi'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāb̃nīyai'' "elections", ''viṣlāviḫi'' "protest, riot", ''lipmūyai'' "traffic jam", ''kardātatalavibi'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhartośāvi'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity); ''Kūlḫanari'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''norganai'' "urticaria", ''udhilelnai'' "autism", ''percibrāḍai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas, as well as many toponyms:
#: ''ābābi'' "square", ''cadātāyi'' "tropics"
#: ''Mūnnakṣalti'', ''Anābāndirai''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''dundulanyä'' "Dundulanyä", ''ṣurṭāgi'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''tayubeśī'' "Toyubeshians", ''laḫābī'' "Laḫobs"
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihādhūve'' "parents", ''kardātatalavibive'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantum are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvilti'' "nursery" (''hamvilte'' "cradle"), ''īskāvidai'' "playground" (''īskāvida'' "swing"), ''utofi'' "clothes" (''utofe'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour"), ''anutū'' "universe" (''anutu'' "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-ulu'', often identifying a person from a certain place (e.g. ''lailulu'', ''naṅgaśaurulu'') are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-ulū'').

Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
# many collective nouns:
#: ''śvaṅga'' "money", ''b̃amu'' "breasts [pair of]", ''sājābe'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mädisa'' "spinach"), ''ṭēmba'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''āśah'' "lentils"), ''mugba'' "cereals", ''javata'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lāca'' "romantic love", ''ṭärṇa'' "fun", ''välna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂe'' "dust", ''iḫare'' "spices", ''ḍaṃla'' "ice", ''m̃āku'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''khuṃɂanūkare'' "blue plague", ''khoppuḍu'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''khoptya'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''loviśñīya'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''mīmamvīsidam'' "Dundulanyä-Skyrdagor 'Internet'";
#: individual sports, such as ''teyakaitsu'' or ''yalkatūfa''
#: cardinal points (''anūṭa'' "north", ''prādauna'' "south", ''nilāḍa'' "east", ''śusopa'' "west"<ref>Note that the plural form ''Śusopai'', lit. "(the) Wests", exists as a lexicalized proper noun referring to the regions of the Dundulanyä part of the West Coast of Lusaṃrīte. There is no similar usage for the other words denoting cardinal points.</ref>, as well as intercardinal directions, half and quarter-winds), including relative ones such as e.g. ''prābuñjña'' "upstream", ''sambuñjña'' "downstream";
#: musical genres, such as ''nāsibe'', ''ḍāfukulebe''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes (or compounds) related to science (''-śodda'', ''-yuhlä''), diseases (''-nūkare'', ''-hūttlä''), and political/philosophical currents (''-kumāṣa'')
# most toponyms:
#: ''Laḫduliśūse'' "the Confederation", ''Lusaṃrīte'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Lāltaṣveya'', ''Naṅgaśūra'', ''Dändämämine''

====Irregular vocatives====
A few very common words (mostly kinship terms) have irregular vocative forms:
* ''ñältah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñäli'' or ''ñäl''
* ''glūḫam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū'' or ''glū''
* ''kālike'' "(female's) younger sister" — ''kāl'' or ''kālli'' or ''kalli''
* ''praśke'' "(male's) older brother" — ''pāśi''
* ''amamū'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''māmu''
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''bābu''

====Irregular nouns====
A few Dundulanyä nouns are irregular (outside of the few vocatives in the section above). Most of them are suppletive in the plural, or have irregular stems:
* As mentioned above, a few irregular nouns end in long vowels; the most common ones are ''amamū'' "mother", ''atabū'' and ''batū'' (both "father"). These behave mostly as ''-u'' stem nouns and have, due to regular saṃdhi, ''ūv-'' before vocalic endings, except for having an irregular direct, vocative and bound form plural in ''-ūvi'' (''amamūvi, atabūvi, batūvi'').

* ''huline'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūni'' (regularly declined); its general combining stem is ''hulun-'' (although in some cases ''hulin-'' is also found)<ref>Cf. for the irregular vowel quality also the numeral ''emibe'' "one", which has e-stem and a-stem forms throughout its declension and an u-stem combining form.</ref>.
* ''svo'', the most common honorific, is most commonly used as an indeclinable adpositive title before the noun it refers to; however, it may used as a standalone noun, in which case it behaves as an ''-o'' stem noun except before vocalic endings, where it has the stem ''svom-'' instead of the expected *svav-; the irregular behaviour is due to it being a shortening of the original honorific ''svomardam'', already found in both full and shortened forms in Classical Dundulanyä.
* ''irāḍe'' "animal (including humans)" is a consonant stem noun in the singular and dual, but declines as an ''-a'' stem noun in the plural, i.e. direct pl. ''irāḍai''.

====Use of the plural====
Dundulanyä sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''rirä'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''idu'' (no), ''idūṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''didya'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva täte'' "every house", ''yaiva täti'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. the essive sg. of ''nikoṅka'' "chair" in ''dvārma nikūvaṅkī taisa'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''nikauṅkai ba dvārma taisa'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''häɂli'' (hand), ''meśiḫe'' (eye), and ''p̃agu'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''nādah'' (leg) and ''m̃ukar̃e'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''ānū miśeḫī meśah'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junēlte'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mähṣa'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''frāṇagi'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. marking a group of two (dual) or more (plural) people contextually identified by some kind of relationship to the person the name refers to, such as e.g. "X and friends; X and family; X and partner..."; cf. ''Kālomīyayi'' "Kālomīye and people in/of her group".

===Pronouns (''śidrāñjiḫi'')===
The system of personal pronouns of both Classical and contemporary Dundulanyä is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Dundulanyä, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), to the point that, aside for a small number of "morphological" pronouns, which are usually neutral or informal, the pronominal system includes many possibilities of expressing referents in all persons. Dundulanyä pronouns are, in fact, an open class.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. Honorific adpositions (most notably ''svo'') used together with pronouns do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

====Personal pronouns====
First- and second-person pronouns have the same declension as nouns, although with the peculiarity of having neither a vocative nor a bound form and having the same form in the direct and ergative cases, as well as sporadic contractions in a few forms. In the traditional analysis, the singular is taken as the root and it is considered to be a nominal with suppletive stems in the dual and plural.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+First person (√''yuna'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''yuna''' || '''amūve''' || '''yunai'''1
|-
! Accusative
| yunat || amūtha2 || yunaih
|-
! Dative
| yunak || amūvāma || yunumi
|-
! Ablative
| yunū || amūveṣu || yunenī
|-
! Locative
| yunā || rowspan=2 | amūvehe || yunyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | yunī || yunoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| amūvāl || yunanīka
|-
! [[#Copula|Fused copular form]]
| yūga || amūga || yunai ga / īnega
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Second person (√''kata'')
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct-Ergative
| '''kata''' || '''kotve''' || '''cītai'''
|-
! Accusative
| katat || kotūtha || cītaih
|-
! Dative
| katak || kotvāma || cītumi
|-
! Ablative
| katū || kotveṣu || cītenī
|-
! Locative
| katā || rowspan=2 | kotvehe || cītyän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | katī || cītoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| kotvāl || cītanīka
|-
! Fused copular form
| kaṅga || kotūga || cītai ga / cīṅga
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# Also ''īnai'', especially used in poetry; the same stem is therefore found for all other forms (''īnaih, īnumi, īnenī'', etc.).
# In older Dundulanyä ''amūvītha''.

The reflexive pronoun '''śaṃḫe''' is actually a contraction of ''śaniḫe'', meaning "soul" (from √''śan-'' "to breathe); in post-Classical Dundulanyä, the two originally interchangeable forms became specialized, with the contracted form being used as a pronoun and the full one as a noun. Being a contracted form of a 1st ablaut declension noun, it regularly follows that declension (all the forms where the root is in the zero grade, as well as the singular and plural bound forms, are identical to the declined forms of ''śaniḫe''):
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+''śaṃḫe'' (''śan-iḫ-'') "oneself"
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! Direct
| '''śaṃḫe''' || '''śaṃḫive''' || '''śāṃḫi'''
|-
! Ergative
| śaṃḫē || śaṃḫīyat || śñeḫām
|-
! Accusative
| śaṃḫat || śaṃḫītha || śñeḫaih
|-
! Dative
| śñeḫak || śaṃḫīma || śñaiḫumi
|-
! Ablative
| śñeḫū || śaṃḫeṣu || śñaiḫenī
|-
! Locative
| śñeḫā || rowspan=2 | śaṃḫehe || śñaiḫän
|-
! Essive
| rowspan=2 | śñeḫī || śñaiḫoṭu
|-
! Instrumental
| śñeḫāl || śñaiḫenīka
|-
! Bound form
| śaniḫ || śaṃḫiv || śāniḫ
|}

====Possessive suffixes====
Each person has its respective possessive suffix, which are clitics mostly used to denote possession on nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -bu || -ya || -ɂe || -bin || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}
Possessive suffixes are added to the head of the noun phrase (Dundulanyä does not have Suffixaufnahme), after any case ending but before any conjunctional clitic:
: ''ñältah; ñältah'''bu''''' "sister; my sister"
: ''nādaśrūṣe'''ya''' cända itta nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''' śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
: ''āyome ga tūfa'''bu''' tūfa'''ya'''ś?'' "Is that my ball or your ball?"
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''imut nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''imut'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"

====Lists of pronouns====
The following words include the personal pronouns as well as words used as pronoun equivalents, not actually distinguishable from the personal pronouns listed above, except for the fact that the latter do not have any clear reconstructed etymology and are generally only used as pronouns. Most of them are also markedly feminine or masculine.

=====First person pronouns=====
* '''yuna''' is the most neutral first person singular pronoun, however its neutrality makes it less preferable to other pronouns (especially in informal contexts, or formal contexts with legal difference in status) in oral speech, while it is the predominant one in written language. It is often used (reciprocally) in business settings, as well as (one-sidedly) by public officials.
* one's given name is informally used as a pronoun; however, as the situations one would use one's own given name pronominally are generally only among friends and family, it is not the given name itself but a hypocoristic form that is used as such.
* '''śaṃḫe''' (originally '''śaniḫe''' "soul", see above), literally meaning "[my]self", is used informally as a first person singular pronoun, and can be perceived as moderately rude when not used among close friends.
* '''midū''' is a neutral or semi-formal pronoun generally used by males only; originally meant "servant" in a language of late classical Śubhāla, but does not carry much of a self-deprecating meaning in contemporary Dundulanyä, being instead perceived as rude in formal situations where there is a legal difference in status (as with public officials or judges). It can be used - and, indeed, usually is - by school pupils talking to their teacher and by PhD students talking to their professors (in written form, they generally refer to themselves as ''yuna''), but is perceived as rude when used by other universitary students towards professors (in both oral and written form). It is also acceptable, and often used (especially in Jūhma) by sons towards their mothers and older female members of the family.
* '''bāna''' (originally meaning "side") is mostly a female equivalent of ''midū'', however, it is generally considered slightly higher, being also used in most (but not all) contexts with a legal status difference - with most public officials, but not judges - or by students towards processors, where a male would be perceived rude using ''midū''.
* '''nai''' (most likely a vṛddhi derivation from the root √''ne-'' "to say") is a nearly exclusively feminine pronoun used in formal contexts by women when talking to men. The same word is also sometimes found as a second-person pronoun reciprocally used by men towards women, although most commonly with honorifics (see below).
* '''nämona''' is a pronoun which has different connotations depending on whether it is used by women or men. As a feminine pronoun, it is quite informal and especially used by adolescent girls and older women with close friends, as an alternative to the hypocoristic given name. As a masculine pronoun, it is quite formal, having more or less the same formality as ''midū'', but used more often with strangers.
* '''cañśe''' is a nearly universally masculine first person pronoun which is broadly a male equivalent of ''nämona'': it is used informally by adolescent kids and by older males in informal settings with very close (generally also male) friends, generally alternating with the hypocoristic given name; it is also quite often used by sons when speaking to older male members of the family. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and some of the outlying islands, as well as parts of the inland Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte), it is also used by females.

=====Second person pronouns=====
* '''nai''' (used as a feminine first person pronoun) is used as a second person pronoun in the reverse context, in formal speech by men addressing women. Most commonly it is used in the honorific form '''svo nai''' or '''svo''' + given name + '''nai'''.

====Correlatives====
Dundulanyä has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in twelve categories (attributive, thing, person, [person or thing] owner of, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
! Attributive
| ''hine'' this || ''hunu'' that (near you) || ''āna'' that (over there) || ''bena?'' which? || ''idu'' no || ''sora'' some || ''grāṇa'' any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva'' every(thing) || ''viṣam'' another, other || ''idūṣam'' no other
|-
! Thing
| ''hiyome'' this one || ''huyome'' that one (near you) || ''āyome'' that one (over there) || ''beyome?'' what?; which one? || ''idume'' nothing || ''sorame'' something || ''grāṇame'' anything || ''viṣāme'' something else || ''idūṣāme'' nothing else
|-
! Person
| ''hikana'' this one || ''hukana'' that one (near you) || ''ākana'' that one (over there) || ''bekana?'' who? || ''idona'' no one || ''sorakna'' someone || ''grākṇa'' anyone || ''yāyukana'' everyone || ''viṣkaṇa'' someone else || ''idūṣkaṇa'' no one else
|-
! Owner of1
| ''hirūm'' this one's || ''hurūm'' that one's (near you) || ''ārūm'' that one's (over there) || ''berūm?'' whose? || ''idurūm'' no one's || ''sohrūm'' someone's || ''grāṃrūm'' anyone's || ''yāyurūm'' everyone's || ''viṣrūm'' someone else's || ''idūṣrūm'' no one else's
|-
! Time
| ''hivet'' now || ''huvet'' then || ''āvet'' then (remote) || ''bevet?'' when? || ''iduvet'' never || ''sorvet'' sometime, somewhen || ''grāmvet'' anytime, whenever || ''yāyuvet'' always, everytime || ''viṣvet'' sometime else || ''idūṣvet'' never else
|-
! Place
| ''hiyo'' here || ''huyo'' there || ''āyo'' over there || ''beyo?'' where? || ''iduyo'' nowhere || ''sorayo'' somewhere || ''grāṇyo'' anywhere || ''yaivyo'' everywhere || ''viṣayo'' elsewhere || ''idūṣayo'' nowhere else
|-
! Destination
| ''hiyāk'' hither || ''huyāk'' thither || ''āyāk'' thither (remote) || ''beyāk?'' whither? || ''idvāk'' nowhither || ''sorayāk'' somewhither || ''grāṇyāk'' anywhither || ''yaivyāk'' everywhither || ''viṣayāk'' elsewhither || ''idūṣayāk'' nowhither else
|-
! Source
| ''hiyau'' hence || ''huyau'' thence || ''āyau'' thence (remote) || ''beyau?'' whence? || ''idvau'' nowhence || ''sorayau'' somewhence || ''grāṇyau'' anywhence || ''yaivyau'' everywhence || ''viṣayau'' elsewhence || ''idūṣayau'' nowhence else
|-
! Manner
| ''hilīce'' thus, hereby || ''hulīce'' thereby || ''ālīce'' thereby; that other way || ''belīce?'' how? || ''idulīce'' no way || ''soralīce'' somehow || ''grāṃlīce'' anyhow || ''yāyulīce'' everyway || ''viṣlīce'' otherwise || ''idūṣlīce'' no other way
|-
! Reason
| ''himena'' herefore || ''humena'' therefore || ''āmena'' therefore; for that other reason || ''bemena?'' why? || ''idumena'' for no reason || ''soramena'' somewhy || ''grāmena'' whyever, for any reason || ''yāyumena'' for every reason || ''viṣmena'' for another reason || ''idūṣmena'' for no other reason
|-
! Quality
| ''hismā'' this kind || ''husmā'' that kind || ''āsmā'' that other kind || ''besmā?'' which kind? || ''idusmā'' no kind || ''sorasmā'' some kind || ''grāṃsmā'' any kind || ''yāyusmā'' every kind || ''viṣasmā'' another kind || ''idūṣasmā'' no other kind
|-
! Quantity
| ''hiqna'' this much || ''huqna'' that much || ''āqna'' that much (remote) || ''beqna?'' how much? || ''iduqna'' none || ''soraqna'' some of it || ''grāqna'' any much || ''yāyuqna'' all of it || ''viṣaqna'' another quantity || ''idūṣaqna'' no other quantity
|}
# The "owner of" correlatives are bound forms that mark possession, e.g. ''hirūm naviṣyaɂe'' "this [person]'s book", ''idurūm naviṣyaɂe'' "no one's book", ''berūm naviṣyaɂe?'' "whose book is this?" (lit. "who is the owner of [the] book?"). As such, they are always used together with a third-person (generally singular) possessive suffix.

THING, PERSON, QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives decline for case; the proximal, medial and distal members of the THING (''hiyome, huyome, āyome'') and PERSON series (''hikana, hukana, ākana'') also decline for number. 
The QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives are generally only declined when used together with the bound form of another noun (e.g. ''m̃uk huqna'' "that much milk", ''nṛta idūṣasmā'' "no other kind of dream").

Note that Dundulanyä does not have wh-fronting: ''hine täte māmūtrību lilīsa'' "in this house lives my maternal aunt" → ''hine täte bekanī lilīsa?'' "who lives in this house?"

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''idumive, idoneve'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamive, grākṇeve'' "either";
: ''yaiveve, yāyukaneve'' "both";
: ''viṣāmive, viṣkaṇeve'' "the other one".

===Verbs (''darūmmai'')===
The verb (''darūmma'', pl. ''darūmmai'') is the most inflected part of speech in Dundulanyä. Forms are quite complex and generally formed in an agglutinative manner - even if there are fusional elements for what concerns tense, aspect, and subject agreement.

The language has an [[w:Symmetrical voice|Austronesian-type]] morphosyntactic alignment, and the argument the verb agrees with is controlled by a particular morpheme inside the verb complex. Due to the complex structure, a single verb form can often correspond to a more complex English sentence, as e.g. ''kujadumbhyaimyūsaɂed'' (I've been told that the two of you are bringing [it] again (on foot) from outside at my/our place for him/her), a form of the root ''dombh-'' (to bring on foot, with the hands), morphemically ''kuḍ-sa-dumbh-ya-emi-ū-sa-ɂe=d''.

The morpheme order of Dundulanyä verbs is the following; elements in '''bold''' are required, even if some of them may be zero morphemes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä verb structure
|-
! -3 !! -2 !! -1 !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9
|-
| rowspan=2 | Positional prefix || rowspan=2 | ''-sa-'' inverse deixis prefix || Incorporated verbal root || rowspan=2 | '''Stem''' || rowspan=2 | Tense markers || rowspan=2 | Ablative motion marker || rowspan=2 | '''Evidential marker''' || rowspan=2 | Irrealis marker (''-g-'') || rowspan=2 | Causative or applicative marker || rowspan=2 | '''Trigger/voice''' || rowspan=2 | '''Personal agreement''' || rowspan=2 | Dative agreement || rowspan=2 | Verb-final conjunctions
|-
|| Incorporated nominal root
|}

Verbs have four stems: present, past, perfect and frequentative; the latter two are always distinct, while non-ablauting roots have the same stems for the present and the past. These stems are used with different sets of personal agreement endings; different combinations of stems and endings are used to form a variety of tense-aspect combinations.

A few irregular verbs have suppletive stems, and a smaller number of verbs is defective, lacking one or more stems. However, the vast majority of Dundulanyä verbs is regular, with apparent irregularities being explained by irregular or peculiar behavior of the verb roots themselves (especially class I ones), e.g. in verbs such as ''śadah'' "I am asked" - ''āḍan'' "I was asked" - ''āḍam'' "I have been asked", ''āḍ-'' being the regular zero grade of the class I root ''śad-''<ref>Cf. the reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä forms *śad-, *(ǝ)śd-, and the evolution of the latter {{IPA|*[ǝʐɖ]}} → {{IPA|*[ǝːɖ]}} → {{IPA|[aːɖ]}}.</ref>.

====Root incorporation====
Some verb roots may be used with either a verbal or a nominal incorporated root which comes right before the stem in the verb complex. Incorporated verb roots are always in zero-grade ablaut, while incorporated nominal roots are actually a closed class of prefixes etymologically related to certain nouns that broadly identify the object (usually the patient) of the verb.

Incorporated verb roots form root+root complexes where the incorporated root adds a dimension of meaning to the main one, such as with the root ''jūpūn-'' "to work in a hurry" from ''pūn-'' "to work" with the incorporated root ''jo-'' "to hurry", or ''nililobh-'' "to write down through brainstorming" from ''lobh-'' "to write" with ''nily-'' "to think". 
Incorporated nominal roots include for example morphemes such as ''tan-'' for a long object (cf. ''taṇḍa'' "stick, cane") resulting in forms such as ''taṃlobh-'' "to affix; carve (on a stick, a post)", or ''ghar-'' for "wood" with forms such as ''ghahräś-'' "to debark" (''√räś-'' "to peel") or ''gharṇevy-'' "to carve wood" (''nevy-'' "to shape").

The prefix ''yau-'' fills the incorporated nominal root slot, however it denotes repetition and patient plurality and is always used together with the agentive trigger, as shown in forms such as ''yaukṛsūn'' "I waited for all of them", ''yaucikhūn'' "I offered [them] a drink one by one". Similarly, the prefixes ''sya-'' (exhaustive), ''tra-'' (iterative) and ''cū-'' (excessive) fill the slot of the incorporated root. ''sya-'' is uncommon in the modern language, as it is often used as a synonym of ''yau-''; the original difference being that it does not apply to transitive verbs only, and it does not imply a repeated or prolonged action. Cf. forms such as ''syanīyūn'' "I said it all", ''tranīyūn'' "I said it again", ''cūnīyūn'' "I said too much".

A verb root can also be reduplicated using the zero-grade version of itself as the incorporated root. The resulting verbs can have different meanings but usually intensive (as a less formal alternative to the intensive TAM) or iterative-continuous, e.g. ''cyūcyavūh'' "I really want it" (''√cyo-'' "to want"). Some reduplicated stems are effectively lexicalized, such as ''nīne-'' "to repeat" (''√ne-'' "to say"), and can therefore form the base for further derived forms, e.g. ''imyamam'' "glutton" (''√yam-'' "to eat").

====Inverse deixis and ablative motion====
While apparently similar, the inverse deixis marker or cislocative (the ''-s(a)-'' prefix) and the ablative motion marker (the ''-y(a)-'' suffix) are distinct and, in fact, not mutually exclusive. While the ablative motion marker cannot be used without the positional prefix (with the exception of [[#Positional-classificatory_verbs|positional-classificatory verbs]]), the cislocative can.

The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".

The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".

The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
* ''bunūgoba kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking [at me/us] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kujamiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack [which is near me/in the same room as me] from the outside";
* ''bunūgoba jṛṣṇat kuḍmiśyū'' "The thief is looking at my backpack from the outside [and I am not in the same room as my backpack]".

====Stem and TAM formation====
The four basic stems are formed as follows:
* The '''present''' stem is the root with the middle grade vowel;
* The '''past''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel;
** For non-ablauting roots, the present and past stems are therefore identical.
* The '''perfect''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel and an augment which is identical to the vowel of the root itself (shortened, if it is long) if the vowel is any of '''a, e, i, u'''; otherwise:
** if the stem vowel is '''o, ä, ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''a''';
** if the stem vowel is a diphthong, only the first element is taken as the augment.
* The '''frequentative''' stem is the root with the zero grade vowel plus the ''middle'' grade vowel as the augment, and adding ''-sā'' (with the appropriate saṃdhi changes). Again, there are some exceptions to the general augment rule:
** if the stem vowel is '''ṛ''' or '''ṝ''', the augment is '''ā''';
** otherwise, the same rules as the perfect augment apply.
* The '''intensive''' (or ''energetic'') stem, which does not form tenses but a mood, is formed with a higher grade augment and a middle grade root vowel.

Some affixes may force the stem vowel to be in a certain ablaut grade, such as the ablative motion marker shown in the previous section, which forces a present stem to have a zero grade vowel regardless.

As an example, the stems of ''ne-'' (II) "to say" are: present ''ne-'', past ''nī-'', perfect ''inī-'', frequentative ''enīsā-'', intensive ''aine-''. The non-ablauting root ''pūn-'' (to work) has present/past ''pūn-'', perfect ''upūn-'', frequentative ''upūṃsā-''; ''dīd-'' (0) "to act, react, do, behave" has present/past ''dīd-'', perfect ''idīd-'', frequentative ''idījā-''.

There are also '''tense markers''' which are added to the above stems to form the base for other TAM:
* the '''future''' formant is ''-iṣy-'' (or ''-ṣy-'' after vowels), added to the past stem (more precisely, to the zero grade root<ref>While there is no difference for most verbs, this is meaningful in the case of verbs with suppletive stems: for example, ''meś-'' has the suppletive past stem ''āsmy-'', but the future stem is ''miśiṣy-''.</ref>);
* the '''situational''' is formed with the marker ''-āp-'', added to either the zero grade root or the perfect stem.

The situational is a non-finite verb form which can express a contemporaneous (e.g. "while ...-ing") or anterior action (e.g. "after having ...-ed"), both as a circumstance or as a reason (e.g. "given that..."). Together with the irrealis marker, it forms concessive clauses.

The various tenses (more appropriately tense-aspect combinations) and moods are formed by the combination of the above stems and different terminations (which are listed in the dedicated section below):
* Present: present stem + present terminations
* Past: past stem + past terminations
* Perfect: perfect stem + perfect terminations
* Frequentative: frequentative stem + frequentative terminations
* Future: future "stem" + perfect terminations
* Imperfective situational: zero grade root plus ''-āp-'' formant + present terminations
* Perfective situational: perfect stem with ''-āp-'' formant + perfect terminations
The intensive, which is a tense-aspect-mood combination, has only two aspects: imperfective and perfective (today both found in very formal styles, but otherwise considered too bookish for general use):
* Imperfective intensive: intensive stem + present terminations
* Perfective intensive: intensive stem + perfect terminations

The '''imperative''' is generally considered apart from the other stems, as it is only used in second person singular and plural and first person plural forms: its stem is the bare stem but with the higher grade vowel (i.e. ''maiś-'' for the root ''meś-''), with the present terminations for the two plural forms but endingless for the singular.

The '''subjunctive''' does not have its own stem, but is formed as a sort of reverse intensive: it has specific endings which are used together with the zero-grade stem (for the imperfective subjunctive) and with the perfect stem (for the perfective subjunctive).

====''Junyai''====
The forms called, in traditional Dundulanyä grammar, ''junyai'' (sg. ''junya'', literally "shade, hue") are special stems (hence filling only the "stem" portion of the verb complex) which denote particular meanings, often corresponding to moods. There are four ''junyai'': desiderative, necessitative, potential and permissive, formed as follows, through reduplication (with different ablaut grades in the stem and in the reduplication) and suffixes:
* Desiderative: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-s'';
* Necessitative: middle-grade reduplication + zero-grade root + ''-sū'';
* Potential: zero-grade reduplication + middle-grade root + ''-nā'';
* Permissive: reduplication with the vowel ''ī'' (''ū'' after non-nasal labials) + zero-grade root + ''-ūd'';


Examples with various roots:
* ''meś-'' (II) "to see": DES mi-meś-s- → ''mimekṣ-''; NEC me-miś-sū- → ''memikṣū''; POT mi-meś-nā- → ''mimeśñā-''; PERM mī-miś-ūd → ''mīmiśūd-''.
* ''śan-'' (I) "to breathe": DES ś-śan-s- → ''kṣaṃs-'' (rarely ''śaśaṃs-''); NEC śa-śn-sū- → ''śaśñāsū-''; POT ś-śan-nā- → ''kṣannā-'' (rarely ''śaśannā-''); PERM śī-śn-ūd- → ''śīśñūd-''.

====Causative, applicative and trigger (voice) markers====
There are six possible trigger (voice) markers:
* '''-∅-''' patient trigger;
* '''-ū-''' agent trigger;
* '''-ik-''' reflexive trigger;
** '''-ik-ū-''' (or '''-ik-e-'''), combination of agent and reflexive triggers, for the reciprocal voice;
* '''-mi-''' circumstantial (benefactive or instrumental) trigger;
* '''-īs-''' locative trigger;
* '''-bai-''' reason trigger.

The causative ('''-on-''' or '''-n-''') and applicative ('''-im-''' or '''-m-''') markers fill the slot preceding the trigger marker, but unlike the latter those markers are not mandatory.

====Evidential markers====
There are six evidential markers:
* '''-∅-''' direct knowledge;
* '''-ɂä-''' "first" inferential (trusted);
* '''-eb(i)-''' "second" inferential (doubtful);
* '''-ukiɂ(a)-''' assumptive;
* '''-emi-''' "first" reportative/hearsay (trusted);
* '''-enab(u)-''' "second" reportative/hearsay (doubtful).

====Personal agreement====
The following ones are the personal agreement endings for Dundulanyä verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal markers
|-
! !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! Present
| -(a)h || -i || -a/-∅ || rowspan=2 | -(a)ba || rowspan=2 | -(a)sa || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḍa || rowspan=2 | -evu || rowspan=2 | -(a)ḫo || rowspan=2 | -āhai
|-
! Frequentative
| -u || colspan=2 | -i
|-
! Perfect
| -am || -ī || -a || -ra || -ri || -a || -ima || -iśa || -a
|-
! Past
| -n || -īt || -(n)ī || -rap || -ro || -ra || -nān || -thā || -lī
|-
! Subjunctive
| -ā || -āt1 || -ai || -oba || -osa || -ai || -ove || -aut1 || -ai
|}

# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.

The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").

Exclusively for the dative argument, there is a set of dative terminations that show indirect object concord in all voices except for dative-trigger. The terminations are the same as the [[#Possessive_suffixes|possessive suffixes]] used with nouns, except for 1SG and 1DU having ''-m-'' instead of ''-b-'' as the thematic consonant:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dative terminations
|-
! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
| -mu || -ya || -ɂe || -min || -sin || -hin || -fa || -yo || -rān
|}

Example basic conjugation showing stems and endings (but, for simplicity, zero morphemes wherever possible):
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" width="1200px"
|+ Example conjugation of the root √śro- (III) "to throw, propel, launch"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! 1SG !! 2SG !!3SG !! 1DU !! 2DU !! 3DU !! 1PL !! 2PL !! 3PL
|-
! rowspan=5 | Indicative !! Present
| śroh || śravi || śro || śroba || śrosa || śroḍa || śravevu || śroḫo || śravāhai
|-
! Frequentative
| ośrūsau || ośrūsai || ośrūsai || ośrūsāba || ośrūsāsa || ośrūsāḍa || ośrūsaivu || ośrūsāḫo || ośrūsāhai
|-
! Perfect
| uśrūm || uśrūvī || uśrū || uśrūra || uśrūri || uśrū || uśrūvima || uśrūviśa || uśrū
|-
! Past
| śrūn || śrūvīt || śrūnī || śrūrap || śrūro || śrūra || śrūnān || śrūthā || śrūlī
|-
! Future
| śrūṣyam || śrūṣyī || śrūṣya || śrūṣyara || śrūṣyari || śrūṣya || śrūṣyima || śrūṣyiśa || śrūṣya
|-
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| śrūvā || śrūvāt || śrūvai || śrūvoba || śrūvosa || śrūvai || śrūvove || śrūvaut || śrūvai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvā || uśrūvāt || uśrūvai || uśrūvoba || uśrūvosa || uśrūvai || uśrūvove || uśrūvaut || uśrūvai
|-
! rowspan=2 | Situational !! Imperfective
| śrūvāpah || śrūvāpi || śrūvāpa || śrūvābba || śrūvāpsa || śrūvābḍa || śrūvāpevu || śrūvāppho || śrūvāpāhai
|-
! Perfective
| uśrūvāpam || uśrūvāpī || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpra || uśrūvāpri || uśrūvāpa || uśrūvāpima || uśrūvāpiśa || uśrūvāpa
|-
! rowspan=2 | Intensive !! Imperfective
| auśroh || auśravi || auśro || auśroba || auśrosa || auśroḍa || auśravevu || auśroḫo || auśravāhai
|-
! Perfective
| auśrom || auśravī || auśrava || auśrora || auśrori || auśrava || auśravima || auśraviśa || auśrava
|-
! colspan=2 | Imperative
| - || śrau || - || - || - || - || śrāvevu || śrauḫo || -
|}

====Copula====
The Dundulanyä copula is '''ga'''; however, it is not a verb, but an invariable particle which links two nouns:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''ga''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''ga''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is my sister."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a dancer."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a dancer."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''mīhuṅga '''ga''' maita'' "Mīhuṅga river"
: ''śaṃḫe '''ga''' hufāne '''ga''' śidrañjiḫe.'' "The word 'śaṃḫe' is a pronoun." (first ''ga'' adpositive; second ''ga'' copula)

The negative copula is simply '''idu''' (not), with the same usage and the same replacement verb:
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer."

First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
: '''''yūga''' dūhṛṃlila.'' "I am an office worker."
: '''''kaṅga''' umūm lila.'' "You are a good person."

The undeclinable so-called "copular adjectives", such as ''cami'' "great, important", ''lalla'' "high, higher; next" or ''umūm'' "good", are not used with ''ga'', but need ''idu'' in a negative sentence:
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."

===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.

Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

All numeral roots in general usage are native, with the exception of zero, which is a learned borrowing from Lannä ''b̃atha'' "nothing".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit12 !! Base 10 !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
! 0
| 0 || '''b̃atha''' || ''(b̃athesi)'' || rowspan=2 | — || ''(b̃athakoma)'' || ''(b̃āb̃atha)'' || —
|-
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe''' ''emi'' || lumpyä || emibukoma || b̃āɂemibe ''(adv.)'' emibūśila || lumpyäyāṭ
|-
! 2
| 2 || '''rirä'''|| hälinaika || rirätām || riräkoma || b̃ārirä ''(adv.)'' riräśila || hälinaikyāṭ
|-
! 3
| 3 || '''kiṅka''' || kiṅkesi || kiṅkatām || kiṅkakoma || b̃ākiṅka ''(adv.)'' kiṅkośila || kiṅkesyāṭ
|-
! 4
| 4 || '''nälte''' || nältaisi || nältitām || nältakoma || b̃ānälte ''(adv.)'' nältauśila || nältaisyāṭ
|-
! 5
| 5 || '''śulka''' || śulkesi || śulkatām || śulkakoma || śulkośila || śulkesyāṭ
|-
! 6
| 6 || '''tuɂla''' || tuɂlesi || tuɂṛtām || tuɂṛkoma || tuɂlośila || tuɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcesi || chīcätām || chīkkoma || chīkośila || chīcesyāṭ
|-
! 8
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulesi || mbultām || mbulkoma || mbulośila || mbulesyāṭ
|-
! 9
| 9 || '''ḍor̃a''' || ḍor̃esi || ḍor̃atām || ḍor̃akoma || ḍor̃ośila || ḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tālda''' || tāldesi || tāldatām || tāldakoma || tāldośila || tāldesyāṭ
|-
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''ṣūḍan''' || ṣūṇḍisi || ṣūṇḍām || ṣūṇḍakoma || ṣūṇḍuśila || ṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 10
| 12 || '''mūmai''' || mūmaisi || mūmetām || mūmekoma || mūmāyuśila || mūmaisyāṭ
|-
! 11
| 13 || '''emibumūmä''' || emibumūmäsi || emibumūmätām || emibumūmäkoma || emibumūmäśila || emibumūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 12
| 14 || '''rirämūmä''' || rirämūmäsi || rirämūmätām || rirämūmäkoma || rirämūmäśila || rirämūmäsyāṭ
|-
! 13
| 15 || '''kiṅkhälī''' || kiṅkhälīsi || kiṅkhälītām || kiṅkhälīkoma || kiṅkhälīvśila || kiṅkhälīsyāṭ
|-
! 14
| 16 || '''mūmainälte'''|| mūmainältaisi || mūmainältitām || mūmainältakoma || mūmainältauśila || mūmainältaisyāṭ
|-
! 15
| 17 || '''mūmaiśulka''' || mūmaiśulkesi || mūmaiśulkatām || mūmaiśulkakoma || mūmaiśulkośila || mūmaiśulkesyāṭ
|-
! 16
| 18 || '''mūmaituɂla''' || mūmaituɂlesi || mūmaituɂṛtām || mūmaituɂṛkoma || mūmaituɂlośila || mūmaituɂlesyāṭ
|-
! 17
| 19 || '''mūmaichīka''' || mūmaichīcesi || mūmaichīcätām || mūmaichīkkoma || mūmaichīkośila || mūmaichīcesyāṭ
|-
! 18
| 20 || '''mūmaimbula''' || mūmaimbulesi || mūmaimbultām || mūmaimbulkoma || mūmaimbulośila || mūmaimbulesyāṭ
|-
! 19
| 21 || '''mūmaiḍor̃a''' || mūmaiḍor̃esi || mūmaiḍor̃atām || mūmaiḍor̃akoma || mūmaiḍor̃ośila || mūmaiḍor̃esyāṭ
|-
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''mūmaitālda''' || mūmaitāldesi || mūmaitāldatām || mūmaitāldakoma || mūmaitāldośila || mūmaitāldesyāṭ
|-
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''mūmaiṣūḍan''' || mūmaiṣūṇḍisi || mūmaiṣūṇḍām || mūmaiṣūṇḍakoma || mūmaiṣūṇḍuśila || mūmaiṣūṇḍisyāṭ
|-
! 20
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-'' 1, ''nap̃a-'' 2, ''dläku-'' 3, ''käht-'' 4, ''jändä-'' 5, ''m̃uk-'' 6, ''häṣeth-'' 7, ''ṣäṣän-'' 8, ''thävaku-'' 9, ''yaitlu-'' ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on. 
The other dozens are:
: '''30''' (3610) kiṅkamūmai
: '''40''' (4810) nältamūmai
: '''50''' (6010) śulkmūmai
: '''60''' (7210) tuɂṛmūmai
: '''70''' (8410) chīcämūmai
: '''80''' (9610) mbulmūmai
: '''90''' (10810) ḍor̃mūmai
: '''ᘔ0''' (12010) tāldamūmai
: '''Ɛ0''' (13210) ṣūṇḍmūmai
: and '''100''' (14410) trāṣoḍa.
1312 originally meant "one finger/three in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hälī'' part is a worn form of ''hälinaika''.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. ''trāṣoḍaimibe'', ''trāṣoḍarirä'', and so on. The other dozenal hundreds are:
: '''200''' (28810) rirätrāṣoḍa
: '''300''' (43210) kiṅkatrāṣoḍa
: '''400''' (57610) nältitrāṣoḍa
: '''500''' (72010) śulkatrāṣoḍa
: '''600''' (86410) tuɂlatrāṣoḍa
: '''700''' (100810) chīcätrāṣoḍa
: '''800''' (115210) mbultrāṣoḍa
: '''900''' (129610) ḍor̃atrāṣoḍa
: '''ᘔ00''' (144010) tāldatrāṣoḍa
: '''Ɛ00''' (158410) ṣūḍantrāṣoḍa.
'''1.000''' (172810) is ''śāyāja'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''śāyāja emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' (1078510) ''tuɂla śāyāja rirätrāṣoḍatāldamūmaiḍor̃a''. 
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of ''śāyājeve'', ''rirä śāyāja'' - the most common one -, or (only emphatically) ''rirä śāyājeve''.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' (248.83210) - a ''raice'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' (35.831.80810) - a ''lallaraice''.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a ''tūśvāna'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a ''lallatūśvāna''. 

===Particles (''riṇūmyobai'')===
Traditional Dundulanyä grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''riṇūmyoba'', pl. ''riṇūmyobai'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections.


====Nominal clitics====
The following particles are clitics added to the end of nouns; they are all conjunctive particles that do not require any particular case of a noun. They are exclusively used with nouns, pronouns or numerals, not verbs. Most such clitic particles are added to all nouns they refer to.
* '''-cu ... -cu''' — and (in incomplete listings - cf. ''-t''), e.g. ''nilāḍa'''cu''' śusopa'''cu''''' "East and West [and the other cardinal points]"; ''yuṅga'''ccu''' śiloma'''ccu''' cyavūh'' "I want a guava, a papaya[, and...]".
* '''-in ... -in''' — exclusive or; either ... or. Note that it undergoes irregular saṃdhi, combining with a preceding ''-a'' to the highest grade; e.g. ''yuṅg'''ain''' śilom'''ain''''' "either the guava or the papaya".
* '''-ka ... -ka''' — inclusive or; e.g. ''yuṅga'''ka''' śiloma'''ka''''' "the guava or the papaya [or something else]".
* '''-t ... -t''' — and (in complete listings - cf. ''-cu''), e.g. ''vyāna'''t''' māhana'''t''''' "left and right"; ''amamū'''t''' mamūtra'''t''' niyāni'''t''''' "mom, aunt, and grandma"; ''yuṅgat'''at''' śilomat'''at''' cyavūh'' "I want [only] a guava and a papaya".

====Verbal clitics====
The following particles are clitics that, unlike the former, are added to the end of verbs, in their last slot. Verbal clitics can also be combined, sometimes forming contractions. Aside for their usual clitic form, each of these has an emphatic standalone form that is inserted in the Wackernagel position.

* '''-ṅ''' ('''-no''' after consonants; emphatic '''nāṅ''') — and; added after the second verb, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnī'''ṅ''''' "3SG ate a papaya and drank ''gilśa''<ref>A typical Dundulanyä drink similar to Mesoamerican ''tejate''.</ref>".
* '''-ec''' (emphatic: '''cai''') — then, implying consecutivity of two actions, e.g. ''śilomat imūnī gilśat nundhūnīy'''ec''''' "3SG ate a papaya, then drank ''gilśa''". Also combines with ''-no'' to form '''-nāc''' "and then".
* '''-ās''' (emphatic: '''sā''') — but, e.g. ''śilomat iyaṃsūnī up̃ap̃at imūnīy'''ās''''' "3SG wanted to eat a papaya, but ate an ''up̃ap̃a''".

* '''-ś''' (emphatic: '''īśa''') — polar question marker, e.g. ''emeni khorū'''ś'''?'' "Is Emeni singing?/Does Emeni sing?"

====Non-clitic conjunctions====
* '''itta''' is a conjunctive particle, translatable as "and", "meanwhile" or "while": ''nādaśrūṣeya cända '''itta''' nādaśrūṣeɂe śyūda.'' "Your (sg.) bike is orange, while his/her bike is black."
:: When preceded by a negated statement, it means "but, instead": ''yuna idu emeni '''itta''' imāma.'' "I am not Emeni, [I am] Imāma"; ''lāltaṣveyak girgh va '''itta''' kiṣūrak'' "I didn't fly to Lāltaṣveya, [I flew to] Kiṣūra instead."
* '''kuka''' — and, amongst others; while similar to the clitic ''-cu'', it is more emphatic and generally only used together with plural nouns (or singularia tantum, see the second example), and comes after the last of the nouns it refers to. It can be more accurately rendered with periphrases such as "[things] like ..."; e.g. ''lalāruṇai fanēyai '''kuka''' ga irāḍai'' "Lalāruṇai and capybaras, amongst others, are animals"; ''nāra maɂiḍa '''kuka''' idu dambū itta mugba.'' "[Foodstuffs] like sorghum or rice are not fruits, but cereals."

====Postpositions====
* '''araṇa''' (+ bound form (accusative in formal usage)) is an ornative particle, originally a perfect form of the class 0 root ''raṇ-'' (to equip, to confer), e.g. ''dvārmev '''araṇa''' līve'' (formal: ''dvārmeyītha araṇa līve'') "two-room flat".

====Particles expressing time====
The following table shows the main particles used for expressions of time, which can have different meanings depending on the cases used:

'''N.B.''' that the "weekdays" used in the table (''emibe-laire'', ''rirä-laire'' etc.) simply mean "day 1", "day 2" etc. and are placeholders used as long as the Dundulanyä calendar is not detailed.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Case/Mood !! Meaning !! Example
|-
! rowspan=5 | selakat !! Ablative
| ago || '''nältū naṃśālū selakat''' four years ago
|-
! Bound form
| for/since || '''nälte naṃśāla selakat''' for four years
|-
! Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive
| until (action underway) || '''drūvāt selakat''' until you'll do it, until you'll be doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive
| until (completed action) || '''adrūvāt selakat''' until you'll have done it
|-
! rowspan=4 | biśat !! Ablative
| in ... time (at the end of a certain period of time) by || '''nältū naṃśālū biśat''' in four years, four years from now '''śulka-lairū biśat''' by Weekday5
|-
! Bound form
| in (within, during a certain period of time) || '''nälte naṃśāla biśat''' for the coming four years, until four years from now
|-
! Imperfective situational
| as long as (action underway) || '''drāpūvi biśat''' as long as you are/will be doing it, throughout the whole time you are/will be doing it
|-
! Perfective situational
| as long as, before (completed action) || '''adrāpūvī biśat''' throughout the whole time until you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | prāyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | after || '''nälte naṃśāla prāyo''' after four years
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt prāyo''' after you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt prāyo''' after you did/will have done it
|-
! rowspan=3 | anuyo !! Bound form
| rowspan=3 | before || '''nälte naṃśāla anuyo''' four years before
|-
! Imperfective subjunctive1
| '''drūvāt anuyo''' before you('ll have) started doing it
|-
! Perfective subjunctive1
| '''adrūvāt anuyo''' before you did/will have done it
|}
# '''prāyo''' and '''anuyo''' are particles; in colloquial, informal and neutral styles, the corresponding adverbs '''prāśā''' (after) and '''anuśā''' (before) can be used instead in the phrases with subjunctive verbs.

===Derivational morphology (''vāb̃lavona hufāmvailaḫlana'')===
====Noun-forming morphemes====
There are four morphemes that are used to form general derivatives from verbal roots: '''-a''', '''-vu''', '''-ib-e''' and '''-uḍu'''. The first two are generally unproductive nowadays (even though a terminal ''-a'' is often added to the end of loanwords, it is not considered to be this morpheme), while the latter two are still somewhat used in new coinings. All four morphemes are used with the zero-grade (''ślūtya'') root.
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūva'' (hurry) (with epenthetic ''-v-'' due to regular saṃdhi)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgibe'' (fear)
* ''mord-'' (to promise) → ''murdibe'' (promise)
* ''ḫamf-'' (to express oneself) → ''ḫamfa'' (language)
* ''nyäɂ-'' (to laugh) → ''nyäɂvu'' (laugh) (also ''nyäɂa'')
* ''dhā-'' (to let, permit) → ''dhauḍu'' (permission)
* ''ṣrop-'' (to honor, celebrate) → ''ṣropuḍu'' (praise)
* ''tamb-'' (to kiss) → ''tambuḍu'' (kiss)
* ''lav-'' (to go, walk) → ''lavibe'' (walk)

'''-(i)ḫ-e''' (first ablauting declension) sometimes marks a result of the action denoted by a verb root, but commonly has unpredictable meanings (even agents, particularly body parts).
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lelḫe'' (life)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)

'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣarta'' (government, rule; ''in compounds:'' -cracy)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śodda'' (knowledge; ''in compounds:'' -logy)
* ''ni-sākh-'' (to create, produce) → ''nisāktha'' (production, artifact; the works of an artist)

'''-uṣ-a''' (second ablauting declension) forms meaning related to qualities, but sometimes also something used for a determinate action.
* ''bhaṭ-'' (to expand, swell, bloat) → ''bhaṭuṣa'' (expansion, swelling)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kṛsuṣa'' (wait)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśuṣa'' (visibility)

'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy''; '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv''; '''-ṝna''' with a preceding ''ṛ''), with a middle-grade root, is the most common suffix denoting qualities.
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśña'' (sight)
* ''ne-'' (to say, tell, speak) → ''nena'' (voice)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocña'' (cleanliness)
* ''dhomy-'' (to hope) → ''dhomiyāna'' (hope)
* ''prā-nart-'' (to imagine, foresee) → ''prānartra'' (imagination; clairvoyance)

'''-ūmma''', with middle grade ablaut, is a rarer suffix with a meaning overlapping to ''-uṣ-a''.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnūmma'' (work [a relationship between employer and employee])
* ''bhe-'' (to cure, care for) → ''bhayūmma'' (caring)
* ''dar-'' (to do) → ''darūmma'' (action; verb)
* ''rav-'' (to open) → ''ravūmma'' (width, breadth)

'''-anah''', with middle grade ablaut, denotes an act or process, or its tangible manifestation (see third example).
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocanah'' (cleaning, the act of cleaning)
* ''gont-'' (to buy) → ''gontanah'' (shopping)
* ''meś-on-'' (to see + causative marker) → ''meśonnah'' (exhibition)

'''-āmita''', with higher grade ablaut (''udhyukṣṇise'') when used with verb roots, also forms quality, states, but often with more abstract meanings - cf. English ''-hood'', ''-ship'', ''-ism'' - or denoting a state in scientific terms. Unlike most previous suffixes, it is most commonly (but not exclusively) used to derive nouns from other nouns, instead of verb roots or stems.
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältāmita'' "siblinghood; sisterhood, brotherhood"
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍvāmita'' (friendship) (bookish variant ''lilāḍūmita'')
* ''lel-'' (to live) → ''lailāmita'' (the state of being alive)
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''gīrḍāmita'' (humidity)

'''-āvam''' (m-stem non-ablauting), with zero grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''dhoj-'' (to keep together; assign, allocate) → ''dhujāvam'' (number, numeral)
* ''khor-'' (to sing) → ''khurāvam'' (choir)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śudāvam'' (explanation)

'''-ūlt-e''', or '''-lt-e''' with lengthening of a stem-final vowel (more rarely simply '''-lt-e'''), with middle grade ablaut, forms nouns that generally denote tools, something used in doing an action; containers; more rarely places - cf. Latin ''-brum''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) → ''nādālte'' (knee-length sock)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫūlte'' (drum)
* ''śoc-'' (to clean) → ''śocūlte'' (detergent; cleaning product)
* ''hamvy-'' (to cradle) → ''hamvyūlte'' (cradle)
* ''näly-'' (to think) (class V) → ''nälilte'' (brain)

'''-ṅ-ka''' (second ablauting declension) also denotes tools, or instruments that do a particular action - not always synonymous with the preceding one.
* ''haf-'' (to insert) → ''hāṅka'' (socket)
* ''ni-de-'' (to stand on, to stand over) → ''nideṅka'' (roof)
* ''ni-ko-'' (to sit on) → ''nikoṅka'' (chair)

'''-ura''' (but ''-y-ura'' → '''-ira'''), attached to a verb's perfect stem, denotes something that has undergone a certain action (i.e. the equivalent of a past participle).
* ''pad-miś-'' (to see beyond, to see further) → ''padimiśura'' (view, overlook)
* ''cor-'' (to save, keep for the future) → ''ucururai'' (savings) (pl. tantum)
* ''lūkr-'' (to fold) → ''ulūkrura'' (wardrobe [the elements composing it, and colloquially, by extension, the piece of furniture])

'''-s-e''', with a zero grade root, is a synonym of '''-ura''', but generally used in a compound where the first element denotes the agent, or with a verb prefix. Note that ablauting roots ending in ''-ar-'', no matter the class, lengthen the vowel to ''-ār-'' and do not add the ''-s-''.
* ''nādah'' (leg) + ''śro-'' (to propel, launch) → ''nādaśrūṣe'' (bicycle, bike)
* ''pūnan'' (worker) + ''ṣar-'' (to rule) → ''pūnaṃṣāre'' (worker cooperative)
* ''pad-'' (forth, beyond) + ''gṇyau-'' (to give birth; to be born) → ''padagṇyausi'' (sons and daughters) (pl. tantum)
* ''udhi-'' (within) + ''ukṣṇy-'' (to grow) → ''udhyukṣṇise'' (higher grade ablaut, ''vṛddhi'')

'''-ḫana''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns meaning "that ought to be X-ed", i.e. a future passive participle.
* ''uc-'' (to believe) → ''vacchana'' (miracle)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaḫana'' (video)
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''śuddhana'' (rule)

'''-tya''' ('''-dya''' after voiced stops; ''-ś-tya'' → '''-cya''') is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūtya'' (run)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''micya'' (a look)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tūrgdya'' (fright, scare)
* ''ślo-'' (to be left) → ''ślūtya'' (remain, residue; zero grade ablaut)
* ''daśa'' (rain) → ''dacya'' (raindrop)

'''-aC(-e)''', where C is the last consonant of the root, is one of multiple suffixes forming (mostly human, but not exclusively) agent nouns:
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pūnan'' (worker)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''miśaśe'' (guard, warden)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)

'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns:
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)

'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
* ''bog-'' (to steal) → ''bunūgoba'' (thief)
* ''deh-'' (to use) → ''dinūhoba'' (user)
* ''remy-'' (to help) → ''riṇūmyoba'' (helper)

'''-īya''', with zero grade ablaut, forms mostly non-human agent nouns. It is no longer productive. In some older coinings, it surfaces simply as '''-ya'''.
* ''śan-'' (to breathe) → ''śñīya'' (nose)
* ''śmer-'' (to bake, roast) → ''śmirīya'' (oven)
* ''yon-'' (to create, beget) → ''yunya'' (nature; creator spirit; goddess)
* ''gläp-'' (to lick, lap) → ''glipya'' (tongue; blade; oar)

'''-eṣa''' forms collective nouns.
* ''lila'' (person) → ''lileṣa'' (people)
* ''ñältah'' (sister; (male's) sister; sibling) → ''ñältaɂeṣa'' "siblings; brothers and sisters"
* ''laire'' (sky; air) → ''laireṣa'' (galaxy)

'''-apa''', with zero grade ablaut, forms nouns referring to places and locations:
* ''ij-'' (to teach) → ''yajapa'' (school)
* ''dhroṣ-'' (to plow) → ''dhruṣapa'' (farm)
* ''śusva'' (evening) → ''śusopa'' (west)
* ''rirä'' (two) + ''maila'' (water) / ''vāla'' (sea) → ''rirämailapa/rirävālapa'' (peninsula, spit; isthmus)

'''-īd-e''' ('''-d-e''' after a vowel or a sonorant, except in class I roots), with zero grade ablaut and zero grade reduplication, is another derivation forming place nouns.
* ''pūn-'' (to work) → ''pupūnde'' (workplace)
* ''ṣar-'' (to rule, govern) → ''ṣaṣrīde'' (headquarters; department; (hist.) seat of power; throne; capital city; sometimes used as a toponym)
* ''kṛs-'' (to wait) → ''kakrasīde'' (waiting room)

'''-ādhu''' means "having X".
* ''maiha'' (daughter) → ''maihādhūve'' (parents) (dual/plural only)
* ''b̃īla'' (terrain, soil) → ''b̃īlādhu'' (field)

'''-(m)ūya''' denotes something which has X as a distinctive trait; for some words, especially denominal formations, it can mean "made of X".
* ''girḍ-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍūya'' (tongue)
* ''jo-'' (to hurry) → ''jūmūya'' (deadline)
* ''būc-'' (to be flat) → ''būcūya'' (middle grade ablaut, ''guṇa'')
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirūya'' (stone tool)

'''-ic-e''' (1st ablauting declension) forms nouns, generally from verbal roots, with the meaning of "result, remain, product or byproduct of an action":
* ''gird-'' (to be wet) → ''girḍice'' (the mark left by something wet)
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''meśice'' (liter., bookish: knowledge)
* ''goṃs-'' (to cut) → ''goṃsice'' (piece, part)

'''-äśah''' ('''-ɂäśah''' when added to ''-ah'' nouns) denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Eventoa a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
* ''māra'' (mango) → ''māräśah'' (mango tree)
* ''dīlla'' (peas) → ''dīlläśah'' (pea plant)
* ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisɂäśah'' (pineapple tree)

'''-īrä''' is a fossilized suffix used to form temporal units.
* ''sve-dar-'' (to complete) → ''svedrīrä'' (deadline)

'''-ida''', with higher grade ablaut, is an older diminutive suffix, often now lexicalized and rarely used productively.
* ''īs-ko-'' (to sit hanging) → ''īskāvida'' (swing)
* ''b̃oṭa'' (finger) → ''b̃oṭida'' (little finger, pinky)

'''-ulu''' with higher grade vowel is a suffix that forms demonyms (cf. vṛddhi derivation). In some cases, there are more variants of a same word depending on the strengthened vowel, and the one that is preferred depends on usage (usually the last one, with the exception of ''lausaṃrītulu'').
* ''Lusaṃrīte'' → ''lausaṃrītulu'' (preferred) or ''lusaṃraitulu''
* ''Jūhma'' → ''jauhmulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)

'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhārmyeke'' (little boy)
* ''ābābi'' (town square) → ''ābābīceni'' (a nice and cozy little town square) (pl. tantum as the unmodified noun)
* ''cūlla'' (car) → ''cūlliccha'' (toy car)
* ''lilāḍu'' (friend) → ''lilāḍīcene'' (little friend - often used by parents referring to kids' friends)
* ''yalka'' (beach) → ''yalcīcene'' (small, often secluded beach)

==Syntax==
===Word order===
The Dundulanyä word order is usually described as topic-comment; the topic (''tatsampra'' or ''caṃhūmuṭa''), whether explicit or "unmarked" (as per native terminology) is always the first element of a sentence and everything else - the comment or ''padnīse'' - comes afterwards. The most commonly used terminology in native sources distinguishes two different kinds of topics as ''iḍiṭa tatsampra'' vs. ''idviḍiṭa tatsampra'' (the latter also ''tadgarḫē iḍiṭa tatsampra'' or ''darūmmē iḍiṭa tatsampra''), translated here as "explicit topic" and "unmarked topic" (or "voice-marked topic" or "verb-marked topic") respectively. Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is understood as a topic marked by the particle ''ba''.

The comment's structure could be described as OSV, but the definition of subject and object does not apply fully to Dundulanyä. '''S''' is whatever agrees with the verb, i.e. the triggered argument, called ''hūmmikṣe'' in Dundulanyä. '''O''', in this broad scheme, stands for any other argument ("object" and oblique ones). Anyway, OSV is a rough but good approximation for that as (see the third, fourth and fifth example sentences below) the closest argument to the verb is the agent when non-triggered in a sentence with unmarked topic, or the direct argument in a sentence with explicit topic. The verb complex always comes in last position in a sentence, except for some particles.
{{Gloss
| phrase = śiloma epenē yama.
| morphemes = śiloma epen-ē yam-∅-∅-a
| gloss = papaya.DIR.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The papaya is being eaten by a child.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epena śilomat yamū.
| morphemes = epena śiloma-t yam-∅-ū-(a)
| gloss = child.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. eat-EXP-AG-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = The child is eating a papaya.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = udra śilomat epenē yamīsa.
| morphemes = udra śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-īs-a
| gloss = treetrunk.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-LOC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating a papaya [sitting] on the treetrunk. ''(or: *the treetrunk is being eaten a papaya on by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṭuṇṭiccha śilomat epenē yammi.
| morphemes = ṭuṇṭiccha śiloma-t epen-ē yam-∅-mi-(a)
| gloss = pair_of_chopsticks.DIR.SG. papaya-ACC.SG. child-ERG.SG. eat-EXP-CIRC-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = A child is eating [pieces of] papaya with chopsticks. ''(or: *the chopsticks are being eaten [pieces of] papaya with by a child.)'
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ñältahbu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃ā lilāḍu tadyemigī va.
| morphemes = ñältaɂ-bu ba ṣṭhīṭaṅ lunaichir̃-ā lilāḍu ta-di-emi-g-∅-ī=va
| gloss = male's_sister.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG. TOPIC. yesterday. tea_house-LOC.SG. friend.DIR.SG. PLACE-stand.HUMAN-REP1-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG=NEG.
| translation = [I was told that] My sister didn't meet her friend at the tea house yesterday.
}}
Non-verb-final word orders are possible, but are practically only ever used in poetry in order to fit into particular metres.

====Complement order====
The typical organization of the sentence is, therefore:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with explicit topic
|-
| Explicit topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Direct argument || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sentence with unmarked topic
|-
| Unmarked topic || Temporal complement || (Anti)benefactives || Compl. of manner; essive case || Locative complements || Semantic patient || Semantic agent || Verb || Sentence-final particles
|}

Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.BOUND.SG. together_with. 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. next. "week".LOC.SG. parents-BOUND.DU. BENEF. canoe.INSTR.SG. Kurūṣartha-DAT. experience.PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND. guide-DIR.SG.. lead-float_on_water-FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusvā lārvapak yuna lon.
| morphemes = ṣṭhīṭaṅ śusv-ā lārvapa-k yuna lav-∅-∅-n
| gloss = yesterday. evening-LOC.SG. temple-DAT.SG. 1SG.DIR. walk-EXP-LOC-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = Yesterday [in the] evening I went/was walking to the temple on foot.
}}

Sentences can act as unmarked topics of other sentences, see e.g. the following rather more complex examples:
{{Gloss
| phrase = naviṣya ubukhāyē guntī; lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāgī lilarān.
| morphemes = naviṣya ubukhai-ē gunt-∅-∅-ī lūnūbhoba ga ṣurṭāg-ī lila-rān
| gloss = book.DIR.SG. Ubukhai-ERG.SG. buy-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. writer.DIR.SG. COP. Skyrdagor-BOUND.PL. person.DIR.SG-3PL.POSS.
| translation = Ubukhai bought a book; the author is Skyrdagor.<ref>Example taken from [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1bop7pa/2034th_just_used_5_minutes_of_your_day/ the translation activity "''2034th Just Used 5 Minutes of Your Day''"] started by u/mareck_ on the r/conlangs subreddit, Mar 27, 2024, adapted for the purpose of this page.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = tainah haice nusmai sure ravikai gālavī, didya, bāhṛmū ajalsāgi mimendnābgī va tūva gaujulḍa kilahmullat yunat himena khurūvoba gālorap.
| morphemes = tainaɂ haic-e nusm-∅-∅-ai sure ro-∅-ik-ai gā-lav-∅-∅-ī didya bāhr0m-ū ajalsā-∅-g-∅-i mimendnā-∅-āp-g-∅-ī=va tūva gā-u-julḍ-∅-∅-a kilahmulla=t yuna=t himena khur-∅-ū-oba gā-lav-∅-∅-rap
| gloss = Tainah.DIR.SG. wordless_rhythmic_chant-DIR.SG. cease-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. without. wash-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. more. bāhram-ABL.SG. be.FREQ-EXP-IRR-PAT-FREQ.3SG.IND. hear.POT-EXP-CIRC-IRR-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=not. Tūva.DIR.SG. into-PERF_STEM_MARKER-hum-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND. Kilahmulla.DIR.SG=and. 1SG.DIR=and. therefore. sing-EXP-AG-IMPF.1DU.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.1DU.IND.
| translation = Tainah went washing without stopping her haice<ref>A style of rhythmic wordless chant, used in religious chanting, Dundulanyä classical music, and even popular songs.</ref>, and even if the bāhram<ref>A plucked string instrument similar to a sitar, usually with seven played strings and 18 sympathetic ones.</ref> couldn't be heard anymore Tūva hummed into and got Kilahmulla and I singing too.
}}

====Epiphrasis====
Epiphrasis (''anumyūse'') is the main syntactic change to the main constituent order.
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna lādragilā pūnah, gluḫambut.
| morphemes = yuna lādragy0l-ā pūn-∅-∅-h gluḫ0m-bu=t
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. inn-LOC.SG. work-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. female's_brother.DIR.SG-POSS.1SG=and.
| translation = I work at the inn, and so does my brother.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = kiṅkū naviṣyū meśah, nyoṭa goldyūt.
| morphemes = kiṅk-ū naviṣy-ū meś-∅-∅-h ni-oṭ-∅-∅-a goldi-ū=t
| gloss = three-ABL. book-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. lie_on-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. cat-ABL.SG=and.
| translation = I see the three books, as well as the cat lying on them.
}}

===Explicit and unmarked topic===
Explicit topic (''iḍiṭa tatsampra'') is typically used for marking an element that has a semantic but not syntactic role in the sentence. Many basic sentences make use of explicit topicalization, such as existentials, predicative possessions, or telling one's age:
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃esi lo.
| morphemes = yuna ba mūmaiḍor̃-esi lo-∅-∅-∅
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. 1912-ORD.DIR. go-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND.
| translation = I am in my 1912th year of age. ''(i.e. I am 2010.)''<ref>Dundulanyä age reckoning counts the number of the ongoing year, not how many years have passed - thus a newborn is in their first year, and a 20-years-old is in their twenty-first year.</ref>
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba ñältēve tedīya.
| morphemes = yuna ba ñält-ēve ta<ı>dī-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. sister-DIR.DU. PLACE.stand.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND.
| translation = I have two sisters.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yuna ba līvā śulka dvārma amyūva.
| morphemes = yuna ba līv-ā śulka dvārma a-myū-∅-∅-a
| gloss = 1SG.DIR. TOPIC. apartment-LOC.SG. five.DIR. room.DIR.SG. PERF-lie.MASSES-EXP-PAT-PERF.3.IND.
| translation = In my apartment there are five rooms.
}}

===Verb phrase===
====Positional-classificatory verbs====
Positional and classificatory verbs are the most lexically complex part of Dundulanyä verbs, together with the rich system of positional prefixes which is a distinguishing feature of the language. Such roots are used to describe states of people, animals and objects, as well as the ways in which they are carried, brought or pulled.

Positional-classificatory verbs are categorized for two dimensions: the nature of the patient and the nature of the action. According to the nature of the patient, positional-classificatory verbs are distinguished by their reference to the following categories:
* Spherical objects, or otherwise with approximately the same width, length and height;
* Long objects (much greater in one dimension than in the others), generally stiff;
* Ropes or other long, non-stiff objects (e.g. palm leaves);
* People, children, pets and farm animals; dolls and plush toys in the shape of humans or animals;
* Masses or generic/uncategorized objects, as well as figurative meanings;
* Non-contained liquids;
* Contained liquids;
* Contained masses of (homogeneous) solids, e.g. seeds, flour;
* Contained masses of heterogeneous solids, or mixed bundles;
* Sheets, paper sheets, slabs, also rocks;
* Large objects that cannot be carried by humans, as well as wild animals.

According to the nature of the action, positional-classificatory verbs are:
* Stative-existential:
** Horizontal ("to be; to lie");
** Seated ("to be; to sit");
** Vertical ("to be; to stand");
* Verbs of placing:
** Horizontal ("to put, lay");
** Seated ("to put, seat");
** Vertical ("to put, place");
* Verbs of carrying:
** in the hands or arms;
** on the head;
** on the back;
** by vehicle;
* Verbs of pulling, dragging;
* Verbs of throwing.

For most patient natures, the stative-existential meaning is the perfect of the corresponding verb of placing; however, the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category uses the bare root as the stative-existential and the causative as the corresponding verb of placing. All patient nature categories except for "spherical objects" and "contained heterogenous masses" are differentiated in the horizontal stative-existential/placing category, although the horizontal root for the "large objects/wild animals" category is the same one used for vertical position for the "people, children, pets and farm animals" category. In all other action nature categories there is at least one root used for two or more patient nature classes, or at least one such class which lacks a root.

Not all intersections of patient nature and action nature have a corresponding verb; for example, there are no verbs of carrying for the "large objects that cannot be carried by humans/wild animals", nor have most categories verbs for seated and vertical positions. As an extreme example, the "non-contained liquids" category only has the horizontal stative-existential/placing verb and the verb of throwing (which can be simply translated as "to splash").

The verbs of putting, placing and throwing furthermore correspond to verbs of giving when used together with a dative termination, e.g. ''mārat tyūhya'' "I give/hand you the mango"; ''tūfītha śravūbasin'' "We throw you the balls"<ref>Note that, for sake of brevity, the translation used here omits that agent, patient and receiver are all dual: the more accurate translation would be "we two throw you two the two balls".</ref>. The ablative marker, meanwhile, forms verbs of taking from verbs of putting, and verbs of catching from verbs of throwing, e.g. ''snīghidat hāsyūvi'' "you take the sheet", ''mārat dūṇū gātyuyūh'' "I take the mango out of the box"; ''tūfat śrūyūh'' "I catch the ball".

Some positional-classificatory verbs have acquired further meanings, for example the reflexive of "to put down a non-contained liquid" (or, simply, "to pour") means "to rain", which can then also be specified with the cislocative prefix: cf. ''ijmaika'' (id-s-me-ik-a) "it's raining [here]", ''līlā idemaika'' (id-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were in another city]", ''līlā ijemaika'' (id-s-eme-ik-a) "it has rained in Līlah [we are/were there]".

The following table indicates all positional-classificatory verb roots with the respective ablaut classes:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Dundulanyä positional-classificatory verb roots
|-
! rowspan=2 | → Action nature ↓ Patient nature !! colspan=3 | Stative-existential !! colspan=3 | Placing !! colspan=4 | Carrying !! rowspan=2 | Pulling, dragging !! rowspan=2 | Throwing
|-
! To be, lie !! To be, sit !! To be, stand !! To put, lay !! To put, seat !! To put, place (vertically) !! In the hands/arms !! On the head !! On the back !! By vehicle
|-
! Spherical/proportionate
| (utyuva) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√tyu-'' (0) || rowspan=3 | - || - || ''√yup-'' (0) || - || - || ''√klem-'' (II) || - || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Long, stiff objects
| (akā) || (achāsa) || ''√kā-'' (0) || ''√chās-'' (0) || ''√dom-'' (III) || ''√lon-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√khol-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Ropes Long, non stiff objects
| (apṣma) || - || ''√pṣam-'' (I) || - || ''ta-√pṣam-'' (I) || rowspan=4 | - || - || -
|-
! People, children Pets and farm animals Dolls, plush toys
| ''-√oṭ-'' (III) (-uɂuṭa) || ''-√ko-'' (III) (-akūva) || ''-√de-'' (II) (-edīya) || ''-√oṭ-on-'' (III) || ''-√ko-on'' (III) (-kavon-) || ''-√de-on-'' (II) (-dayon-) || ''-√tol-'' (III) || ''√yaṅk-'' (I) || ''√eñj-'' (II) || rowspan=7 | - || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Masses, generic/uncategorized Contained, heterogeneous masses Figurative
| (amyūva) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=6 | - || rowspan=6 | - || ''ta-√myo-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | - || ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√kon-'' (III)
|-
! Non-contained liquids
| (emīya) || ''√me-'' (II) || - || - || ''√mañc-'' (0)
|-
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' (III) || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' (III) || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' (III) || ''√klem-'' (II) || rowspan=2 | -
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
| (aiya) || ''√ī-'' (0) || ''√ilm-'' (0)
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' (0) || ''√yup-'' (0) || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' (0) || ''√klem-'' (II) || ''√śro-'' (III)
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' (0) || ''ta-√hās-'' (0) || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√yug-'' (0)
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' (II) || ''√tvoṣ-'' (III) || ''√chās-'' (0) || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' (III) || ''√khol-'' (III) || -
|}

=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.

Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).

These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk (Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings) || kamidrāh kamyadrām (kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah (kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh kamyujunāyām (kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah (kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck (hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...) || nibumbīh nyubumbīm (ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah (ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists (gloves, bracelets...) || kamihäɂlīh kamyahäɂlīm (kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah (kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk) Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh gānādɂām (gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah (gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah nīsnīgham (ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah (ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham) kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham) (kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah (kami-snīgh-y-)
|}

"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.

====Telicity in perception verbs====
A subset of Dundulanyä verbs are known as "perception verbs" and, while generally grammatically regular, they deserve a specific subsection in an English-language grammar as, syntactically and semantically, they are inherently different from the corresponding English verbs.

In this subset of verbs, the semantic patient is the one who undergoes the experience of perceiving (seeing, knowing, lacking, etc.), due to the non-volitional nature of the action described.

Perception verbs are therefore inherently atelic and intransitive: the semantic patient is the perceiver, while the perceived thing is an ablative argument. In this respect, it could be said that Dundulanyä extends to physical perception the syntactic treatment of feelings. See for example the two following sentences, both using different perception verbs:
{{Gloss
| phrase = jñū meśah.
| morphemes = jñu-ū meś-∅-∅-h
| gloss = tree-ABL.SG. see-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I see the tree.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = nenūya chläh.
| morphemes = nena-ū=ya chlä-∅-∅-h
| gloss = voice-ABL.SG=2SG. be_happy-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND.PRES.
| translation = I'm happy to hear from you.
}}

Perception verbs include many common roots in the language, such as ''√meś-'' (to see), ''√śod-'' (to know, understand), ''√nely-'' (to think), ''√chlä-'' (to be happy, glad), ''√śeñc-'' (to lack, miss), ''√vart-'' (to need), ''√hend-'' (to hear), ''√hälp̃-'' (to be moved, touched), ''√lom̃b̃-'' (to like), or ''√kol-'' (to forget).

From most atelic roots, telic transitive verbs can be derived by means of different prefixes (most commonly ''ta-'' (here), ''sam-'' (to the next one), ''mīram-'' (towards), ''pad-'' (beyond), ''sve-'' (full, all); where the action is conceptualized as negative also ''viṣ-'' (away), but more specific meanings can be formed through other prefixes). The results are lexicalized verbs, which are often better translated using different English verbs; cf. the following ones:
* ''meś-'' (to see) → ''ta-meś-'' (to watch);
* ''śod-'' (to know, understand) → ''saṃ-śod-'' (to learn) → causative ''saṃ-śod-on-'' (to teach);
* ''hend-'' (to hear) → ''ta-hend-'' (to listen);
* ''śeñc-'' (to lack, miss) → ''vikṣeñc-'' (''viṣ-śeñc-'') (to renounce);
* ''vart-'' (to need) → ''ta-vart-'' (to require, demand);
* ''kol-'' (to forget) → ''viṣ-kol-'' (to purposefully forget).

==Vocabulary==
===Kinship terminology===
Dundulanyä kinship terminology reflects the traditional clan-centric structure of their society; even if contemporary society does not have anymore the clan (''lilene'') as its main unit, kinship terminology hasn't changed and surnames (clan names) are still inherited matrilinearly.

Dundulanyä kinship conceptually follows a variant of the [[w:Iroquois kinship|Iroquois system]] that gives more importance to female relatives on both the mother and the father's side of the family tree, establishing the mother's clan as primary and the father's clan (i.e. the one continued by the father's sisters') as secondary for Ego; the children of either parent's brothers are considered to belong to their respective mothers' clans, without any relationship to Ego.

Such a system is characterized by three peculiarities:
* the children of Ego's mother's sister(s), as well as any maternal halfsibling, are referred to with the same terms used for biological siblings. In the traditional societal structure, they all belong to the same clan as Ego. Marriage between the Ego and such cousins is taboo and prohibited by law;
* the children of Ego's father's sister(s) are referred to with a set of "cousin" terms; they all belong to the same clan as Ego's father;
* the children of either parent's brother(s), as well as any paternal halfsibling, are referred to with another, simpler set of "cousin" terms; in traditional perspective, they belong to other clans, with no relationship to Ego<ref>Especially in ancient times, there was some regional variation, as cousins through one's mother's brother are secondarily part of Ego's primary clan, and this was deemed an important distinction in certain areas.</ref>.
The traditional clanic structure is also reflected by the fact that in Archaic Dundulanyä the same word could mean both "father" and - even more commonly, in earlier times - "mother's brother". In some areas it is still common to call one's mother's brother, as long as he's unmarried, with the same word used for "father". 
Mother's brother and father's brother have distinct words, but the words for the father's brother (and his spouse) are nowadays uncommon, and the same words ''būttra'' and ''būkṣāma'' are used, respectively, for both parents' brothers and their spouses.

The Dundulanyä clan-centric kinship terminology also has implications in affinal distinctions, as spouses of relatives are treated differently depending on clan relationship, and Ego's spouse's relatives, especially cross-generational ones, are also treated differently depending on their clans. Affinal distinctions are different depending on whether Ego is female or male.

* ''amamū'' — mother
** ''mā'', ''māmu'' — mom
* ''atabū'' or ''batū'' — father; (arch.) mother's brother
** ''bā'', ''bābu'' — dad
* ''niyāni'' or ''nyāni'' or ''nēni'' — grandmother, grandma
* ''bauji'' or ''bābuji'' or ''boji'' — grandfather, grandpa
* ''mamūniyāni'' — great-grandmother
* ''batūbauji'' — great-grandfather
* ''yoyiniyāni'' — great-great-grandmother
* ''yoyibauji'' — great-great-grandfather
** earlier ancestors are numbered, e.g. Ego's great-grandparent's grandma is ''hälinaika yoyiniyāni'' (lit. "second great-great-grandmother") whose father is Ego's ''kiṅkesi yoyibauji'' (lit. "third great-great-grandfather") and so on.
* ''māmūtra'' — mother's sister
** ''udhibande'' — mother's sister's spouse
* ''melahbūla'' — father's sister
** ''kubḍande'' — father's sister's spouse
* ''būttra'' — uncle; (formally) mother's brother; (arch.) father
** ''būkṣāma'' — uncle's spouse; (formally) mother's brother's spouse
* ''kāḫlan'' — (rare) father's brother
** ''kāḫṛnīma'' — (rare) father's brother's spouse
* ''maiha'' — daughter; offspring, Ego's child
* ''p̃aiṣu'' — son
* ''liṭīca'' — granddaughter
* ''läṭine'' (V abl.) — grandson
** further descendants are numbered, e.g. ''hälinaika liṭīca'' "great-granddaughter" (lit. "second granddaughter") etc.

====Siblings and cousins====
* ''ñältah'' — (male's) sister; sister; sibling; maternal aunt's daughter
* ''buneya'' — female's elder sister; maternal aunt's daughter, older than Ego
* ''kālike'' — female's younger sister; maternal aunt's daughter, younger than Ego
* ''glūḫam'' — (female's) brother; maternal aunt's son
* ''praśke'' — male's elder brother; maternal aunt's son, older than Ego
* ''naiḍe'' — male's younger brother; maternal aunt's son, younger than Ego
* ''būlañältah'' — (male's) paternal aunt's daughter
* ''būlabuneya'' — paternal aunt's daughter, older than a female Ego
* ''būlakālike'' — paternal aunt's daughter, younger than a female Ego
* ''būlaglūḫam'' — (female's) paternal aunt's son
* ''būlapraśke'' — paternal aunt's son, older than a male Ego
* ''būlanaiḍe'' — paternal aunt's son, younger than a male Ego
* ''tuṃsīca'' — daughter of one's parent's brother
* ''toṃsine'' (III abl.) — son of one's parent's brother

The following four couplets are used for siblings' children:
* ''nimīca'' — (F) older sister's daughter
* ''nämine'' (V abl.) — (F) older sister's son
* ''trīca'' — (F) younger sister's daughter / (M) sister's daughter
* ''tarine'' (I abl.) — (F) younger sister's son / (M) sister's son
* ''kiḍīca'' — (M) older brother's daughter
* ''käḍine'' (V abl.) — (M) older brother's son
* ''huɂīca'' — (M) younger brother's daughter / (F) brother's daughter
* ''hoɂine'' (III abl.) — (M) younger brother's son / (F) brother's son

====Affinal relationships====
* ''lalāba'' — wife
* ''śuthah'' (ṛ-stem) — husband
* ''umāgi'' — mother-in-law
* ''umausa'' — father-in-law
* ''lāmati'' — husband's sister
** ''lāṅgana'' — husband's sister's spouse
* ''śuthṝṣra'' — husband's brother
** ''śuthṝṣārya'' — husband's brother's spouse
* ''udhilalāba'' — wife's sister
* ''udhilalonde'' — wife's sister's spouse
* ''gānoḍa'' — wife's brother
* ''gānojāma'' — wife's brother's spouse

===Colours===
Dundulanyä people traditionally distinguish 13 basic colours (''hīmba''), with the notable presence of two heavily culturally significant ones: golden yellow and lilac:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Colour !! Noun !! Verb ''to be …'' !! Prototypical example
|-
| Black || ''śyūda'' || ''śyūdah'' || style="background:#000000" |
|-
| Blue, also dark green || ''kāmila'' || ''kāmilah'' || style="background:#005EFF" |
|-
| Brown || ''tūnya'' || ''tūnyah'' || style="background:#874B0F" |
|-
| Golden yellow || ''chlīm̃a'' || ''chlīm̃ah'' || style="background:#FFCD00" |
|-
| Gray || ''nijam'' || ''nijmah'' || style="background:#AAAAAA" |
|-
| Green || ''bhāca'' || ''bhācah'' || style="background:#3FF91A" |
|-
| Light yellow || ''khañja'' || ''khañjah'' || style="background:#FFFF44" |
|-
| Lilac || ''kalya'' || ''kalyah'' || style="background:#D8A8FF" |
|-
| Orange || ''cände'' || ''cändah'' || style="background:#FF7000" |
|-
| Pink || ''kīlana'' || ''kīlanah'' || style="background:#F9C6F9" |
|-
| Red || ''ūnika'' || ''ūnikah'' || style="background:#ED0000" |
|-
| Violet, dark lilac || ''somye'' || ''somih'' || style="background:#7116CD" |
|-
| White || ''pāṇḍa'' || ''pāṇḍah'' || style="background:#FFFFFF" |
|}

===Time===
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.

The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.

The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.

Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Months of the Dundulanyä calendar
|-
! No. !! Month !! Days !! Name meaning
|-
! 1
| '''pārthuka''' || 30 || of the chameleon (''pṛthuka'')
|-
! 2
| '''uṣraumaṇa''' || 29 || of the ''uṣrūmaṇa'' (a small tree-dwelling bear)
|-
! 3
| '''gurūṣaikha''' || 31 || of the ''gurūṣikhe'' (a spirit related to millet sowing in Dundulanyä mythology and folklore)
|-
! 4
| '''saiśva''' || 29 || of the antelope (''siśu'')
|-
! 5
| '''nēlila''' || 31 || of the albatros (''nälila'')
|-
! 6
| '''kaulika''' || 30 || of the Lusaṃrītene red monkey (''kulika'')
|-
! 7
| '''laum̃am̃a''' || 30 || of the ''lūm̃am̃a'' (a quail-like bird)
|-
! 8
| '''sisauklaulya''' || 30 || sacred month, "month of the sacred blooming"
|-
! 9
| '''gaulkaɂa''' || 30 || of the coral (''gulkah'')
|-
! 10
| '''m̃ālasaiṣama''' || 29 || of the ''m̃ālasiṣama'' (a type of snake)
|-
! 11
| '''bhṛtaupala''' || 30 || of the oboes<ref>Named after the ''Bhartośāvi'', lit. “night(s) of oboes”, the most important religious festival of the Yunyalīlta.</ref>
|-
! 12
| '''maimaṇa''' || 29 || of the eel (''mīmaṇa'')
|-
! 13
| '''nāraima''' || 30 || of the jaguar (''nārema'')
|-
! 14
| '''camibhāca''' || 30/31 || great green
|}

The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (4012) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.

All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".

Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (2612) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each. 
''Nartī'' are divided into eight ''nīmaṣi'' (sg. ''nīmaṣe'') - 2.72 Earth seconds - which are further divided into twelve ''idimaṣi'' (sg. ''idimaṣe'') - 0.227 Earth seconds.

==="Thinking" in Dundulanyä===
The English verb "to think" may be translated in different ways in Dundulanyä. Its meaning "to think" in the sense of imagining or communicating in one's own mind is translated by the root ''√nely-'':
: ''kata tho nelyah''. — I'm thinking about you.
: ''nelyāpah jallah''. — I think, therefore I am.

When "to think" is used in order to state one's opinion, Dundulanyä makes the distinction of that thing being a personal opinion based on experience or trustable facts (root ''√sām-'') or an uncertain opinion, often because of mere sensation (still ''√nely-'') (much like the Danish distinction between ''at synes'' and ''at tro''). Both verbs require the quotative particle '''tati''':
: ''duljive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think the movie is good. (for I have seen it)
: ''duljive umūm tati nelyah''. — I think the movie is good. (but I haven't seen it)

''√sām-'' is used also to state one's opinion about a situation (still requiring ''tati'') as well as in the construction ''(2SG) inyo'', better translated as "if I were you" (needs a subjunctive verb):
: ''taśive umūm tati sāmūh''. — I think it's a good idea.
: ''viṣam guntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd buy the other one. (note imperfective subjunctive)
: ''viṣam uguntai kata inyo sāmūh''. — if I were you, I'd have bought the other one. (perfective subjunctive here)

''√nely-'', on the other hand, is used in the past to state something that was thought to be one way but turned out not to be. Also, it is used for future forecasts:
: ''nälte nilavā tati nilin, lalla dāvan cāhin jallīyās''. — I thought it was 4:00 in the morning, but it was already ''lalla dāvan'' (7:00 in the morning).
: ''kaṅga naṅgaśaurulu tati inilyam hä !'' — I thought you were from Naṅgaśūra! (the perfect here could also be translated as "until now, I had been thinking ...")
: ''prānilau idmaiṣyika tati nelyah''. — I think it's going to rain tomorrow.
Note that ''√nely-'' is a perception verb, as defined [[#Telicity_in_perception_verbs|above]], and therefore intransitive, unlike ''√sām-''.

Still, it's better not to translate directly "to think" as ''√nely-'' as in many cases Dundulanyä simply uses an evidential marker:
: ''ut drävūnī''. — I think (s)he did it. (= apparently, (s)he did it)
: ''ut drebūnī''. — I think (s)he did it, but it's probably not so. (= apparently, (s)he did it, but probably not)
: ''duljive umūm emi''. — I've been told the movie is good.

===Sensorial and emotional beauty===
There are two Dundulanyä words that translate to "beautiful": ''lītanah'' (√lītan-) and ''ñäheyah'' (√ñähey-). While conceptually similar, they are often not interchangeable: ''ñäheyah'' refers to sensorial beauty, while ''lītanah'' to beauty in an emotional sense. Some examples:
: ''naṅgaḍuk padimiśura ñäheya''. — the view on the lake is beautiful. (note also how ''padimiśura'' (a view) requires dative case on its argument)
: ''lelḫe hiyo lītana''. — life here is beautiful.
: ''huline ñäheya''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. her appearance is beautiful)
: ''huline lītana''. — the woman is beautiful. (i.e. she has many good qualities)
The derived nouns ''ñähejña'' (with a rarer variant ''ñähīna'') and ''lītanna'' may be translated as "outer beauty" and "inner beauty" respectively.

===Personal names===
: '' Main article: [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]''

==Example texts==
===''Brif, bruf, braf''===
A Dundulanyä translation of the tale "Brif, bruf, braf" by [[w:Gianni Rodari|Gianni Rodari]] (from ''Favole al telefono'' (Telephone Tales), 1962).

: rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
: maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
: bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
: didya kamīne yaivū uśudam tati naig va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
: yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
: lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
: brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Original Italian''':

Due bambini, nella pace del cortile, giocavano a inventare una lingua speciale per poter parlare tra loro senza far capire nulla agli altri. 
- Brif, braf, - disse il primo. 
- Braf, brof, - rispose il secondo. E scoppiarono a ridere.

Su un balcone del primo piano c'era un vecchio buon signore a leggere il giornale, e affacciata alla finestra dirimpetto c'era una vecchia signora né buona né cattiva. 
- Come sono sciocchi quei bambini, - disse la signora. 
Ma il buon signore non era d'accordo: 
- Io non trovo. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito quello che hanno detto. 
- E invece ho capito tutto. Il primo ha detto: che bella giornata. Il secondo ha risposto: domani sarà ancora più bello.

La signora arricciò il naso ma stette zitta, perché i bambini avevano ricominciato a parlare nella loro lingua. 
- Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi, - disse il primo. 
- Bruf, - rispose il secondo. E giù di nuovo a ridere tutti e due. 
- Non mi dirà che ha capito anche adesso, - esclamò indignata la vecchia signora. 
- E invece ho capito tutto, - rispose sorridendo il vecchio signore. - Il primo ha detto: come siamo contenti di essere al mondo. E il secondo ha risposto: il mondo è bellissimo. 
- Ma è poi bello davvero? - insisté la vecchia signora. 
- Brif, bruf, braf, - rispose il vecchio signore.
{{col-break}}
'''English translation ([https://www.babblesf.com/gianni_rodari_english_translation.html sourced from here]):

In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said. 
“Brif, braf,” said the first. 
“Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing. 

On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad. 
“How foolish these children are,” said the woman. 
But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.” 
“Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.” 
“Actually, I understood everything. The first said: ‘What a beautiful day.’ The second replied: ‘Tomorrow will be even better.’” 

The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again. 
“Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first. 
“Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again. 
“Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly. 
“Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’” 
“But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman. 
“Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}
'''Gloss:'''
{{Gloss
| phrase = rirä epena chir̃ā hajirāmitā viṣkaṇai idumū śudai vaininenaikūvai buɂibī vikṣlotadīra ḫamfat nisākhūra.
| morphemes = rirä epen-a chir̃-ā hajirāmit-ā viṣkaṇ-ai idum-ū śud-∅-∅-ai vaininenā-∅-ikū-ai buɂib-ī vikṣlotadīr-∅-∅-a ḫamfa-t ni-sākh-∅-ū-ra.
| gloss = two. child-DIR.SG. courtyard-LOC.SG. quiet-LOC.SG. other.PERS-DIR.PL. nothing-ABL. understand-EXP-PAT-IMPF.3.SUBJ. talk.POT-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. game-ESS.SG. special-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. language-ACC.SG. create-EXP-AG-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = In the quiet of the courtyard, two children played by making up their own language to speak to one another without anyone else understanding what they said.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Brif, braf,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
| morphemes = brif, braf tati hälinaik-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī – epen-eve cai thiɂl-∅-ik-ai gā-lo-∅-∅-ra
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. say-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – child-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. laugh-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3.SUBJ. into-walk-EXP-PAT-PAST.3DU.IND.
| translation = “Braf, brof,” answered the second. And they burst out laughing.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-LOC.SG. balcony-LOC.SG. newspaper-ACC.SG. kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. PLACE-sit-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. read-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. window-BOUND.SG. kind-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. NEG. mean-EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. neither. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman.DIR.SG. protruding-stay-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
| morphemes = āqna ī āna epen-eve omulṣä-∅-∅-ḍa tati hulin-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = QUANTITY.DISTAL. indeed. that.DISTAL. child.DIR.DU. silly-EXP-PAT-PRES-3DU.IND. QUOT. woman-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “How foolish these children are,” said the woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man.DIR.SG. but.EMPH. agree-EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. NEG. think-EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND. NEG.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?
| morphemes = epen-ev vainayan-ū=hin uśud-∅-∅-m tati ni-ṣy-∅-g-ū-ī va itta īśa ni-ṣy-∅-ū-ī?
| gloss = child-BOUND.DU. conversation-ABL.SG=3DU.POSS. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say-FUT-EXP-IRR-AG-2SG.IND. NEG. while. POLAR_INTERR.EMPH. say-FUT-EXP-AG-2SG.IND.
| translation = Don’t tell me that you understood what they were saying.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m. laire ī lītan-∅-∅-a tati lumpyä epen-ē nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. prānilau didya didya lītan-iṣy-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ.
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. day.DIR.SG. indeed. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. first. child-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. tomorrow. more. more. beautiful-FUT-EXP-PAT-3.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = Actually, I understood everything. The first said: "What a beautiful day." The second replied: "Tomorrow will be even better."
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = huline viṣpriṣṭūnī, epeneve sā ḫamfīhin vainīkūvai sebāre gaulura himena hijrī.
| morphemes = huline viṣpriṣṭ-∅-ū-(n)ī, epen-eve sā ḫamf-ī=hin vainī-∅-ikū-ai sebāre gā-ulu-∅-∅-ra himena hijr-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = woman.DIR.SG. frown_away-EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND. child-DIR.DU. but.EMPH. language-INSTR.SG=3DU.POSS. talk-EXP-REC-IMPF.3.SUBJ. again. into-walk.PERF-EXP-3.IND. herefore. be_silent-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = The woman turned up her nose but remained silent as the children began speaking in their own language once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nīnī.
| morphemes = maraski, barabaski, pippirimoski tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic), (asemic), (asemic) QUOT. first.ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Maraschi, barabaschi, pippirimoschi,” said the first.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = bruf tati hälinaikē pānīnī. yāyukaneve cai sebāre ēthäɂligḍa.
| morphemes = bruf tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. yāyukan-eve cai sebāre ēthäɂl-∅-ik-ḍa
| gloss = (asemic) QUOT. second-ERG.SG. reply-EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. – both-DIR.DU. and_so.EMPH. again. laugh.INTENS-EXP-REFL-IMPF.3DU.
| translation = “Bruf,” replied the second. And both fell on the floor laughing once again.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-ABL. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. say.IMP-IRR-AG-3. NEG. QUOT. offend.PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. exclaim-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = yaivū itta uśudah tati p̃āja geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī. hine lilapā himena hulīce chläba tati lumpyä nīnī. lilapa lītanlītana tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.
| morphemes = yaiv-ū itta uśud-∅-∅-m tati p̃āj-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī. hine lilap-ā himena hulīce chlä-∅-∅-ba tati lumpyä nī-∅-∅-(n)ī. lilapa lītan-lītan-∅-∅-a tati hälinaik-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī=ṅ
| gloss = all-ABL. meanwhile. understand.PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND. QUOT. smile-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3. this. world-LOC.SG. herefore. this_way. happy-EXP-PAT-PRES.1DU.IND. QUOT. first-ERG.SG. say-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND. world.DIR.SG. beautiful-beautiful-EXP.PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. QUOT. second-ERG.SG. answer-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND=and.
| translation = “Actually, I understood everything,” answered the old man with a laugh. The first said: ‘How happy we are to be in this world.’ The second replied: ‘The world is so beautiful.’”
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = lilapa ba sā raṅgrī lītanaś tati geṇṭha hulinē saṃśamī.
| morphemes = lilapa ba sā raṅgr-ī lītan-∅-∅-a=ś tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē saṃśam-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = world.DIR.SG. TOPIC. but.EMPH. truth-ESS.SG. beautiful-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND=POLAR_INTERR. QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. woman-ERG.SG. insist-EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND.
| translation = “But is it really so beautiful?” demanded the old woman.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭha ṭarghē pānīnī.
| morphemes = brif, bruf, braf tati geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭargh-ē pānī-∅-∅-(n)ī
| gloss = (asemic) (asemic) (asemic) QUOT. old-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND. man-ERG.SG. answer.IMP-IRR-AG-3.
| translation = “Brif, bruf, braf,” replied the old man.
}}

==External history==
Dundulanyä is a conlang project that I “officially” started in early December 2021 (coincidentally around the fifth anniversary since I started [[Chlouvānem]]), although it and its goals are, to a large extent, the conflation of multiple projects that I sporadically worked on for most of 2021:
* A long process of “refinement” of Chlouvānem – that happened offline, so it was never reflected in any edit on the wiki pages here – by eliminating or changing some quirks that had formed over time and that had brought me to a standstill in working on that conlang by late 2020. Ideas for the refinement started from nominal morphology but then they eventually snowballed to the point it was impossible to implement them without basically starting the conlang anew;
* A radical reboot of [[Tameï]] that was meant to give it an a priori language family in a slightly changed conworld setting (although still on an alternative Earth); this was the language I originally created the glottonym ''Dundulanyä'' for;
* Various unnamed sketchlangs, mostly attempts at Hurro-Urartian diachronic conlanging, that were the results of a general interest in Ancient Near Eastern languages as a side-effect of my work on [[Lifashian]] (my “conlang of choice” for most of 2021) - although some of those ideas eventually became the "successor" to Lifashian, that is, [[Elodian]].
Nevertheless, Dundulanyä for years has mostly been a collection of ideas still not totally parted from Chlouvānem, and it gained steam on its own only in late 2023 (first half of November), two years after its official start.

Dundulanyä is meant to be the first conlang for a sort of reboot of [[Verse:Calémere|Calémere]] – [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] – as, much like in Chlouvānem itself, there had come to be quite a few things in and about Calémere that I wasn’t that sure of keeping, but changing them would have meant to change so many things about the conworld that depended on them. Eventoa, as of now (November 14, 2023) is a WIP conworld about which I'm still adding and discarding ideas nearly every time I work on it, so there’s little to be written about it – but it eventually will incorporate a few elements of Calémere. Dundulanyä will play a role in Eventoa vaguely similar to the one Chlouvānem had in Calémere, although unlike earlier conworld reboots I have decided not to trash everything away (hence why I chose a different name for Eventoa), keeping eight years’ worth of documentation about Calémere and five years’ worth about Chlouvānem intact.

: ''See [[Chlouvānem#External_history|Chlouvānem § External history]] and [[Verse:Calémere#External_History|Calémere § External history]] for more.''

Compared to Chlouvānem, Dundulanyä is going to tone down somewhat the Sanskrit and particularly the Lithuanian and Japanese influences, while being more influenced by PIE itself, Hurrian, Urartian, Elamite, Anatolian languages, Akkadian, languages of the Caucasus (particularly Adyghe), and more aesthetic influences from Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.

==See also==
* [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]]
* [[Dundulanyä/Names|Dundulanyä names]]

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]
[[Category:Eventoa]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]

Dundulanyä/Names

2024-12-14T20:47:06Z

Lili21: /* Male names */

The '''Dundulanyä''' people have a naming tradition which strongly reflects their traditional matriarchal and matrilocal society. Their naming customs, originating in ancient times and only slightly changed since then, are not just continued by the Neo-Dundulanyä or ''Lārutäteṣai'' peoples, but they have also been extended to all other ethnicities of the present-day Dundulanyä Confederation, as well as to other peoples of Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.

All names are adapted to the morphophonology of [[Dundulanyä|their language]] and accordingly written in the Dundulanyä script.

Dundulanyä people have three names - the ''lilene'' or '''surname''' (traditionally the '''clan name'''); the '''matronymic''' and the '''given name'''. While today clanic structures are no longer legally binding anywhere in the Dundulanyä Confederation - but are still an important part of interpersonal relationships - surnames are still transmitted exclusively matrilinearly.

Given names come from a variety of sources: some of them are native Dundulanyä roots with a clear meaning, while others are from cultures absorbed during the two millennia of Dundulanyä expansion across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma: the earliest ones, from the cultures of Mandabuda, the Lusamritene Inland Seas, North Lusaṃrīte and some of the East Lusamritene Islands, are found and used in most of the Dundulanyä-speaking world, while others - with a few exceptions - are mostly regionally used.

The standard format is surname - matronymic - personal name(s)<ref>It is uncommon for people to have more than one given name among the Lārutäteṣai and many other cultures; however, among some ethnicities two or more names are sometimes given to newborns, often a more broadly used Dundulanyä one and another one from that specific ethnicity.</ref>; the latter are usually romanized in ''italic'' in order to better distinguish them.

==Surnames==
==Matronymics==
==Personal names (''lilarañjiḫe'')==
Dundulanyä personal names (''lilarañjiḫe'', pl. ''lilarāñjiḫi'', from ''lila'' "person" and ''rañjiḫe'' "name") have a large variety of origins.

The majority of pan-Dundulanyä given names, not tied to any particular region or culture, are those from native Dundulanyä words or from ancient languages of Mandabuda and neighboring areas in Central Lusaṃrīte, such as Ancient Naṃratausulu, Ancient Ūdhatausulu, or Ancient Nanaḫmairulu<ref>Ancient languages spoken in the present-day regions of Naṃratūsa, Ūdhatūsa and Nanaḫmīra respectively.</ref>, as well as a few other given names of very old, but uncertain etymology.

Many of the most common names are compound, especially those from native Dundulanyä words, and there are a few suffixes that can be used to derive new nouns from existing ones, sometimes male ones from female ones and viceversa. Being Dundulanyä itself a language with no grammatical gender, there are no regular ending patterns tied to gendered names, and it is especially notable with names from Ancient Naṃratausulu, which are head-first rather than head-final as Dundulanyä ones are; another example is the common suffix ''-śīlan'', which forms female names when added to female ones and male names when added to male ones. Many names, furthermore, are epicene.

Despite the majority being compounds or loanwords, a few given names of Dundulanyä origin are made of a single word, such as ''Imāma'' "light" (also among the most common female names), ''Laire'' "sky", ''Śanu'' "sunset", ''Dāvan'' "sun".

Many areas of the Dundulanyä world also have their own local or regional names, taken from pre-Dundulanyä or present-day local languages; this is particularly common areas such as the Toyubeshian realms, which often spread outside that area. Some names traditionally tied to a particular region have, especially in the last century, spread through the entire Dundulanyä world (such as ''Amabu'' and ''Nimālśi'', of Kumañjike origin, from northeastern Jūhma).

===Most common given names at the 4136 census===
The 4136 (248812) federal census found these names as the most common among the population of the Confederacy of the United Dundulanyä Republics.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
Female names:
# Hamiläṣṇa
# Imāma
# Imika
# Laire
# Kālomīye
# Mämihūmya
# Fulaɂimāma
# Lulūb̃alka
# Nimālśi
# Emeni
{{col-break}}
Male names:
# Kāltaryan
# Dalaigam
# Bham̃p̃a
# Khālbayam
# Śindagharja
# Daladārḫa
# Śanu
# Oṅgūdam
# Turābayam
# Ubukhai
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

===Common given names and their meanings===
Reconstructed meanings for non-Dundulanyä names are given when known, but note that the actual etymology of nearly all such names is often unknown to the average Dundulanyä.
====Female names====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Meaning (origin) !! Notes
|-
| Amabu || sunlight (Kumañjike) ||
|-
| Anāka || name of a turtle (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Āpita || truth (Classical Toyubeshian) ||
|-
| Baiñśima || hand of the wind (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Boyuñīla || colspan=2 | female variant of ''Boyuna''
|-
| Bundukāri || sure woman (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Bunduṣulga || woman of happiness (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Bhājñafaula || of the caretaker's hearth (Dun.) ||
|-
| Camifaula || of the great hearth (Dun.) ||
|-
| Chaudaṃde || voice of a puma (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ejindīddha || colspan=2 | from Ancient Naṃratausulu ''yezen'' (star), also found as a component of many common names + the general morpheme ''-dīddha''
|-
| Emeni || diminutive of ''eme'' "star" (Dun.) ||
|-
| Emeniśīlan || colspan=2 | ''Emeni'' + the general morpheme ''-śīlan'' (originally "keeper")
|-
| Faula || of the hearth (Dun.) ||
|-
| Fulābhājña || caretaker of the hearth (Dun.) ||
|-
| Fulādāvan || sun of the hearth (Dun.) ||
|-
| Fulāśīlan || keeper of the hearth (Dun.) || variants: ''Fulahśīlan'', ''Fulaɂśīlan''
|-
| Fulaɂimāma || light of the hearth (Dun.) ||
|-
| Garjaghande || sun through the darkness (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Hālyähaika || colspan=2 | first element from Tamukāyulu ''haaliye'' "river", second element ''-haika'' of unknown origin
|-
| Hālyähulca || colspan=2 | post-classical corruption of ''Hālyähaika''
|-
| Hamiläṣṇa || first sage (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Hāreṇe || dawn (Dun.) || e-stem
|-
| Homānaiṣa || bounty of flowers (?) (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Hūmīnaiṣa || colspan=2 | likely a variant (more commonly found) of ''Homānaiṣa''
|-
| Hundarīmya || leading woman (Ancient Ūdhatausulu)
|-
| Imāma || light (Dun.) ||
|-
| Imika || courageous (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Iñika || colspan=2 | possibly a variant of ''Imika''
|-
| Kālomīye || unknown || e-stem
|-
| Kalyahīṃsa || gifted of splendour (Tamukāyulu) ||
|-
| Kilahkalya || splendour of the village (Tamukāyulu) ||
|-
| Kilahmulla || protector of the village (Tamukāyulu) ||
|-
| Khaguśīla || colspan=2 | female variant of ''Khaguṣan''
|-
| Laire || sky, day, air (Dun.) ||
|-
| Lallafaula || of the great hearth (Dun.) ||
|-
| Lanailulya || island flower (Dun.) ||
|-
| Lähimausa || emerald (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Läṣam̃b̃alka || daughter of the sage (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Lilämāvya || shy [and] brave (Tamukāyulu)
|-
| Liläkuhla || probably from Tamukāyulu
|-
| Lulauśima || blessed hand (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Lulūb̃alka || blessed daughter (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) || variants: ''Lulaub̃alka''
|-
| Lulūmausa || blessed gem (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Mambap̃iṅga || water pearl (Tamukāyulu) ||
|-
| Mämihomah || red flower, beautiful flower (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Mämihūmya || colspan=2 | likely a variant of ''Mämihomah''
|-
| Mämijūltä || beautiful song (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Mämiläṣṇa || red sage (?) (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Mämimausa || red gem, beautiful gem (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Mäminaiṣa || red wealth (?) (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Mausahomah || gem flower (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Mausahūmya || colspan=2 | likely a variant of ''Mausahomah''
|-
| Mumūya || plenty (Dun.) ||
|-
| Naive || name of a flower (Dun.) ||
|-
| Nimālśi || the young one (Kumañjike) ||
|-
| Nimūlśime || the young one (Kumañjike) || from a different language of the K. family compared to ''Nimālśi''
|-
| Numminaiṣa || colspan=2 | first element unknown, the second from Ancient Nanaḫmairulu ''naysh'' "wealth"
|-
| Ñīladala || strong daughter (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ñīlaigam || daughter of the full moon (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ñīlājan || daughter of the star(s) (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ñīlāṅgal || welcome daughter (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ñīlaṣulga || daughter of happiness (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Śanūdīddha || colspan=2 | from ''śanu'' (sunset), also a masculine name (Dun.)
|-
| Śūbhājña || great caregiver (Dun.) ||
|-
| Ṣastira || water fairy (Tamukāyulu) ||
|-
| Ṣulega || happiness (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ṣulegdīddha || colspan=2 | from ''ṣulega''
|-
| Ṣurlāśīla || colspan=2 | female variant of ''Ṣurlāke''
|-
| Tālimausa || colspan=2 | first element unknown, the second from Ancient Nanaḫmairulu ''mowsa'' "gem"
|-
| Tainah || gem (Tamukāyulu) ||
|-
| Tūva || name of a flower (Dun.) ||
|-
| Ūrghnajūṇa || colspan=2 | female variant of ''Ūrghan''
|}

====Male names====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Meaning (origin) !! Notes
|-
| Ādhra || name of a predatory bird (Dun.) ||
|-
| Boyuna || colspan=2 | Ancient Nanaḫmairulu, etymologically related to ''Baina''
|-
| Bham̃p̃a || lion (Dun.) ||
|-
| Daladārḫa || lucky strength (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Dalaigam || strength of the full moon (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Daṃdhidala || strong puma (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Daṃdhikāri || sure puma (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Dārḫa || lucky (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ejiṅghai || blue star (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ejināde || distant star (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Emayāsmyam || star watcher (Dun.) ||
|-
| Fulaɂudai || servant of the hearth (Dun.) ||
|-
| Hundaraśība || leading man (Ancient Ūdhatausulu) ||
|-
| Ḫurdhārḫa || lucky message (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ḫurthāṅgal || welcome message (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Imāṃdālu || having light (Dun.) ||
|-
| Jariśūṭ || sea wind (Dun.) || root ablaut noun
|-
| Kāltaryan || painted man (Tamukāyulu) ||
|-
| Khaguṣan || righteous (Ancient Ūdhatausulu) ||
|-
| Khālbayam || quick man (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Khālejña || star man (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Khālṣulga || man of happiness (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Läṣaṅkam̃u || son of the sage (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Lulaukam̃u || blessed son (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) || variants: ''Lulūkam̃u''
|-
| Māṅgadu || trusted spirit; friend (Ancient Ūdhatausulu) || formerly epicene; variants: ''Māṅgudu''
|-
| Oṅgodu || companion spirit (Ancient Ūdhatausulu) ||
|-
| Oṅgūdam || colspan=2 | a variant of ''Oṅgodu''
|-
| Oṅguśība || companion man (Ancient Ūdhatausulu) ||
|-
| Śanu || sunset (Dun.) ||
|-
| Ṣastirdālu || colspan=2 | male variant of ''Ṣastira''
|-
| Śindagharja || son of the sun (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Śindaigam || son of the full moon (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Śindāṅgal || welcome son (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ṣurlāke || miracle (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Ṣurqam || name of a bird (Ancient Ūdhatausulu) ||
|-
| Turābayam || quick step (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Turāde || distant step (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Turāghande || step through the dark (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Turākāri || sure step (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Tūvākṣan || colspan=2 | male variant of ''Tūva''
|-
| Ūrghan || unknown ||
|-
| Ubukhai || follower of the light (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|}

====Epicene names====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Meaning (origin) !! Notes
|-
| Baina || wind (?) (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Cambhugra || eagle (Dun.) ||
|-
| Chaukāri || sure voice (Ancient Naṃratausulu) || in the last 90 years more commonly male, and almost exclusively given to males in the last 40 years
|-
| Dāvan || sun (Dun.) ||
|-
| Dāvañśīlan || colspan=2 | ''Dāvan'' + the general morpheme ''-śīlan'' (originally "keeper")
|-
| Hūlya || greater moon of Eventoa (Dun.) ||
|-
| Julāghande || conqueror of the darkness (Ancient Naṃratausulu) ||
|-
| Läṣañśima || hand of the sage / sage hand (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Lulau || blessing (Ancient Nanaḫmairulu) ||
|-
| Lūm̃am̃a || "painted quail" (Dun.) || name of a bird featured in multiple Central Lusaṃrītene legends and folktales due to its colors and birdsong
|-
| Ñäfä || child (Classical Toyubeshian) ||
|-
| Qūdalgu || name of a bird (Ancient Ūdhatausulu) ||
|-
| Savu || pelican (Dun.) ||
|-
| Śugdah || (long-)awaited child (Ancient Ūdhatausulu) || ṛ-stem
|-
| Taɂona || lesser moon of Eventoa (Dun.) ||
|-
| Ūruśi || unknown ||
|}

==Notes==

[[Category:Dundulanyä]]