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2026-04-05T01:15:28Z
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https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Inland_North_Czech&diff=491830
Inland North Czech
2026-03-27T13:36:29Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the Jarthe timeline, '''Inland North Czech''' (natively ''čeſký gazyk'' /ˈtʃɛskɛj ˈjæzək/) is a descendant of old Bohemian dialects spoken by a Mennonite-like Christian sect descended from the Bohemian Brethren in Canada and the Inland North area of the United States. It shares certain vowel shifts with Inland North English (which is also the standard Canadian accent in Lõis) and has a stratum of Dutch and Low German loanwords. <br />
<br />
The everyday spoken register of Inland North Czech is in diglossia with the liturgical language which is based on the Kralice Bible. The differences mainly lie in morphology, syntax, and vocabulary.<br />
<br />
The orthography for Inland North Czech is based on the old Brethren orthography of Czech.<br />
<br />
This page will only describe the phonology and morphology of Inland North Czech.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
Similar to Standard Czech, but voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated as in English<br />
<br />
''mě'' is [mjɛ]<br />
<br />
preserves the distinction between ł and l as [ʁ] (may be [w] or zero depending on dialect) and [l~ɫ]<br />
<br />
''ǧ'' (old /g/ in loanwords) is [ɣ~x]<br />
<br />
/{{š}}/ is written ''ß''<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
Inland North Czech has lost vowel length, having changed the length distinction into a quality/diphthong distinction.<br />
<br />
It has the following 11 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs:<br />
* a -> /a/ {{angbr|''a''}}<br />
* o -> /{{eo}}/ {{angbr|''o''}}<br />
* á -> /eæ̯/ {{angbr|''á''}}<br />
* e -> /ɛ/ {{angbr|''e''}}<br />
* ej -> /aj/ {{angbr|''eg''}}<br />
* é -> /i/ {{angbr|''é''}}<br />
* ou and initial ú -> /o/ {{angbr|''au''}}<br />
* u -> /ɯ/ {{angbr|''u''}}<br />
* ů -> /u/ {{angbr|''ů''}}<br />
* i/y -> /e/ {{angbr|''y''/''i''}}<br />
* í -> /i/ {{angbr|''j''}}<br />
* ý -> /ɛj/ {{angbr|''ý''}}<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
5 cases; loc./voc. lost, acc = gen or nom, entirely depending on animacy<br />
<br />
'Dog'<br />
* Nom. /pɛs, pse/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /psa, psu/<br />
* Dat. /psɯ, psų/<br />
* Ins. /psę, psama/<br />
<br />
'Man'<br />
*nom. /mɯ{{š}}, mɯ{{ž}}ɛ/<br />
*gen. /mɯ{{ž}}ɛ, mɯ{{ž}}i/<br />
*dat. /mɯ{{ž}}e, mɯ{{ž}}į/<br />
*ins. /mɯ{{ž}}ę, mɯ{{ž}}ima/<br />
<br />
'Tree'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /str{{eo}}m, str{{eo}}me/<br />
* Gen. /str{{eo}}ma, str{{eo}}mu/<br />
* Dat. /str{{eo}}m{{eo}}ve, str{{eo}}mų/<br />
* Ins. /str{{eo}}mę, str{{eo}}mama/<br />
<br />
'Wife'<br />
* Nom. /{{ž}}ɛna, {{ž}}ɛne/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /{{ž}}ɛne, {{ž}}ɛn/<br />
* Dat. /{{ž}}ɛnjɛ, {{ž}}ɛnų/<br />
* Ins. /{{ž}}ɛno, {{ž}}ɛnama/<br />
<br />
'Earth'<br />
* Nom. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmjɛ/<br />
* Gen. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmi/<br />
* Dat. /zɛme, zɛmį/<br />
* Ins. /zɛmi, zɛmima/<br />
<br />
'Leaf'<br />
* nom./acc. /lest, lesce/<br />
* gen. /lesce, lesci/<br />
* dat. /lesce, lescį/<br />
* ins. /lesci, lescima/<br />
<br />
'Word'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /sʁ{{eo}}v{{eo}}, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
* Gen. /sʁ{{eo}}va, sʁ{{eo}}f/<br />
* Dat. /sʁ{{eo}}vɯ, sʁ{{eo}}vų/<br />
* Ins. /sʁ{{eo}}vę, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-i, -i/<br />
*dat. /-i, -į/<br />
*ins. /-į, -ima/<br />
<br />
=== Adjectives ===<br />
m/f/n/pl<br />
* nom. /d{{eo}}brɛj, d{{eo}}breæ, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}bri/<br />
* gen. /d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}brex/<br />
* dat. /d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
* ins. /d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}bro, d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i, -i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-ih{{eo}}, -i, -ih{{eo}}, -ix/<br />
*dat. /-į, -i, -į, -ima/<br />
*ins. /-ę, -i, -ę, -ima/<br />
<br />
[[Category:Slavic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Lõis]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Inland_North_Czech&diff=491829
Inland North Czech
2026-03-27T13:35:16Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the Jarthe timeline, '''Inland North Czech''' (natively ''čeſký gazyk'' /ˈtʃɛskɛj ˈjæzək/) is a descendant of old Bohemian dialects spoken by an Amish-like Christian sect descended from the Bohemian Brethren in Canada and the Inland North area of the United States. It shares certain vowel shifts with Inland North English (which is also the standard Canadian accent in Lõis) and has a stratum of Dutch and Low German loanwords. <br />
<br />
The everyday spoken register of Inland North Czech is in diglossia with the liturgical language which is based on the Kralice Bible. The differences mainly lie in morphology, syntax, and vocabulary.<br />
<br />
The orthography for Inland North Czech is based on the old Brethren orthography of Czech.<br />
<br />
This page will only describe the phonology and morphology of Inland North Czech.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
Similar to Standard Czech, but voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated as in English<br />
<br />
''mě'' is [mjɛ]<br />
<br />
preserves the distinction between ł and l as [ʁ] (may be [w] or zero depending on dialect) and [l~ɫ]<br />
<br />
''ǧ'' (old /g/ in loanwords) is [ɣ~x]<br />
<br />
/{{š}}/ is written ''ß''<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
Inland North Czech has lost vowel length, having changed the length distinction into a quality/diphthong distinction.<br />
<br />
It has the following 11 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs:<br />
* a -> /a/ {{angbr|''a''}}<br />
* o -> /{{eo}}/ {{angbr|''o''}}<br />
* á -> /eæ̯/ {{angbr|''á''}}<br />
* e -> /ɛ/ {{angbr|''e''}}<br />
* ej -> /aj/ {{angbr|''eg''}}<br />
* é -> /i/ {{angbr|''é''}}<br />
* ou and initial ú -> /o/ {{angbr|''au''}}<br />
* u -> /ɯ/ {{angbr|''u''}}<br />
* ů -> /u/ {{angbr|''ů''}}<br />
* i/y -> /e/ {{angbr|''y''/''i''}}<br />
* í -> /i/ {{angbr|''j''}}<br />
* ý -> /ɛj/ {{angbr|''ý''}}<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
5 cases; loc./voc. lost, acc = gen or nom, entirely depending on animacy<br />
<br />
'Dog'<br />
* Nom. /pɛs, pse/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /psa, psu/<br />
* Dat. /psɯ, psų/<br />
* Ins. /psę, psama/<br />
<br />
'Man'<br />
*nom. /mɯ{{š}}, mɯ{{ž}}ɛ/<br />
*gen. /mɯ{{ž}}ɛ, mɯ{{ž}}i/<br />
*dat. /mɯ{{ž}}e, mɯ{{ž}}į/<br />
*ins. /mɯ{{ž}}ę, mɯ{{ž}}ima/<br />
<br />
'Tree'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /str{{eo}}m, str{{eo}}me/<br />
* Gen. /str{{eo}}ma, str{{eo}}mu/<br />
* Dat. /str{{eo}}m{{eo}}ve, str{{eo}}mų/<br />
* Ins. /str{{eo}}mę, str{{eo}}mama/<br />
<br />
'Wife'<br />
* Nom. /{{ž}}ɛna, {{ž}}ɛne/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /{{ž}}ɛne, {{ž}}ɛn/<br />
* Dat. /{{ž}}ɛnjɛ, {{ž}}ɛnų/<br />
* Ins. /{{ž}}ɛno, {{ž}}ɛnama/<br />
<br />
'Earth'<br />
* Nom. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmjɛ/<br />
* Gen. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmi/<br />
* Dat. /zɛme, zɛmį/<br />
* Ins. /zɛmi, zɛmima/<br />
<br />
'Leaf'<br />
* nom./acc. /lest, lesce/<br />
* gen. /lesce, lesci/<br />
* dat. /lesce, lescį/<br />
* ins. /lesci, lescima/<br />
<br />
'Word'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /sʁ{{eo}}v{{eo}}, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
* Gen. /sʁ{{eo}}va, sʁ{{eo}}f/<br />
* Dat. /sʁ{{eo}}vɯ, sʁ{{eo}}vų/<br />
* Ins. /sʁ{{eo}}vę, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-i, -i/<br />
*dat. /-i, -į/<br />
*ins. /-į, -ima/<br />
<br />
=== Adjectives ===<br />
m/f/n/pl<br />
* nom. /d{{eo}}brɛj, d{{eo}}breæ, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}bri/<br />
* gen. /d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}brex/<br />
* dat. /d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
* ins. /d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}bro, d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i, -i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-ih{{eo}}, -i, -ih{{eo}}, -ix/<br />
*dat. /-į, -i, -į, -ima/<br />
*ins. /-ę, -i, -ę, -ima/<br />
<br />
[[Category:Slavic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Lõis]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Inland_North_Czech&diff=491607
Inland North Czech
2026-03-25T21:49:38Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the Jarthe timeline, '''Inland North Czech''' (natively ''český gazyk'' /ˈtʃɛskɛj ˈjæzək/) is a descendant of old Bohemian dialects spoken by an Amish-like Christian sect descended from the Bohemian Brethren in Canada and the Inland North area of the United States. It shares certain vowel shifts with Inland North English (which is also the standard Canadian accent in Lõis) and has a stratum of Dutch and Low German loanwords. <br />
<br />
The everyday spoken register of Inland North Czech is in diglossia with the liturgical language which is based on the Kralice Bible. The differences mainly lie in morphology, syntax, and vocabulary.<br />
<br />
The orthography for Inland North Czech is based on the old Brethren orthography of Czech.<br />
<br />
This page will only describe the phonology and morphology of Inland North Czech.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
Similar to Standard Czech, but voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated as in English<br />
<br />
''mě'' is [mjɛ]<br />
<br />
preserves the distinction between ł and l as [ʁ] (may be [w] or zero depending on dialect) and [l~ɫ]<br />
<br />
''ǧ'' (old /g/ in loanwords) is [ɣ~x]<br />
<br />
/{{š}}/ is written ''ß''<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
Inland North Czech has lost vowel length, having changed the length distinction into a quality/diphthong distinction.<br />
<br />
It has the following 11 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs:<br />
* a -> /a/ {{angbr|''a''}}<br />
* o -> /{{eo}}/ {{angbr|''o''}}<br />
* á -> /eæ̯/ {{angbr|''á''}}<br />
* e -> /ɛ/ {{angbr|''e''}}<br />
* ej -> /aj/ {{angbr|''eg''}}<br />
* é -> /i/ {{angbr|''é''}}<br />
* ou and initial ú -> /o/ {{angbr|''au''}}<br />
* u -> /ɯ/ {{angbr|''u''}}<br />
* ů -> /u/ {{angbr|''ů''}}<br />
* i/y -> /e/ {{angbr|''y''/''i''}}<br />
* í -> /i/ {{angbr|''j''}}<br />
* ý -> /ɛj/ {{angbr|''ý''}}<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
5 cases; loc./voc. lost, acc = gen or nom, entirely depending on animacy<br />
<br />
'Dog'<br />
* Nom. /pɛs, pse/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /psa, psu/<br />
* Dat. /psɯ, psų/<br />
* Ins. /psę, psama/<br />
<br />
'Man'<br />
*nom. /mɯ{{š}}, mɯ{{ž}}ɛ/<br />
*gen. /mɯ{{ž}}ɛ, mɯ{{ž}}i/<br />
*dat. /mɯ{{ž}}e, mɯ{{ž}}į/<br />
*ins. /mɯ{{ž}}ę, mɯ{{ž}}ima/<br />
<br />
'Tree'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /str{{eo}}m, str{{eo}}me/<br />
* Gen. /str{{eo}}ma, str{{eo}}mu/<br />
* Dat. /str{{eo}}m{{eo}}ve, str{{eo}}mų/<br />
* Ins. /str{{eo}}mę, str{{eo}}mama/<br />
<br />
'Wife'<br />
* Nom. /{{ž}}ɛna, {{ž}}ɛne/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /{{ž}}ɛne, {{ž}}ɛn/<br />
* Dat. /{{ž}}ɛnjɛ, {{ž}}ɛnų/<br />
* Ins. /{{ž}}ɛno, {{ž}}ɛnama/<br />
<br />
'Earth'<br />
* Nom. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmjɛ/<br />
* Gen. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmi/<br />
* Dat. /zɛme, zɛmį/<br />
* Ins. /zɛmi, zɛmima/<br />
<br />
'Leaf'<br />
* nom./acc. /lest, lesce/<br />
* gen. /lesce, lesci/<br />
* dat. /lesce, lescį/<br />
* ins. /lesci, lescima/<br />
<br />
'Word'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /sʁ{{eo}}v{{eo}}, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
* Gen. /sʁ{{eo}}va, sʁ{{eo}}f/<br />
* Dat. /sʁ{{eo}}vɯ, sʁ{{eo}}vų/<br />
* Ins. /sʁ{{eo}}vę, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-i, -i/<br />
*dat. /-i, -į/<br />
*ins. /-į, -ima/<br />
<br />
=== Adjectives ===<br />
m/f/n/pl<br />
* nom. /d{{eo}}brɛj, d{{eo}}breæ, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}bri/<br />
* gen. /d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}brex/<br />
* dat. /d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
* ins. /d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}bro, d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i, -i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-ih{{eo}}, -i, -ih{{eo}}, -ix/<br />
*dat. /-į, -i, -į, -ima/<br />
*ins. /-ę, -i, -ę, -ima/<br />
<br />
[[Category:Slavic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Lõis]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Inland_North_Czech&diff=491606
Inland North Czech
2026-03-25T21:49:08Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the Lõis timeline, '''Inland North Czech''' (natively ''český gazyk'' /ˈtʃɛskɛj ˈjæzək/) is a descendant of old Bohemian dialects spoken by an Amish-like Christian sect descended from the Bohemian Brethren in Canada and the Inland North area of the United States. It shares certain vowel shifts with Inland North English (which is also the standard Canadian accent in Lõis) and has a stratum of Dutch and Low German loanwords. <br />
<br />
The everyday spoken register of Inland North Czech is in diglossia with the liturgical language which is based on the Kralice Bible. The differences mainly lie in morphology, syntax, and vocabulary.<br />
<br />
The orthography for Inland North Czech is based on the old Brethren orthography of Czech.<br />
<br />
This page will only describe the phonology and morphology of Inland North Czech.<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
Similar to Standard Czech, but voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated as in English<br />
<br />
''mě'' is [mjɛ]<br />
<br />
preserves the distinction between ł and l as [ʁ] (may be [w] or zero depending on dialect) and [l~ɫ]<br />
<br />
''ǧ'' (old /g/ in loanwords) is [ɣ~x]<br />
<br />
/{{š}}/ is written ''ß''<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
Inland North Czech has lost vowel length, having changed the length distinction into a quality/diphthong distinction.<br />
<br />
It has the following 11 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs:<br />
* a -> /a/ {{angbr|''a''}}<br />
* o -> /{{eo}}/ {{angbr|''o''}}<br />
* á -> /eæ̯/ {{angbr|''á''}}<br />
* e -> /ɛ/ {{angbr|''e''}}<br />
* ej -> /aj/ {{angbr|''eg''}}<br />
* é -> /i/ {{angbr|''é''}}<br />
* ou and initial ú -> /o/ {{angbr|''au''}}<br />
* u -> /ɯ/ {{angbr|''u''}}<br />
* ů -> /u/ {{angbr|''ů''}}<br />
* i/y -> /e/ {{angbr|''y''/''i''}}<br />
* í -> /i/ {{angbr|''j''}}<br />
* ý -> /ɛj/ {{angbr|''ý''}}<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
5 cases; loc./voc. lost, acc = gen or nom, entirely depending on animacy<br />
<br />
'Dog'<br />
* Nom. /pɛs, pse/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /psa, psu/<br />
* Dat. /psɯ, psų/<br />
* Ins. /psę, psama/<br />
<br />
'Man'<br />
*nom. /mɯ{{š}}, mɯ{{ž}}ɛ/<br />
*gen. /mɯ{{ž}}ɛ, mɯ{{ž}}i/<br />
*dat. /mɯ{{ž}}e, mɯ{{ž}}į/<br />
*ins. /mɯ{{ž}}ę, mɯ{{ž}}ima/<br />
<br />
'Tree'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /str{{eo}}m, str{{eo}}me/<br />
* Gen. /str{{eo}}ma, str{{eo}}mu/<br />
* Dat. /str{{eo}}m{{eo}}ve, str{{eo}}mų/<br />
* Ins. /str{{eo}}mę, str{{eo}}mama/<br />
<br />
'Wife'<br />
* Nom. /{{ž}}ɛna, {{ž}}ɛne/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /{{ž}}ɛne, {{ž}}ɛn/<br />
* Dat. /{{ž}}ɛnjɛ, {{ž}}ɛnų/<br />
* Ins. /{{ž}}ɛno, {{ž}}ɛnama/<br />
<br />
'Earth'<br />
* Nom. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmjɛ/<br />
* Gen. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmi/<br />
* Dat. /zɛme, zɛmį/<br />
* Ins. /zɛmi, zɛmima/<br />
<br />
'Leaf'<br />
* nom./acc. /lest, lesce/<br />
* gen. /lesce, lesci/<br />
* dat. /lesce, lescį/<br />
* ins. /lesci, lescima/<br />
<br />
'Word'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /sʁ{{eo}}v{{eo}}, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
* Gen. /sʁ{{eo}}va, sʁ{{eo}}f/<br />
* Dat. /sʁ{{eo}}vɯ, sʁ{{eo}}vų/<br />
* Ins. /sʁ{{eo}}vę, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-i, -i/<br />
*dat. /-i, -į/<br />
*ins. /-į, -ima/<br />
<br />
=== Adjectives ===<br />
m/f/n/pl<br />
* nom. /d{{eo}}brɛj, d{{eo}}breæ, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}bri/<br />
* gen. /d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}brex/<br />
* dat. /d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
* ins. /d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}bro, d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i, -i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-ih{{eo}}, -i, -ih{{eo}}, -ix/<br />
*dat. /-į, -i, -į, -ima/<br />
*ins. /-ę, -i, -ę, -ima/<br />
<br />
[[Category:Slavic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Lõis]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Inland_North_Czech&diff=491605
Inland North Czech
2026-03-25T21:47:19Z
<p>IlL: /* Morphology */Nasalize final -Vm</p>
<hr />
<div>In the Lõis timeline, '''Inland North Czech''' (natively ''český gazyk'' /ˈtʃɛskɛj ˈjæzək/) is a descendant of old Bohemian dialects spoken by an Amish-like Christian sect descended from the Bohemian Brethren in Canada and the Inland North area of the United States. It shares certain vowel shifts with Inland North English (which is also the standard Canadian accent in Lõis) and has a stratum of Dutch and Low German loanwords. <br />
<br />
The everyday spoken register of Inland North Czech is in diglossia with the liturgical language which is based on the Kralice Bible. The differences mainly lie in morphology, syntax, and vocabulary.<br />
<br />
The orthography for Inland North Czech is based on the old Brethren orthography of Czech.<br />
<br />
This page will only describe the phonology and morphology of Inland North Czech.<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
Similar to Standard Czech, but voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated as in English<br />
<br />
''mě'' is [mjɛ]<br />
<br />
preserves the distinction between ł and l as [ʁ] (may be [w] or zero depending on dialect) and [l~ɫ]<br />
<br />
''ǧ'' (old /g/ in loanwords) is [ɣ~x]<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
Inland North Czech has lost vowel length, having changed the length distinction into a quality/diphthong distinction.<br />
<br />
It has the following 11 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs:<br />
* a -> /a/ {{angbr|''a''}}<br />
* o -> /{{eo}}/ {{angbr|''o''}}<br />
* á -> /eæ̯/ {{angbr|''á''}}<br />
* e -> /ɛ/ {{angbr|''e''}}<br />
* ej -> /aj/ {{angbr|''eg''}}<br />
* é -> /i/ {{angbr|''é''}}<br />
* ou and initial ú -> /o/ {{angbr|''au''}}<br />
* u -> /ɯ/ {{angbr|''u''}}<br />
* ů -> /u/ {{angbr|''ů''}}<br />
* i/y -> /e/ {{angbr|''y''/''i''}}<br />
* í -> /i/ {{angbr|''j''}}<br />
* ý -> /ɛj/ {{angbr|''ý''}}<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
5 cases; loc./voc. lost, acc = gen or nom, entirely depending on animacy<br />
<br />
'Dog'<br />
* Nom. /pɛs, pse/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /psa, psu/<br />
* Dat. /psɯ, psų/<br />
* Ins. /psę, psama/<br />
<br />
'Man'<br />
*nom. /mɯ{{š}}, mɯ{{ž}}ɛ/<br />
*gen. /mɯ{{ž}}ɛ, mɯ{{ž}}i/<br />
*dat. /mɯ{{ž}}e, mɯ{{ž}}į/<br />
*ins. /mɯ{{ž}}ę, mɯ{{ž}}ima/<br />
<br />
'Tree'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /str{{eo}}m, str{{eo}}me/<br />
* Gen. /str{{eo}}ma, str{{eo}}mu/<br />
* Dat. /str{{eo}}m{{eo}}ve, str{{eo}}mų/<br />
* Ins. /str{{eo}}mę, str{{eo}}mama/<br />
<br />
'Wife'<br />
* Nom. /{{ž}}ɛna, {{ž}}ɛne/<br />
* Gen./Acc. /{{ž}}ɛne, {{ž}}ɛn/<br />
* Dat. /{{ž}}ɛnjɛ, {{ž}}ɛnų/<br />
* Ins. /{{ž}}ɛno, {{ž}}ɛnama/<br />
<br />
'Earth'<br />
* Nom. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmjɛ/<br />
* Gen. /zɛmjɛ, zɛmi/<br />
* Dat. /zɛme, zɛmį/<br />
* Ins. /zɛmi, zɛmima/<br />
<br />
'Leaf'<br />
* nom./acc. /lest, lesce/<br />
* gen. /lesce, lesci/<br />
* dat. /lesce, lescį/<br />
* ins. /lesci, lescima/<br />
<br />
'Word'<br />
* Nom./Acc. /sʁ{{eo}}v{{eo}}, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
* Gen. /sʁ{{eo}}va, sʁ{{eo}}f/<br />
* Dat. /sʁ{{eo}}vɯ, sʁ{{eo}}vų/<br />
* Ins. /sʁ{{eo}}vę, sʁ{{eo}}va/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-i, -i/<br />
*dat. /-i, -į/<br />
*ins. /-į, -ima/<br />
<br />
=== Adjectives ===<br />
m/f/n/pl<br />
* nom. /d{{eo}}brɛj, d{{eo}}breæ, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}bri/<br />
* gen. /d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brih{{eo}}, d{{eo}}brex/<br />
* dat. /d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}bri, d{{eo}}brį, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
* ins. /d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}bro, d{{eo}}brę, d{{eo}}brɛjma/<br />
<br />
* nom. /-i, -i, -i, -i/<br />
*gen. /-ih{{eo}}, -i, -ih{{eo}}, -ix/<br />
*dat. /-į, -i, -į, -ima/<br />
*ins. /-ę, -i, -ę, -ima/<br />
<br />
[[Category:Slavic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Lõis]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Jarthe&diff=489263
Verse:Jarthe
2026-02-28T21:24:00Z
<p>IlL: /* Characters */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{list subpages}}<br />
<br />
==Languages==<br />
<br />
Almost the same as our Earth timeline but with some added languages:<br />
<br />
*[[Medh Chêl]], in Kaliningrad<br />
*[[Kyravar Maři]], a Balkan sprachbund Dravidian language<br />
*[[Bgapian]]<br />
*[[Glommish]], in the Alps<br />
*[[Inland North Czech]], spoken by an Amish-like religious sect descended from the Bohemian Brethren<br />
<br />
In addition, there are a few pockets of vernacular Esperanto-speaking populations from Homaranist missions.<br />
<br />
==Sprachbunds==<br />
===Sardinian===<br />
"How can I evolve retroflexes? Let me count the ways"<br />
<br />
===British Isles===<br />
Same features as in our timeline<br />
<br />
===South Asian===<br />
Same features as in our timeline; includes Palkhan<br />
<br />
===Southeast Asian===<br />
Includes Samanasphuore<br />
<br />
===Khoisan===<br />
Includes Justin Wieber?<br />
<br />
==Cuisine==<br />
<br />
Glommish cuisine: a kind of pan-Mediterranean cuisine<br />
<br />
==Religions==<br />
<br />
The usual ones, plus Homaranism and Medh Chêl druidism<br />
<br />
Liturgical languages: the usual ones plus Esperanto and Medh Chêl<br />
<br />
== Characters ==<br />
* Darius Liebgott: A biologist who warns about superpathogens who nonetheless works on developing them militarily</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Jarthe&diff=489259
Verse:Jarthe
2026-02-28T17:14:07Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{list subpages}}<br />
<br />
==Languages==<br />
<br />
Almost the same as our Earth timeline but with some added languages:<br />
<br />
*[[Medh Chêl]], in Kaliningrad<br />
*[[Kyravar Maři]], a Balkan sprachbund Dravidian language<br />
*[[Bgapian]]<br />
*[[Glommish]], in the Alps<br />
*[[Inland North Czech]], spoken by an Amish-like religious sect descended from the Bohemian Brethren<br />
<br />
In addition, there are a few pockets of vernacular Esperanto-speaking populations from Homaranist missions.<br />
<br />
==Sprachbunds==<br />
===Sardinian===<br />
"How can I evolve retroflexes? Let me count the ways"<br />
<br />
===British Isles===<br />
Same features as in our timeline<br />
<br />
===South Asian===<br />
Same features as in our timeline; includes Palkhan<br />
<br />
===Southeast Asian===<br />
Includes Samanasphuore<br />
<br />
===Khoisan===<br />
Includes Justin Wieber?<br />
<br />
==Cuisine==<br />
<br />
Glommish cuisine: a kind of pan-Mediterranean cuisine<br />
<br />
==Religions==<br />
<br />
The usual ones, plus Homaranism and Medh Chêl druidism<br />
<br />
Liturgical languages: the usual ones plus Esperanto and Medh Chêl<br />
<br />
== Characters ==<br />
* Darius Liebgott: An American nuclear physicist who worked on the atomic bomb</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Togarmite&diff=488770
Togarmite
2026-02-21T19:12:12Z
<p>IlL: /* Noun and adjective patterns */</p>
<hr />
<div>:[[Togarmite/Lexicon]]<br />
:[[Togarmite/Swadesh list]]<br />
:[[Togarmite/he|דף זה בעברית]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|creator = Praimhín<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = Irta<br />
|nativename = yn Tėrmit<br />
|pronunciation = /ən thermith/<br />
|region = <br />
|states = <br />
|speakers = <br />
|date = <br />
|script=토갊글 (a form of linear Hangul)<br />
|familycolor=afroasiatic<br />
|fam1=Afro-Asiatic<br />
|fam2=Semitic<br />
|fam3=Northwest Semitic<br />
|fam4=[[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Togarmite''' or '''Thermite''' (''yn Tėrmit'' /ən thermith/ or ''yn lysėn Tėrmi'') is a Northwest Semitic language (as distant from Hebrew as Aramaic is). It is inspired by Hebrew, Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic), Greek, Welsh and [https://www.veche.net/alashian Alashian], a Semitic conlang.<br />
<br />
Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology of [[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]], but has undergone some phonological and grammatical restructuring:<br />
<br />
*loss of grammatical gender<br />
*loss of the passive binyanim<br />
*loss of the suffix conjugation except in a few verbs (where they form the w-form); erosion of the prefix paradigm (used for the past tense, like the Hebrew waw-consecutive preterite) to the point where subject pronouns are required<br />
*the use of the ''w-form'' (inherited from the Old Togarmite waw-consecutive) for the present progressive, mirroring [[Time Traveler English|English]] ''-ing'' < PIE *-nd-kwe<br />
*the development of a productive concatenative verb paradigm used to form verbs from other words, analogous to Germanic weak verbs<br />
<br />
==Todo==<br />
* Dalet tet tav > ð d t (d = /d~t/, t aspirated); more of a Hivantish/Spanish/Tsarfati Hebrew aesthetic and gives a Welsh aesthetic to Greek loans<br />
* Should have initial w- > j- like Hebrew and Aramaic<br />
* Should be spoken in our Turkey?<br />
*A few verbs derived from historical passive binyanim, analogized so they're weak verbs<br />
*Gzarot<br />
*Syntax<br />
*Declensions<br />
*Lots of triconsonantified Greek words<br />
*A bit more Aramaic isoglosses / semantic shifts in a general Aramaic direction<br />
*Much less of an English relex: more consistent do-support, progressive forms used for imperfectives and VSO as in Welsh? Most "Englishy" bits should be literal translations of idioms, phrasal verbs and pragmatics, loss of grammatical gender, intense dialectal mixing in the early modern period with what appears to be occasional random unpredictable changes, and some vocabulary and affixes<br />
*Relex Modern Greek in places where it differs grammatically from English: ''yn'' before proper names?<br />
*Prepositional pronouns<br />
*more binyanim like ''syfȝel'', ''asøfȝel'', ''tasøfȝel'' and ''tystyfȝel''?<br />
*Taxonomic names get calqued into Greek<br />
*CiCV:C > CyCVC, CaCV:C > CCVC<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The Old Togarmite name for the language, ''Θėgarmīθ'', is thought to have been borrowed from a pre-Togarmite source *''Tāgarma''. The name ''Togarmah'' from the same source is also attested in the Hebrew Bible. (The Greeks and the Romans called the Togarmite people ''Θηγαρμικοί'' and ''Thegarmici'' respectively.) The name of the language shows the Togarmite shift of Proto-Semitic ''ā'' to ''ė'' /e:/, mirroring the Canaanite shift ''ā'' > ''ō'' occuring in Hebrew.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
===Consonants===<br />
Togarmite has 26 consonants, 22 of them inherited from Proto-Semitic. It gained /p=/ during the Old Togarmite stage by adapting loans from Greek, Aramaic and Persian, e.g. ''barkes'' 'to act', from Ancient Greek ''praxis''. It also merged Old Togarmite ''ħ'' /ħ/ and ''h'' /h/ into ''h'' /h/, OTog ''č'' /tʃ/, ''ž'' and ''j'' into ''ž''.<br />
*'''m n''' /m n/ (PSem *m *n)<br />
*'''b d g ' ''' /p=~b t=~d k=~g ʔ/ ((not in PSem) *T *q *2)<br />
*'''t k''' /th kh/ (*t *k)<br />
*'''th ch''' /θ x/ (in Greek loans)<br />
*'''v ð γ''' /v ð γ/ (*b *d *g)<br />
*'''f s š h''' /f s ʃ h/ (*p *s/*š *þ/*ś *h/*H/*x)<br />
*'''z ž ȝ''' /z ʒ (Philly L)/ (*z *ð/*D/*Z *3/*ğ)<br />
*'''c č''' /ts= tʃ=/ (*S (not in PSem))<br />
*'''w l r j''' /w l r j/ (*w *l *r *w-/*j)<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
Modern Togarmite has 9 vowels in stressed syllables.<br />
<br />
''a e ė i o ø u y'' /ɑ æ e i o ø u (ə)/<br />
<br />
''ei au'' /ɛi ɔu/<br />
<br />
Contrastive vowel length is present from elision of h in colloquial Togarmite: ''møtyhanan'' = [mø'ta:nan] instead of /møtə'hanan/<br />
<br />
===Stress===<br />
Stress in native words is similar to our Maltese.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
In addition to the Latin and Greek alphabets, Togarmite uses an abugida (a form of cursive linear Hangul) based on the Phoenician alphabet, called ''yn alvėt'' (after the first 2 letters).<br />
<br />
The abjadi letter names:<br />
''al, vėt, γam, ðal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, dėt, jøð, kaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, bė, cað, čað, gøf, rėš, sin, šin, tau''<br />
<br />
===Traditional Romanization===<br />
<br />
The traditional romanization of Togarmite is very unphonetic.<br />
*aCe for ė<br />
*English style unetymological OSL gone crazy<br />
*the orthography should also be templatic, gemination in weird places i.e. not necessarily related to Old Togarmite gemination<br />
*two scripts, Latin and Greek? works like hiragana and kanji<br />
*v for the vowel /ø/!<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
===Ethiopian dialect===<br />
some different vocab e.g. ''tėt'' instead of ''wyhėv'' for 'give', ''ðøvrėn'' instead of ''tėma'' for 'topic'<br />
<br />
some words can have different meanings in Ethiopian and Levantine leading to some funny misunderstandings<br />
<br />
phonological differences ("ear" -> ødny)<br />
<poem><br />
a e ė i o ø u y [a e̞ ɛi i ɔ ɵ u (ə)]<br />
ei au [ɒi ø:~øo]<br />
<br />
a broad Ethiopian accent in Togarmite has random variation in some words like heno, šamo, šyðo etc are pronounced hena, šama, šyða<br />
<br />
-an -> -en is common in a broad Ethiopian accent (ðarkan -> ðarken); this should typically happen only with agentives, otherwise møsaken / møsakan would be mixed up (that would be one of the telltale signs of a non-Ethiopian faking an accent)<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Indian dialect===<br />
<poem><br />
a e ė i o ø u y /a: e~ɪ ɛ: i o: ʊ u: ə/<br />
ei au /ai ɔ:/<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===New World dialect===<br />
a e ė i o ø u y /a e ɪə i o ø u ə/<br />
ei au /ɛi ɔu/<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
===Personal===<br />
Modern Togarmite pronouns work similarly to modern Hebrew pronouns. The accusative pronouns derive from inflected foms of Old Togarmite ''ʔiθ'' (emphasis particle and accusative, related to Hebrew ''et'' and Arabic ''iyya-''). The possessive pronouns are derived from inflected forms of Old Togarmite ''la-''. The reflexive pronouns come from inflected forms of ''af'' 'nose'.<br />
<br />
The semantics of ''hu'', ''hi'' and ''že'' work like in West Country English. (Clarify)<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!he!!she!!it!!we!!you (pl, polite)!!they<br />
|-<br />
!|Nominative/Conjunctive<br />
|''nėk''||''at''||''et''||''hu''||''hi''||''že''||''nan''||''atøm''||''høm''<br />
|-<br />
!|Objective/Disjunctive<br />
|''ti''||''tak''||''tek''||''tau''||''ta''||''tež''||''tanė''||''takøm''||''taum''<br />
|-<br />
!|Possessive<br />
|''li''||''lak''||''lek''||''lau''||''la''||''lež''||''lanė''||''lakøm''||''laum''<br />
|-<br />
!|Reflexive/Intensive<br />
|''afi''||''afak''||''afek''||''afau''||''afa''||''afež''||''afnė''|| ''afkøm''||''afaum''<br />
|}<br />
The plural pronouns ''atøm'' and ''høm'' can be used as gender-neutral pronouns in the singular, like English ''they''.<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! || who? || what? || which? || where? || whither? || whence? || when? || how? || why? || how much?<br />
|-<br />
! this<br />
|colspan=3|''žinė'' (sg); ''elinė'' (pl) || ''hė'' || ''heno'' || ''me hė'' || ''ȝeto'' <br />
|rowspan="2"| ''hėk'' <br />
|rowspan="2"| ''ež''<br />
|rowspan="2"| ''kėrav''<br />
|-<br />
! that<br />
|colspan=3| ''ži'' (sg); ''eli'' (pl) || ''šam'' || ''šamo'' || ''me šam'' || ''šøm''<br />
|-<br />
! what<br />
| ''man'' || ''ma'' || ''ėjo'' || ''ein'' || ''eino'' || ''men ein'' || ''møran'' || ''keik'' || ''maž'' ||''kma, marvy''<br />
|-<br />
! all; every<br />
| ''kølšar'' || ''kølvar; køl'' || ''køl'' || ''kølein'' || ''køleino'' || ''me kølein'' || ''kølam'' || ''køl ør'' || ''-'' || ''-''<br />
|-<br />
! any<br />
| ''nukšar'' || ''nukvar'' || ''nuk'' || ''nukein'' || ''nukeino'' || ''me nukein'' || ''kølam'' <br />
|| ''nuk ør'' || ''me nuk sevt'' || ''-''<br />
|-<br />
! some<br />
| ''vilšar'' || ''vilvar'' || ''vil '' || ''vilein'' || ''vileino'' || ''me vilein'' || ''ly zman''; ''vil zman'' <br />
|| ''vil ør'' || ''me vil sevt'' || ''-''<br />
|-<br />
! none<br />
| ''lėmšar'' || ''lėmvar'' || ''lėm'' || ''lėmein'' || ''lėmeino'' || ''me lėmein'' || ''lėfȝam'' <br />
|| ''lėm ør'' || ''me lėm sevt'' || ''-''<br />
|}<br />
Demonstratives come after nouns.<br />
*''veit žinė'' 'this house'<br />
*''gawi eli'' 'those lines'<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
In some ways declension has simplified: Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. The construct state has been lost, and the Old Togarmite definite state ''ʔan-'' has been reanalyzed as a separate definite article ''yn''. ''Yn'' becomes ''ym'' before /m f v p=/.<br />
<br />
However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms.<br />
===Regular declension===<br />
Most nouns have a regular plural in ''-i'', from a conflation of Middle Togarmite absolute ''-in'' and construct ''-ė''.<br />
<br />
Example: ''ȝėlam'' 'world'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''ȝėlam'' 'world'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''ȝėlam'' || ''ȝėlam'''i'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''lysėn'' 'language'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''lysėn'' || ''lysėn'''i'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Segolates===<br />
These nouns come from CVCC nouns in Proto-Semitic and thus are related to segolates in Hebrew.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''kalv'' 'dog'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''kalv'' || 'klav'''i'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Nisba nouns===<br />
An important declension class is comprised of nouns with the ''nisba'' suffix ''-i'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''Tėrmi'' 'Togarmite'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''Tėrm'''i''''' || ''Tėrm'''in'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Singulative-collective nouns===<br />
These nouns have a marked singular in ''-t''.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''šeȝart'' '(strand of) hair'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''šeȝar'''t''''' || ''šeȝar''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Former feminines===<br />
This class consists of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, which typically end in ''-t'' and take a plural in ''-ėt'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''frit'' 'fruit'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''frit'' || ''frij'''ėt'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''γalt'' 'door' (altered from *ðalt)<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''γalt'' || ''γlat'''ėt'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''tyktøvt'' 'document'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''tyktøvt'' || ''tyktøv'''ėt'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===-a nouns===<br />
These are mainly Greek and Aramaic words.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''aboloža'' 'excuse (pretext)'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''abolož'''a''''' || ''abolož'''es'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Greek ending in ''-ma'' can have a plural in ''-mada'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''tėma'' 'topic'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''tėm'''a''''' || ''tėm'''es''''' / ''tėm'''ada'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
By analogy, even native words ending in ''-a'' are declined this way:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''heda'' 'sin'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''hed'''a''''' || ''hed'''es'''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Irregulars ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''vennės'' 'human'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''vennės'' || ''nės''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+''ašt'' 'woman'<br />
! || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! indefinite<br />
| ''ašt'' || ''nysi''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
Adjectives do not decline.<br />
===Degree===<br />
Adjectives have a comparative form in ''yn-/ym-'' and a superlative in ''køl-'':<br />
*''yn-kvur'' = bigger<br />
*''kølkvur'' = biggest<br />
<br />
A dedicated particle ''šøm'' (cognate to Arabic ''þumma'') is used for 'than'.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
*Past = (eroded) suffix conjugation that became analogized with the prefix present<br />
**The ''y-'' prefix is only used when the verb directly follows the subject pronoun: ''nėk yktøv'' 'I wrote', ''nėk lė ktøv'' 'I didn't write'.<br />
*Present = from the bare w-form<br />
*Imperative<br />
**The imperative is negated with ''al'': ''Ktøv!'' 'write!', ''Al ktøv!'' 'don't write!'<br />
*w-form = w + stem from the 3ms suffix conjugation in the ''f3øl'' binyan, past tense but with w- for the prefix in other binyanim<br />
*Infinitive<br />
*Participles<br />
*Progressive ''lu'' from *ȝalė-hu, c.f. wrthi in Welsh<br />
<br />
The suffix conjugation does not survive unlike in most other Semitic languages, except in certain irregular verbs like ''fė '' 'to be'.<br />
<br />
The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative.<br />
===Binyanim===<br />
Modern Togarmite inherits all 8 binyanim of Old Togarmite. The ''ty-'' of Binyan 7 (''tyfaȝel'') verbs has become a productive derivational prefix, however.<br />
====Binyan 1: ''fȝøl''====<br />
This binyan can take -ø- (e.g. ''ktøv'' 'to write'), -e- (''sen'' 'to sleep') or -a- (''dȝam'' 'to choose') as the theme vowel.<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Binyan 1 conjugation: ''ktøv'' 'write'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk yktøv''<br />
| ''at/et yktøv''<br />
| ''hu/hi ktøv''<br />
| ''nan ktøv''<br />
| ''atøm ktøv''<br />
| ''høm ktøv''<br />
|-<br />
! past imperfective; past subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk fit wyktav''<br />
| ''at/et fit wyktav''<br />
| ''hu/hi fė wyktav''<br />
| ''nan fu wyktav''<br />
| ''atøm fu wyktav''<br />
| ''høm fu wyktav''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk wyktav''<br />
| ''at/et wyktav''<br />
| ''hu/hi wyktav''<br />
| ''nan wyktav''<br />
| ''atøm wyktav''<br />
| ''høm wyktav''<br />
|-<br />
! present progressive<br />
| ''nėk lu wyktav''<br />
| ''at/et lu wyktav''<br />
| ''hu/hi lu wyktav''<br />
| ''nan lu wyktav''<br />
| ''atøm lu wyktav''<br />
| ''høm lu wyktav''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk yktøvan''<br />
| ''at/et yktøvan''<br />
| ''hu/hi ktøvan''<br />
| ''nan ktøvan''<br />
| ''atøm ktøvan''<br />
| ''høm ktøvan''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė ktėv''<br />
| ''at/et bė ktėv''<br />
| ''hu bė ktėv''<br />
| ''nan bė ktėv''<br />
| ''atøm bė ktėv''<br />
| ''høm bė ktėv''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li ktuv''<br />
| ''lax/lex ktuv''<br />
| ''lau/la ktuv''<br />
| ''lanė ktuv''<br />
| ''laxøm ktuv''<br />
| ''laum ktuv''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
|colspan=6| ''ktøv!''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''xėtev''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''ktuv''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wyktav''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''ktėv''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Binyan 1 conjugation: ''num'' 'sleep'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk ynum''<br />
| ''at/et ynum''<br />
| ''hu/hi num''<br />
| ''nan num''<br />
| ''atøm num''<br />
| ''høm num''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk fit wynaum''<br />
| ''at/et fit wynaum''<br />
| ''hu/hi fė wynaum''<br />
| ''nan fu wynaum''<br />
| ''atøm fu wynaum''<br />
| ''høm fu wynaum''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk wynaum''<br />
| ''at/et wynaum''<br />
| ''hu/hi wynaum''<br />
| ''nan wynaum''<br />
| ''atøm wynaum''<br />
| ''høm wynaum''<br />
|-<br />
! present progressive<br />
| ''nėk lu wynaum''<br />
| ''at/et lu wynaum''<br />
| ''hu/hi lu wynaum''<br />
| ''nan lu wynaum''<br />
| ''atøm lu wynaum''<br />
| ''høm lu wynaum''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk ynuman''<br />
| ''at/et ynuman''<br />
| ''hu/hi numan''<br />
| ''nan numan''<br />
| ''atøm numan''<br />
| ''høm numan''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė nwėm''<br />
| ''at/et bė nwėm''<br />
| ''hu/hi bė nwėm''<br />
| ''nan bė nwėm''<br />
| ''atøm bė nwėm''<br />
| ''høm bė nwėm''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li num''<br />
| ''lax/lex num''<br />
| ''lau/la num''<br />
| ''lanė num''<br />
| ''laxøm num''<br />
| ''laum num''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
|colspan=6| ''num!''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''nėwem''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''num''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wynaum''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''nwėm''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Binyan 2: ''faȝel''====<br />
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic D-stem (related to Hebrew pi33el and Arabic fa33ala)<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Binyan 2 conjugation: ''saken'' 'inhabit'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk ysaken''<br />
| ''at/et ysaken''<br />
| ''hu/hi saken''<br />
| ''nan saken''<br />
| ''atøm saken''<br />
| ''høm saken''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk fit wysaken''<br />
| ''at/et fit wysaken''<br />
| ''hu/hi fė wysaken''<br />
| ''nan fu wysaken''<br />
| ''atøm fu wysaken''<br />
| ''høm fu wysaken''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk wysaken''<br />
| ''at/et wysaken''<br />
| ''hu/hi wysaken''<br />
| ''nan wysaken''<br />
| ''atøm wysaken''<br />
| ''høm wysaken''<br />
|-<br />
! present progressive<br />
| ''nėk lu wysaken''<br />
| ''at/et lu wysaken''<br />
| ''hu/hi lu wysaken''<br />
| ''nan lu wysaken''<br />
| ''atøm lu wysaken''<br />
| ''høm lu wysaken''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk ysakenan''<br />
| ''at/et ysakenan''<br />
| ''hu/hi sakenan''<br />
| ''nan sakenan''<br />
| ''atøm sakenan''<br />
| ''høm sakenan''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė sakun''<br />
| ''at bė sakun''<br />
| ''hu bė sakun''<br />
| ''nan bė sakun''<br />
| ''atøm bė sakun''<br />
| ''høm bė sakun''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li møsakan''<br />
| ''lax/lex møsakan''<br />
| ''lau/la møsakan''<br />
| ''lanė møsakan''<br />
| ''laxøm møsakan''<br />
| ''laum møsakan''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
|colspan=6| ''saken!''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''møsaken''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''møsakan''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wysaken''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''sakun''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Binyan 3: ''fėȝel'' ====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''ðėver'' 'speak'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk yðėver''<br />
| ''at/et yðėver''<br />
| ''hu/hi ðėver''<br />
| ''nan ðėver''<br />
| ''atøm ðėver''<br />
| ''høm ðėver''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk fit wyðėver''<br />
| ''at/et fit wyðėver''<br />
| ''hu/hi fė wyðėver''<br />
| ''nan fu wyðėver''<br />
| ''atøm fu wyðėver''<br />
| ''høm fu wyðėver''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk wyðėver''<br />
| ''at/et wyðėver''<br />
| ''hu/hi wyðėver''<br />
| ''nan wyðėver''<br />
| ''atøm wyðėver''<br />
| ''høm wyðėver''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk yðėveran''<br />
| ''at/et yðėveran''<br />
| ''hu/hi ðėveran''<br />
| ''nan ðėveran''<br />
| ''atøm ðėveran''<br />
| ''høm ðėveran''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė ðėvur''<br />
| ''at bė ðėvur''<br />
| ''hu bė ðėvur''<br />
| ''nan bė ðėvur''<br />
| ''atøm bė ðėvur''<br />
| ''høm bė ðėvur''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li møðėvar''<br />
| ''lax/lex møðėvar''<br />
| ''lau/la møðėvar''<br />
| ''lanė møðėvar''<br />
| ''laxøm møðėvar''<br />
| ''laum møðėvar''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''ðėver!''<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''ðėveru!''<br />
| ''-''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''møðėver''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''møðėvar''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wyðėver''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''ðėvur''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Binyan 4: ''afȝel'' ====<br />
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic Š-stems thus corresponds to Hebrew hif3il and Arabic ʔaf3ala.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Binyan 3 conjugation: ''ažker'' 'remind'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk ažker''<br />
| ''at/et ažker''<br />
| ''hu/hi ažker''<br />
| ''nan ažker''<br />
| ''atøm ažker''<br />
| ''høm ažker''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''fiti wažker''<br />
| ''fit wažker''<br />
| ''fė wažker''<br />
| ''finė wažker''<br />
| ''fitøm wažker''<br />
| ''fu wažker''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk še wažker''<br />
| ''at/et še wažker''<br />
| ''hu/hi še wažker''<br />
| ''nan še wažker''<br />
| ''atøm šu wažker''<br />
| ''høm šu wažker''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk ažkeran''<br />
| ''at/et ažkeran''<br />
| ''hu/hi ažkeran''<br />
| ''nan ažkeran''<br />
| ''atøm ažkeran''<br />
| ''høm ažkeran''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė hažkur''<br />
| ''at bė hažkur''<br />
| ''hu bė hažkur''<br />
| ''nan bė hažkur''<br />
| ''atøm bė hažkur''<br />
| ''høm bė hažkur''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li mažkar''<br />
| ''lax/lex mažkar''<br />
| ''lau/la mažkar''<br />
| ''lanė mažkar''<br />
| ''laxøm mažkar''<br />
| ''laum mažkar''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
|colspan=6|''ažker!''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''mažker''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''mažkar''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wažker''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''ažkur''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Binyan 5: ''ftyȝel''====<br />
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan ''hitpa33el'' and Arabic ''ifta3ala''. It is characterized by the t- prefix that comes from the *t infix.<br />
<br />
Meanings:<br />
*reflexive<br />
*reciprocal<br />
<br />
The prefix ''t'' metathesizes with C1 when<br />
*C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: ''tf tx ts tš th tz tž tȝ'' > ''ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd''<br />
*C1 = ð d t: ''tð td tt'' > ''ð d t''<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Binyan 4 conjugation: ''tlymeð'' 'find one's way around'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk ytlymeð''<br />
| ''at/et ytlymeð''<br />
| ''hu/hi tlymeð''<br />
| ''nan tlymeð''<br />
| ''atøm tlymeð''<br />
| ''høm tlymeð''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''fiti wytlymeð''<br />
| ''fit wytlymeð''<br />
| ''fė wytlymeð''<br />
| ''finė wytlymeð''<br />
| ''fitøm wytlymeð''<br />
| ''fu wytlymeð''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk ytlėmeð''<br />
| ''at/et ytlėmeð''<br />
| ''hu/hi tlėmeð''<br />
| ''nan tlėmeð''<br />
| ''atøm tlėmeð''<br />
| ''høm tlėmeð''<br />
|-<br />
! present progressive<br />
| ''nėk še wytlymeð''<br />
| ''at/et še wytlymeð''<br />
| ''hu/hi še wytlymeð''<br />
| ''nan še wytlymeð''<br />
| ''atøm šu wytlymeð''<br />
| ''høm šu wytlymeð''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk ytlymeðan''<br />
| ''at/et ytlymeðan''<br />
| ''hu/hi tlymeðan''<br />
| ''nan tlymeðan''<br />
| ''atøm tlymeðan''<br />
| ''høm tlymeðan''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė hytlymuð''<br />
| ''at bė hytlymuð''<br />
| ''hu bė hytlymuð''<br />
| ''nan bė hytlymuð''<br />
| ''atøm bė hytlymuð''<br />
| ''høm bė hytlymuð''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li møtlymað''<br />
| ''lax/lex møtlymað''<br />
| ''lau/la møtlymað''<br />
| ''lanė møtlymað''<br />
| ''laxøm møtlymað''<br />
| ''laum møtlymað''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
|colspan=6|''ytlymeð''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''møtlymeð''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''møtlymað''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wytlymėð''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''hytlymuð''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Binyan 6: ''etyfȝel''====<br />
This binyan comes from the Nt-stem, with the mediopassive n- marker and the reflexive/reciprocal t-marker: the stem comes from *intap3il. cf. Hebrew ''nitpa33el'', a variant of the ''hitpa33el'' binyan and the Arabic ''infa3ala'' binyan.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Binyan 5 conjugation: ''etyγðel'' 'grow up'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk etyγðel''<br />
| ''at/et etyγðel''<br />
| ''hu/hi etyγðel''<br />
| ''nan etyγðel''<br />
| ''atøm etyγðel''<br />
| ''høm etyγðel''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''fiti wetyγðel''<br />
| ''fit wetyγðel''<br />
| ''fė wetyγðel''<br />
| ''finė wetyγðel''<br />
| ''fitøm wetyγðel''<br />
| ''fu watyγðel''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk še wetyγðel''<br />
| ''at/et še wetyγðel''<br />
| ''hu/hi še wetyγðel''<br />
| ''nan še wetyγðel''<br />
| ''atøm šu wetyγðel''<br />
| ''høm šu wetyγðel''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk etyγðelan''<br />
| ''at/et etyγðelan''<br />
| ''hu/hi etyγðelan''<br />
| ''nan etyγðelan''<br />
| ''atøm etyγðelan''<br />
| ''høm etyγðelan''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė hetyγðul''<br />
| ''at bė hetyγðul''<br />
| ''hu bė hetyγðul''<br />
| ''nan bė hetyγðul''<br />
| ''atøm bė hetyγðul''<br />
| ''høm bė hetyγðul''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li metyγðal''<br />
| ''lax/lex metyγðal''<br />
| ''lau/la metyγðal''<br />
| ''lanė metyγðal''<br />
| ''laxøm metyγðal''<br />
| ''laum metyγðal''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''hetyγðel!''<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''hetyγðelu!''<br />
| ''-''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''metyγðel''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''metyγðal''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''watyγðel''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''hetyγðul''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Binyan 8: ''styfȝel''====<br />
This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan ''istaf3ala'' in Arabic and the very rare binyan ''hishtaf3el'' in Biblical Hebrew. Binyan 7 tends to form verbs involving conscious decision.<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Binyan 8 conjugation: ''stydȝem'' 'try out'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk ystydȝem''<br />
| ''at/et ystydȝem''<br />
| ''hu/hi stydȝem''<br />
| ''nan stydȝem''<br />
| ''atøm stydȝem''<br />
| ''høm stydȝem''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''fiti wystydȝem''<br />
| ''fit wystydȝem''<br />
| ''fė wystydȝem''<br />
| ''finė wystydȝem''<br />
| ''fitøm wystydȝem''<br />
| ''fu wystydȝem''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk ystytėȝem''<br />
| ''at/et ystytėȝem''<br />
| ''hu/hi stytėȝem''<br />
| ''nan stytėȝem''<br />
| ''atøm stytėȝem''<br />
| ''høm stytėȝem''<br />
|-<br />
! present progressive<br />
| ''nėk še wystydȝem''<br />
| ''at/et še wystydȝem''<br />
| ''hu/hi še wystydȝem''<br />
| ''nan še wystydȝem''<br />
| ''atøm šu wystydȝem''<br />
| ''høm šu wystydȝem''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk ystydȝeman''<br />
| ''at/et ystydȝeman''<br />
| ''hu/hi stydȝeman''<br />
| ''nan stydȝeman''<br />
| ''atøm stydȝemun''<br />
| ''jystydȝemun''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė stydȝum''<br />
| ''at bė stydȝum''<br />
| ''hu bė stydȝum''<br />
| ''nan bė stydȝum''<br />
| ''atøm bė stydȝum''<br />
| ''høm bė stydȝum''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li møstydȝam''<br />
| ''lax/lex møstydȝam''<br />
| ''lau/la møstydȝam''<br />
| ''lanė møstydȝam''<br />
| ''laxøm møstydȝam''<br />
| ''laum møstydȝam''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''stydȝem!''<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''-''<br />
| ''stydȝemu!''<br />
| ''-''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''møstydȝem''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''møstydȝam''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wystydȝem''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''stydȝum''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Concatenative verbs===<br />
The concatenative paradigm, analogous to Germanic weak verbs, is formed by adding prefixes and suffixes, without changing the stem. The past and imperative forms are formed by adding ''-i'' or ''-ji'' to the noun, when no other suffix is added.<br />
<br />
It is used for recent loan verbs like ''maksimezi'' 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns:<br />
*''myðrasi'' 'to school' (from ''myðras'' 'school')<br />
*''takili'' 'to consume' (from ''takil'' 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-k-l 'to eat')<br />
*''žakoji'' 'to entitle, to allow' (from ''žako'' 'right')<br />
*''ȝeini'' 'to eye' (from ''ȝein'' 'eye')<br />
<br />
The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs.<br />
*[STEM]-i = active<br />
*ty-[STEM]-i = re-<br />
*mø- = active participle<br />
*-ėt = infinitive<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ Weak verb conjugation: ''myðrasi'' 'to school'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk ymyðrasi''<br />
| ''at/et ymyðrasi''<br />
| ''hu/hi myðrasi''<br />
| ''nan myðrasi''<br />
| ''atøm myðrasi''<br />
| ''høm myðrasi''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''fiti wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''fit wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''fė wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''finė wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''fitøm wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''fu wymyðrasi''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''at/et wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''hu/hi wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''nan wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''atøm wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''høm wymyðrasi''<br />
|-<br />
! present progressive<br />
| ''nėk lu wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''at/et lu wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''hu/hi lu wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''nan lu wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''atøm lu wymyðrasi''<br />
| ''høm lu wymyðrasi''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk ymyðrasan''<br />
| ''at/et ymyðrasan''<br />
| ''hu/hi myðrasan''<br />
| ''nan myðrasan''<br />
| ''atøm myðrasun''<br />
| ''høm myðrasun''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė myðrasėt''<br />
| ''at bė myðrasėt''<br />
| ''hu bė myðrasėt''<br />
| ''nėbu myðrasėt''<br />
| ''atøm bė myðrasėt''<br />
| ''høm bė myðrasėt''<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ''li mømyðrasa''<br />
| ''lax/lex mømyðrasa''<br />
| ''lau/la mømyðrasa''<br />
| ''lanė mømyðrasa''<br />
| ''laxøm mømyðrasa''<br />
| ''laum mømyðrasa''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
|colspan=6| ''myðrasi!''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''mømyðrasė''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''myðrasa''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wymyðrasi''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''myðrasėt''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===''fe'' 'to be'===<br />
The verb ''fe'' 'to be' is perhaps the most irregular verb of the language; it uses the Proto-Semitic suffix conjugation in the past tense.<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ ''fe'' 'to be'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk fit''<br />
| ''at fit''<br />
| ''hu fė''<br />
| ''nan fu''<br />
| ''atøm fu''<br />
| ''høm fu''<br />
|-<br />
! past progressive; past subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk fit fė''<br />
| ''at fit fė''<br />
| ''hu fė fė''<br />
| ''nan fu fė''<br />
| ''atøm fu fė''<br />
| ''høm fu fė''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''(nėk)'' <br />
| ''(at/et)'' <br />
| ''(hu/hi)'' <br />
| ''(nan)''<br />
| ''(atøm)''<br />
| ''(høm)''<br />
|-<br />
! present progressive<br />
| ''nėk lu fė''<br />
| ''at/et lu fė''<br />
| ''hu/hi lu fė''<br />
| ''nan lu fė''<br />
| ''atøm lu fė''<br />
| ''høm lu fė''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk yfijan''<br />
| ''at yfijan''<br />
| ''hu fijan''<br />
| ''nan fijan''<br />
| ''atøm fijan''<br />
| ''høm fijan''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė fėt''<br />
| ''at bė fėt''<br />
| ''hu bė fėt''<br />
| ''nan bė fėt''<br />
| ''atøm bė fėt''<br />
| ''høm bė fėt''<br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
|colspan=6| ''fe!''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''hėwi''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''fuj''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''fė''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''fėt''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===''kėl'' 'can'===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ ''kėl'' 'can'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk ikel''<br />
| ''at/et ikel''<br />
| ''hu/hi kel''<br />
| ''nan kel''<br />
| ''atøm kel''<br />
| ''høm kel''<br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk fit wėkel''<br />
| ''at fit wėkel''<br />
| ''hu fė wėkel''<br />
| ''nan fu wėkel''<br />
| ''atøm fu wėkel''<br />
| ''høm fu wėkel''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk wėkel''<br />
| ''at wėkel''<br />
| ''hu wėkel''<br />
| ''nan wėkel''<br />
| ''atøm wėkel''<br />
| ''høm wėkel''<br />
|-<br />
! present subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk ikelan''<br />
| ''at/et ikelan''<br />
| ''hu/hi kelan''<br />
| ''nan kelan''<br />
| ''atøm kelan''<br />
| ''høm kelan''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė kėl''<br />
| ''at bė kėl''<br />
| ''hu bė kėl''<br />
| ''nan bė kėl''<br />
| ''atøm bė kėl''<br />
| ''høm bė kėl''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''-''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''fuj wėkel''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wėkel''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''kėl''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===''høvė'' 'should; ought'===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ ''høba'' 'should; ought'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''nėk fit høbė''<br />
| ''at fit høbė''<br />
| ''hu fė høbė''<br />
| ''nan fu høbu''<br />
| ''atøm fu høbu''<br />
| ''høm fu høbu''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk høbė''<br />
| ''at/et høbė''<br />
| ''hu/hi høbė''<br />
| ''nan høbu''<br />
| ''atøm høbu''<br />
| ''høm høbu''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===''ryžė'' 'to like'===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ ''ryžė'' 'to like'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk yrži''<br />
| ''at yrži''<br />
| ''hu yrži''<br />
| ''nan yržu''<br />
| ''atøm yržu''<br />
| ''høm yržu''<br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk fit wyrži''<br />
| ''at fit wyrži''<br />
| ''hu fė wyrži''<br />
| ''nan fu wyrži''<br />
| ''atøm fu wyrži''<br />
| ''høm fu wyrži''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk ryžė''<br />
| ''at/et ryžė''<br />
| ''hu/hi ryžė''<br />
| ''nan ryžu''<br />
| ''atøm ryžu''<br />
| ''høm ryžu''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė ryžėt''<br />
| ''at bė ryžėt''<br />
| ''hu bė ryžėt''<br />
| ''nan bė ryžėt''<br />
| ''atøm bė ryžėt''<br />
| ''høm bė ryžėt''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wyrži''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''rėži''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''ryžuj''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''ryžėt''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===''sėr'' 'to want'===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ ''sėr'' 'to want'<br />
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl<br />
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl<br />
|-<br />
! past; conditional<br />
| ''nėk sør''<br />
| ''at sør''<br />
| ''hu sør''<br />
| ''nan sru''<br />
| ''atøm sru''<br />
| ''høm sru''<br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''nėk fit wasar''<br />
| ''at fit wasar''<br />
| ''hu fė wasar''<br />
| ''nan fu wasar''<br />
| ''atøm fu wasar''<br />
| ''høm fu wasar''<br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''nėk wasar''<br />
| ''at/et wasar''<br />
| ''hu/hi wasar''<br />
| ''nan wasar''<br />
| ''atøm wasar''<br />
| ''høm wasar''<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ''nėk bė sėr''<br />
| ''at bė sėr''<br />
| ''hu bė sėr''<br />
| ''nan bė sėr''<br />
| ''atøm bė sėr''<br />
| ''høm bė sėr''<br />
|-<br />
! w-form<br />
|colspan=6| ''wasar''<br />
|-<br />
! active participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''sėr''<br />
|-<br />
! passive participle<br />
|colspan=6| ''sur''<br />
|-<br />
! infinitive<br />
|colspan=6| ''sėr''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== The auxiliary ''vė'' ===<br />
The defective auxiliary ''vė'' (inf. and w-form ''vė'', past and imperative ''vu'', passive participle ''vuj''; from the conflation of two roots, one a cognate of Hebrew בא 'to come' and the other a cognate of Hebrew אבה 'to be willing') is used to form dynamic passives (with the passive participle) and the future (with the infinitive), like the German verb ''werden''.<br />
<br />
* ''Yn γalt lu vė fytuh'' = The door is opening (being opened)<br />
* ''Yn γalt vu fytuh'' = The door (was) opened<br />
* ''Yn γalt lež vuj fytuh'' = The door has been opened<br />
* ''Yn γalt fytuh'' = The door is open (lit. opened)<br />
** ''vė'' is not repeated for future + passive: both 'The door opens' and 'The door will open' are ''Yn γalt vė fytuh''.<br />
* ''Dawid vė ftėh yn γalt'' = David will open the door<br />
<br />
===Gzarot===<br />
:''Main article: [[Togarmite/Gzarot]]''<br />
In Semitic languages, ''gzarot'' (Hebrew גְּזָרוֹת, sg. ''gizra'' גִּזְרָה 'figure, form, pattern') are variations of an inflectional (especially verbal) paradigm that are determined by the choice of consonants in the consonantal root. Thus, a paradigm has not only a regular gizra but various irregular ones, which occur most commonly when<br />
* the consonantal root contains a "guttural" (''ʔ ȝ h'') or a semivowel (''j w'');<br />
* the consonantal root contains a ''n'', since ''nC'' tends to assimilate into ''CC''<br />
* the consonantal root has 2 letters.<br />
<br />
Because Togarmite only uses the prefix conjugation, modern Togarmite gzarot are in some ways less bad than Hebrew gzarot; most of the irregularities occur in binyan ''fȝøl''. However, there are often so many irregularities even within each gizra, and cases of analogy between verbs of different gzarot, that the concept of gzarot in Modern Togarmite has been questioned: in Togarmite, a "gizra" just describes general tendencies of verbs with a certain root consonant.<br />
<br />
==Prepositions==<br />
Some prepositions:<br />
*''in'' 'in' [from PSem *ina], ''in yn'' > ''nyn''<br />
** ini, inak, inek, inau, ina, inė, inkøm, inaum<br />
*''ly'' (''l' '' before V) 'of (possessive)'<br />
*''vy'' (''v' '' before V) 'by, at, with (instrumental), in (language)'<br />
** vi, vak, vek, vau, va, vanė, vakøm, vaum<br />
*''šyðe'' 'out of' (from *śadiy-ah 'to the field')<br />
*''me'' (''men'' before V) 'from'<br />
** ''meni, menak, menek, menau, mena, menė, mekøm, menaum''<br />
*''ȝem'' 'with (comitative)'<br />
** ''3emi, 3emak, 3emek, 3emau, 3ema, 3emnė, 3emkøm, 3emaum''<br />
*''ȝal'' 'on'; with definite article ''ȝlėn/ȝlėm'' <br />
** ''3lei, 3lėk, 3lėk, 3lėju, 3lėja, 3lėnė, 3lėkøm, 3lėjøm''<br />
*''lið'' 'to' (from ''*la-yad'' 'to the hand of')<br />
*''løv'' 'into, in' (from ''*la-libb'')<br />
**''Nėk wamen løv žinė'' - I believe in this<br />
**''Hu tyhev løva'' - He fell in love with her<br />
*''ȝvar'' 'over'<br />
*''tat'' 'under'<br />
*''aržo'' 'down' (from *ʔarč̣-ah "earthward")<br />
*''ðarkyn'' 'along'<br />
*''vlėš'' 'without'<br />
===Syntax of prepositions===<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
===Cardinal===<br />
<poem><br />
0: cefry<br />
1: hað<br />
2: šnein / attributive šnė<br />
3: šlėš (animate šlėšt)<br />
4: yrvaȝ (animate yrvaȝt)<br />
5: mes (animate mest)<br />
6: setš (animate setšt)<br />
7: savȝy (animate savȝyt)<br />
8: šmėni (animate šmėnt)<br />
9: tesȝy (animate tesȝyt)<br />
10: ȝašry (animate ȝašryt)<br />
11: ȝašry wy hað<br />
12: ȝašry šnein<br />
20: ȝešrin<br />
30: šlėšin<br />
40: yrvȝin<br />
50: hymsin<br />
60: setšin<br />
70: syvȝin<br />
80: šmėnin<br />
90: tesȝin<br />
100: met<br />
101: met wy hað<br />
200: metein<br />
300: šlėš met<br />
400: yrvaȝ met<br />
1000: alf<br />
2000: alfein<br />
3000: šlėš alf<br />
1000000: alfun<br />
10^9: vėtfun<br />
10^12: γamfun<br />
etc.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
Plural numerals usually take plural nouns. They used to take singular nouns, however this is considered archaic.<br />
<br />
Numbers ending in digits "3" through "9" (thus ending in ''šlėš'' through ''tesȝy''), or "10" (thus ending in ''ȝašry''), have two forms depending on the animacy of the noun: ''hymes myrtemi'' 'five abacuses', but ''hymest ahwėt'' 'five sisters'. The animate forms come from the masculine forms (reverse polarity) marked with ''*-t'' in Proto-Semitic.<br />
<br />
===Ordinal===<br />
Ordinals are formed using the pattern CCuC; as in English, "1st" and "2nd" are irregular, from elatives ''*ʔaʕlay-'' 'topmost' and ''*ʔaʕqab-'' 'the immediately following' respectively. In compound numerals, the last number word is inflected to the ordinal form.<br />
<br />
*1st = olė<br />
*2nd = ogav<br />
*3rd = šluš<br />
*4th = rvuȝ<br />
*5th = mus<br />
*6th = stuš<br />
*7th = svuȝ<br />
*8th = smun<br />
*9th = tsuȝ<br />
*10th = ȝšur<br />
*11th = ȝašry w-olė<br />
*12th = ȝašry w-ogav<br />
*13th = ȝašry šluš<br />
etc.<br />
<br />
===Fractional===<br />
Fractional numerals are formed with the segolate pattern CøCCy (pl. CøCaCi). Compound numerals can be inflected as well, like in the case of ordinal numerals. The analogized form ''øhðy'' is used for numerals ending in "1".<br />
*half = γøv (from *gunb- 'side')<br />
*3rd = šølšy<br />
*4th = røvȝy<br />
*11th = ȝašry w-øhðy<br />
<br />
To express "m/n", Togarmite uses "m nths": "2/3" is ''šnė šølaši''.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Faulty accusative marker===<br />
The faulty accusative marker ''it'' is used. It behaves like the MSA accusative case and the Welsh soft mutation for direct objects: when there is a constituent separating the verb or predicate from a second constituent, ''it'' comes between the two constituents regardless of whether the second constituent is actually a direct object. Example:<br />
<br />
*''Halek wyfė li '''it''' šlėšt klavi, wy ȝeto lėš li '''it''' nuk.'' = I used to have three dogs, and now I don't have any.<br />
*''Yn ðėrest li ryšė li '''it''' ȝyšėt rab tamuni veit.'' = My teacher wants me to do a lot of homework.<br />
<br />
===Questions===<br />
Yes-no questions require the question marker ''ha'' to be placed at the beginning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
What-questions have a syntax similar to English.<br />
===Existentials===<br />
The word ''iš'' is used to indicate existence. It is also used with the preposition ''ly'' 'to' or the possessive pronouns to indicate possession. The negative of ''iš'' is ''lėš''.<br />
*''Lėš mygėm ėn kølšar nyȝum.'' = There is no place where everyone is happy.<br />
*''Ha iš lek ša3t?'' = Do you (f. sg.) have time?<br />
<br />
=== Clauses ===<br />
*"if" = ''em''<br />
*"then" = ''šøm''<br />
*"though" = ''ak'', ''kenak''<br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
The relative pronoun ''žė'' is used for both relative and complement clauses. It may takes prepositional cases, just like English relative pronouns. The word ''žė'' is from PSem *ðā, the accusative singular form of the demonstrative *ðū; cf. Biblical Hebrew זו ''zu'', Aramaic די ''dī''.<br />
<br />
For relative clauses whose heads are prepositional objects in the relative clause, there are three strategies:<br />
<br />
*the relativizer is treated as a resumptive pronoun which takes the preposition, like English ''which'': ''yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav'', lit. 'the man to which I gave the gift'. This syntax arose from the influence of surrounding languages like English.<br />
*the preposition goes to the end of the clause: ''yn γavry žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið'' lit. 'the man which I gave the gift to'. This syntax arose from the native Semitic construction which used a resumptive pronoun on the preposition: after the resumptive pronoun lost the stress, the preposition lost its pronominal suffix and moved to the end of the clause.<br />
*A combination of both strategies can be used: ''yn γavry lið žė nėk ohav ym mauhav lið'', lit. 'The man to which I gave the gift to'. This is the most common strategy with the other two considered archaic.<br />
<br />
==Derivation==<br />
===Noun and adjective patterns===<br />
*''CaCCy(t), CeCCy(t), CøCCy(t)'' = segolates<br />
*''CyCiC'' = adjective; -able<br />
*''CyCuC'' = adjective; color<br />
*''CyCėC'' = some adjectives<br />
*''CyCaCt, CyCeCt, CyCøCt''<br />
*''CaCøCt'' = describes a condition<br />
*''CyCeCCaC'' = diminutive<br />
*''myCCaC(t)'', ''meCCaC(t)'', ''myCCėC'': noun, often denoting place<br />
*''maCCaCt'' = causative version of ''myCCaC(t)''<br />
*''myCCeC(t)'' = instrument<br />
*''maCCeCt'' = causative version of ''myCCeC(t)'' <br />
*''tyCCuC'', ''tyCCiC'', ''tyCCėC'' = action or process<br />
*''tyCCøCt'' (cognatized from Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things<br />
*''CaCėC'' = agentive<br />
** ''katėv'' 'writer'<br />
*''CaCCan'' = agentive; ''-an'' is an agentive<br />
** ''lamsan'' 'philanthropist' (''felanthrøb'' is also common)<br />
*''CaCCėn'', ''CeCCėn'', and ''CøCCėn'' = nouns, often an augmentative<br />
<br />
===Affixes===<br />
*''-an'' = forms agentives and adjectives<br />
*''-in'' = collectives<br />
**''lamusin'' 'charity'<br />
*''-ut'' = abstract noun<br />
*''-i'' = forms adjectives<br />
*''-it'' = forms adverbs<br />
*''i-'' = non-, un-<br />
**''ivyšari'' 'incorporeal'<br />
**''iwøxli'' 'impossible'<br />
*''-yr'' = someone who is characterized by X (from English)<br />
**''iðuȝyr'' 'know-it-all', from ''iduȝ'' 'knowledgeable'<br />
*''-ri'' = -ry (from English)<br />
**''gðėsri'' = sanctimoniousness, from ''gðės'' '(archaic) holy'<br />
**''kal'anri'' = double standard or hypocrisy, from the agentive ''kal'an'' 'hypocrite' of √''x-l-ʔ'' 'double'<br />
*''afto-'' = self-<br />
*''e-'' = a- (from ʔiC-, an assimilated form of the OTog preposition ''ʔin'' 'in'); these adjectives can usually only be predicative<br />
**''e'est'' 'ablaze'<br />
**''eðarky'' 'away'<br />
**''etal'' 'galore' (lit. a-mound)<br />
**''emein'' 'drowned, lost forever', lit. awater<br />
*''-vyl'' = -able (from English -able and native ''avȝel'' 'to be able to')<br />
*''ty-'' 're-' (from the tD-stem)<br />
**''tynawer'' 'to reflect', from ''naur'' 'light'<br />
**''tybarkes'' 'to react', from ''barkis'' 'action'<br />
**''tysalem'' 'to repay', from √s-l-m 'peace, whole'<br />
**''tyȝanė'' 'to satisfy', from √ȝ-n-j 'distress, need'; probably influenced by a now obsolete meaning 'to answer' of the same root<br />
**unpredictable change in meaning stem)<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
some phrases in Togarmite:<br />
<br />
*Slėm! - Hello! / Goodbye!<br />
*Slėm ȝlėkøm! - Hello! (formal)<br />
*Leil dėv! / Num vy dėv! - Good night! / Sleep well!<br />
*Jaum dėv! - Good day!<br />
*Ekarus! / Ekarus tak/tek/takøm! - Thanks!<br />
*Ȝem ryžan - Please / You're welcome<br />
*Tryhef ti - Excuse me, Pardon<br />
*Nėk nyhum - I'm sorry<br />
*Ma yn sem lak/lek/lakøm? - What's your name?<br />
*Yn sem li [name] - My name is [name]<br />
*Keik wymar iþ [thing] in Tėrmit? - How do you say [thing] in Togarmite?<br />
*H' at/et/atøm wyðėver [language]? - Do you speak [language]?<br />
*Ȝem ryžan, mør že šėnėn - Please say it again<br />
*Hė lak/lek/lakøm - Here you go! (i.e. I just granted your request) (the source of the English expression is misinterpreted Togarmite)<br />
**Note: In Ethiopia it's spelled without the space.<br />
*Yn ryhaft li hu myli ȝem clėfi - My hovercraft is full of eels<br />
*''En'' = Yes. <br />
*''Lė'' = No.<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
=== Schleicher ===<br />
''Yn kavš w' yn frasi''<br />
<br />
''Kavš ly žė lė fė žamry ly jar frasi: hað γor maȝrevt šgul, hað mol hemly kvur, wy hað mol vennės vy fiz. Yn kavš mar: "Mrur li yn lev, oryn nėk wyrė vennės wyrkav frasi." Yn frasi mar: "Ažen, kavš! Mrur lanė yn lev oryn nan wyrė žinė: vennės, ym vol, woši lið afau mylvast mum me žamry lyn kavš. Wy lėš lyn kavš it žamry." Oryn yn kavš smaȝ žinė, hu mnaȝ lið yn šðe.''<br />
<br />
Old Tog.:<br />
<br />
''An xabše wan φarasīn''<br />
<br />
''Χabše, žė lė hawė čamre lawh, φarasīn yarʔe: yagōr ʔaħād marχabaθ šakūlaθ, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħemle χabūr, wa-yaħmōl ʔaħād ħaφīzan ʔinės. Yāmār an χabše: Mār lī an lēb, bi-riʔėθī ʔinės rėχib φarasīn. Yāmārū an φarasīn: Sumaʕ an χabše! Mār lanė an lēb bi-riʔėθinė žīnė: ʔinės an baʕle yaʕšē lawh malbasaθ ħamūmaθ mēn čamre an χabšīn. Wa-lėš len-χabše čamre. Bi-šimėʕ an χabše žīnė, yamnāȝ ʔilė an šadi.''<br />
<br />
Hebrew:<br />
<br />
{{rtl|הכבש והסוסים}}<br />
<br />
{{rtl|כבש שלא היה לו צמר ראה סוסים: אחד גרר עגלה כבדה, אחד נשא עומס גדול, ואחד נשא בן אדם וזז מהר. אמר הכבש: "כואב לי לראות איך בן אדם רוכב סוסים." אמרו הסוסים: "הקשב, כבש, כואב לנו לראות זאת: בן אדם, האדון, עושה לעצמו בגד חמים מצמרו של הכבש. ולכבש אין צמר." לאחר ששמע זאת, ברח הכבש לתוך המישור.}}<br />
<br />
===Lysėn Tėrmi, lysėn tlul===<br />
* ''Hað arž, rav arži; hað γalt, rav γalti!''<br />
* ''Jaumyn nėk wyktav, amsyn nėk yktøv; jaumyn nėk wydȝam, amsyn nėk ydȝøm! ''<br />
<br />
===A biology abstract===<br />
<br />
''Nan wymðøð yn tyγlim efgarjodeg metycrer lyn irišt TSP3 in ''Vruchorjon sbonerču''. TSP3 wygaðeg ginas nahelan rėkes ly brødezenjon, mygėma vym migrosbørelada gødognėji lyn rivosøm bosadeðeg, wy kahus ly TSP3 rahivyn ma'man ly fėt ym mojan ly garčin gøvothrødeg. In tyktøvt žinė nan wystyðrek wyngad tyvhin kyli-ȝywur Rɪᴄᴇʀ-Jᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋɪ, žė rykės TSP3 lið yn ȝakuvan følochrøpsenas wygrė (p = 0.04) nyn øbodreløma ly gød ''Vrukorjon'' slim møran ety'yfusi aðenodoksen nyhut. Ly tymacu žinė vė fėt ramuzi mø'avjunė lið yn ðrės ly ðesglørøma sømvrøchi.''<br />
<br />
We measure the nucleating eukaryotic folding of the TSP3 gene in ''Bruchorium sponercii''. TSP3 encodes a protezine-binding receptor kinase located at the cytotubular microsporellata of the quanticular ribosome, and malfunction of TSP3 is commonly believed to be the source of cybothrotic cancer. In this paper we prove using a Rɪᴇᴛᴢᴇʀ-Yᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋʏ double-blind test that TSP3 binding to the phyllochrypsinase inhibitor occurs (p = 0.04) in the hypotrellome of a healthy ''Bruchorium'' cell when adenotoxin concentrations are low. This research will have significant implications for the study of symbrychous descloroma.<br />
<br />
===Newton's laws of motion===<br />
''I: Ðvar wyšvat vy ðemi, o vy ȝytėg enomorf, lulė yðraȝ wybarkes ȝal že.''<br />
<br />
I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it.<br />
<br />
''II: Yn šanuj nyn tyȝtig ly všar že mytkøni lið yn øtisi møtyfacar ȝlėm všar; w' yn šanuj wygrė ðarkyn yn gau tygin ȝal žė øtisi ži vė møtyfacar ȝal.''<br />
<br />
II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied.<br />
<br />
''III: Iš ly køl barkis it tybarkis is w' andethed.''<br />
<br />
III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.<br />
<br />
===O how quickly the sculpture of life===<br />
<poem><br />
''O! Kma fizit ym myglaȝ ly heiwėt''<br />
''Šaver in demaša zydarder!''<br />
''Ym mγilut lym malk ȝlėn trøn lau''<br />
''Vė klilit γruf ðak vy γali jam.''<br />
''Atøm, žė watė mancavta hė,''<br />
''Ȝavry hen yn Ylėh lawani ȝlėn arž.''<br />
''Køl lanė møðawan ȝal ym barkisi lanė;''<br />
''Hamnė wyhėv lið yn ȝni, w' aγatheržijėt lið hajðuð.''<br />
<br />
O how quickly the sculpture of life<br />
Shattered into tiny fragments!<br />
The splendor of the king on his throne<br />
Is completely swept away by sea-waves.<br />
Ye who come hither stationed here,<br />
By the grace of God ye are guests on earth.<br />
All of us are judged according to our actions;<br />
Let us give to the needy, and do charity towards one another.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Warming Up To You===<br />
<poem><br />
'''Wetyhmem liðak'''<br />
Kenak at vė mėt in klėt,<br />
Nėk wyrtyvec nym mimut lak,<br />
Ym mimut žė azė'en yn hagranut,<br />
Yn ȝyli lyn jeðȝy;<br />
Yn γant žė lak stul in žinė ryvuȝ aðmyt<br />
Wy žė at vė nyžėr lið ðėr wy ðėr.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Stairway To Heaven===<br />
<poem><br />
'''Maȝlyt lið yn Symeinit'''<br />
Iš volt žė hi šur<br />
Køl žė nėher že žahav<br />
Wy hi wyzvan maȝlyt lið yn symeinit<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===UDHR===<br />
''Køl nės mewølað rur w' is in akšobrebja wy žykawi. Høm møtyhanan by ložegi wy syniðisi wy høvu barkus lið hajðuð vyn ruh l'ahwut.''<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]<br />
[[Category:Semitic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488768
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:54:28Z
<p>IlL: /* Korean Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Comparison text (D'ror yiqrå) ==<br />
<poem><br />
דְּרוֹר יִקְרָא לְבֵן עִם בַּת<br />
וְיִנְצָרְכֶם כְּמוֹ בָבַת<br />
נְעִים שִׁמְכֶם וְלֹא יֻשְׁבַּת<br />
שְׁבוּ נוּחוּ בְּיוֹם שַׁבָּת<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹשׁ נָוִי וְאוּלָמִי<br />
וְאוֹת יֶשַׁע עֲשֵׂה עִמִּי<br />
נְטַע שׂוֹרֵק בְּתוֹךְ כַּרְמִי<br />
שְׁעֵה שַׁוְעַת בְּנֵי עַמִּי<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹךְ פּוּרָה בְּתוֹךְ בָּצְרָה<br />
וְגַם בָּבֶל אֲשֶׁר גָּבְרָה<br />
נְתוֹץ צָרַי בְּאַף עֶבְרָה<br />
שְׁמַע קוֹלִי בְּיוֹם אֶקְרָא<br />
<br />
אֱלֹקים תֵּן בַּמִּדְבָּר הַר<br />
הֲדַס שִׁטָּה בְּרוֹשׁ תִּדְהָר<br />
וְלַמַּזְהִיר וְלַנִּזְהָר<br />
שְׁלוֹמִים תֵּן כְּמֵי נָהָר<br />
<br />
הֲדוֹךְ קָמַי חַי אֵל קַנָּא<br />
בְּמוֹג לֵבָב וּבִמְגִנָּה<br />
וְנַרְחִיב פֶּה וּנְמַלֶּאנָּה<br />
לְשׁוֹנֵנוּ לְךָ רִנָּה<br />
<br />
דְּעֵה חָכְמָה לְנַפְשֶׁךָ<br />
וְהִיא כֶתֶר לְרֹאשֶׁךָ<br />
נְצוֹר מִצְוַת קְדֹשֶׁךָ<br />
שְׁמוֹר שַׁבָּת קָדְשֶׁךָ <br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ ㄹ m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ ㄹ ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
Only /m n l r/ are geminated by dagesh forte<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k r m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ s k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488767
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:53:59Z
<p>IlL: /* Japanese Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Comparison text (D'ror yiqrå) ==<br />
<poem><br />
דְּרוֹר יִקְרָא לְבֵן עִם בַּת<br />
וְיִנְצָרְכֶם כְּמוֹ בָבַת<br />
נְעִים שִׁמְכֶם וְלֹא יֻשְׁבַּת<br />
שְׁבוּ נוּחוּ בְּיוֹם שַׁבָּת<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹשׁ נָוִי וְאוּלָמִי<br />
וְאוֹת יֶשַׁע עֲשֵׂה עִמִּי<br />
נְטַע שׂוֹרֵק בְּתוֹךְ כַּרְמִי<br />
שְׁעֵה שַׁוְעַת בְּנֵי עַמִּי<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹךְ פּוּרָה בְּתוֹךְ בָּצְרָה<br />
וְגַם בָּבֶל אֲשֶׁר גָּבְרָה<br />
נְתוֹץ צָרַי בְּאַף עֶבְרָה<br />
שְׁמַע קוֹלִי בְּיוֹם אֶקְרָא<br />
<br />
אֱלֹקים תֵּן בַּמִּדְבָּר הַר<br />
הֲדַס שִׁטָּה בְּרוֹשׁ תִּדְהָר<br />
וְלַמַּזְהִיר וְלַנִּזְהָר<br />
שְׁלוֹמִים תֵּן כְּמֵי נָהָר<br />
<br />
הֲדוֹךְ קָמַי חַי אֵל קַנָּא<br />
בְּמוֹג לֵבָב וּבִמְגִנָּה<br />
וְנַרְחִיב פֶּה וּנְמַלֶּאנָּה<br />
לְשׁוֹנֵנוּ לְךָ רִנָּה<br />
<br />
דְּעֵה חָכְמָה לְנַפְשֶׁךָ<br />
וְהִיא כֶתֶר לְרֹאשֶׁךָ<br />
נְצוֹר מִצְוַת קְדֹשֶׁךָ<br />
שְׁמוֹר שַׁבָּת קָדְשֶׁךָ <br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ l ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
Only /m n l r/ are geminated by dagesh forte<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k r m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ s k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488766
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:51:33Z
<p>IlL: /* Japanese Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Comparison text (D'ror yiqrå) ==<br />
<poem><br />
דְּרוֹר יִקְרָא לְבֵן עִם בַּת<br />
וְיִנְצָרְכֶם כְּמוֹ בָבַת<br />
נְעִים שִׁמְכֶם וְלֹא יֻשְׁבַּת<br />
שְׁבוּ נוּחוּ בְּיוֹם שַׁבָּת<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹשׁ נָוִי וְאוּלָמִי<br />
וְאוֹת יֶשַׁע עֲשֵׂה עִמִּי<br />
נְטַע שׂוֹרֵק בְּתוֹךְ כַּרְמִי<br />
שְׁעֵה שַׁוְעַת בְּנֵי עַמִּי<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹךְ פּוּרָה בְּתוֹךְ בָּצְרָה<br />
וְגַם בָּבֶל אֲשֶׁר גָּבְרָה<br />
נְתוֹץ צָרַי בְּאַף עֶבְרָה<br />
שְׁמַע קוֹלִי בְּיוֹם אֶקְרָא<br />
<br />
אֱלֹקים תֵּן בַּמִּדְבָּר הַר<br />
הֲדַס שִׁטָּה בְּרוֹשׁ תִּדְהָר<br />
וְלַמַּזְהִיר וְלַנִּזְהָר<br />
שְׁלוֹמִים תֵּן כְּמֵי נָהָר<br />
<br />
הֲדוֹךְ קָמַי חַי אֵל קַנָּא<br />
בְּמוֹג לֵבָב וּבִמְגִנָּה<br />
וְנַרְחִיב פֶּה וּנְמַלֶּאנָּה<br />
לְשׁוֹנֵנוּ לְךָ רִנָּה<br />
<br />
דְּעֵה חָכְמָה לְנַפְשֶׁךָ<br />
וְהִיא כֶתֶר לְרֹאשֶׁךָ<br />
נְצוֹר מִצְוַת קְדֹשֶׁךָ<br />
שְׁמוֹר שַׁבָּת קָדְשֶׁךָ <br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ l ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
Only /m n l r/ are geminated by dagesh forte<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k r m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488765
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:51:07Z
<p>IlL: /* Korean Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Comparison text (D'ror yiqrå) ==<br />
<poem><br />
דְּרוֹר יִקְרָא לְבֵן עִם בַּת<br />
וְיִנְצָרְכֶם כְּמוֹ בָבַת<br />
נְעִים שִׁמְכֶם וְלֹא יֻשְׁבַּת<br />
שְׁבוּ נוּחוּ בְּיוֹם שַׁבָּת<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹשׁ נָוִי וְאוּלָמִי<br />
וְאוֹת יֶשַׁע עֲשֵׂה עִמִּי<br />
נְטַע שׂוֹרֵק בְּתוֹךְ כַּרְמִי<br />
שְׁעֵה שַׁוְעַת בְּנֵי עַמִּי<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹךְ פּוּרָה בְּתוֹךְ בָּצְרָה<br />
וְגַם בָּבֶל אֲשֶׁר גָּבְרָה<br />
נְתוֹץ צָרַי בְּאַף עֶבְרָה<br />
שְׁמַע קוֹלִי בְּיוֹם אֶקְרָא<br />
<br />
אֱלֹקים תֵּן בַּמִּדְבָּר הַר<br />
הֲדַס שִׁטָּה בְּרוֹשׁ תִּדְהָר<br />
וְלַמַּזְהִיר וְלַנִּזְהָר<br />
שְׁלוֹמִים תֵּן כְּמֵי נָהָר<br />
<br />
הֲדוֹךְ קָמַי חַי אֵל קַנָּא<br />
בְּמוֹג לֵבָב וּבִמְגִנָּה<br />
וְנַרְחִיב פֶּה וּנְמַלֶּאנָּה<br />
לְשׁוֹנֵנוּ לְךָ רִנָּה<br />
<br />
דְּעֵה חָכְמָה לְנַפְשֶׁךָ<br />
וְהִיא כֶתֶר לְרֹאשֶׁךָ<br />
נְצוֹר מִצְוַת קְדֹשֶׁךָ<br />
שְׁמוֹר שַׁבָּת קָדְשֶׁךָ <br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ l ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
Only /m n l r/ are geminated by dagesh forte<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k r{{pal}} m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488764
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:50:23Z
<p>IlL: /* Korean Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Comparison text (D'ror yiqrå) ==<br />
<poem><br />
דְּרוֹר יִקְרָא לְבֵן עִם בַּת<br />
וְיִנְצָרְכֶם כְּמוֹ בָבַת<br />
נְעִים שִׁמְכֶם וְלֹא יֻשְׁבַּת<br />
שְׁבוּ נוּחוּ בְּיוֹם שַׁבָּת<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹשׁ נָוִי וְאוּלָמִי<br />
וְאוֹת יֶשַׁע עֲשֵׂה עִמִּי<br />
נְטַע שׂוֹרֵק בְּתוֹךְ כַּרְמִי<br />
שְׁעֵה שַׁוְעַת בְּנֵי עַמִּי<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹךְ פּוּרָה בְּתוֹךְ בָּצְרָה<br />
וְגַם בָּבֶל אֲשֶׁר גָּבְרָה<br />
נְתוֹץ צָרַי בְּאַף עֶבְרָה<br />
שְׁמַע קוֹלִי בְּיוֹם אֶקְרָא<br />
<br />
אֱלֹקים תֵּן בַּמִּדְבָּר הַר<br />
הֲדַס שִׁטָּה בְּרוֹשׁ תִּדְהָר<br />
וְלַמַּזְהִיר וְלַנִּזְהָר<br />
שְׁלוֹמִים תֵּן כְּמֵי נָהָר<br />
<br />
הֲדוֹךְ קָמַי חַי אֵל קַנָּא<br />
בְּמוֹג לֵבָב וּבִמְגִנָּה<br />
וְנַרְחִיב פֶּה וּנְמַלֶּאנָּה<br />
לְשׁוֹנֵנוּ לְךָ רִנָּה<br />
<br />
דְּעֵה חָכְמָה לְנַפְשֶׁךָ<br />
וְהִיא כֶתֶר לְרֹאשֶׁךָ<br />
נְצוֹר מִצְוַת קְדֹשֶׁךָ<br />
שְׁמוֹר שַׁבָּת קָדְשֶׁךָ <br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ l ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k r{{pal}} m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488763
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:50:09Z
<p>IlL: /* Japanese Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Comparison text (D'ror yiqrå) ==<br />
<poem><br />
דְּרוֹר יִקְרָא לְבֵן עִם בַּת<br />
וְיִנְצָרְכֶם כְּמוֹ בָבַת<br />
נְעִים שִׁמְכֶם וְלֹא יֻשְׁבַּת<br />
שְׁבוּ נוּחוּ בְּיוֹם שַׁבָּת<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹשׁ נָוִי וְאוּלָמִי<br />
וְאוֹת יֶשַׁע עֲשֵׂה עִמִּי<br />
נְטַע שׂוֹרֵק בְּתוֹךְ כַּרְמִי<br />
שְׁעֵה שַׁוְעַת בְּנֵי עַמִּי<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹךְ פּוּרָה בְּתוֹךְ בָּצְרָה<br />
וְגַם בָּבֶל אֲשֶׁר גָּבְרָה<br />
נְתוֹץ צָרַי בְּאַף עֶבְרָה<br />
שְׁמַע קוֹלִי בְּיוֹם אֶקְרָא<br />
<br />
אֱלֹקים תֵּן בַּמִּדְבָּר הַר<br />
הֲדַס שִׁטָּה בְּרוֹשׁ תִּדְהָר<br />
וְלַמַּזְהִיר וְלַנִּזְהָר<br />
שְׁלוֹמִים תֵּן כְּמֵי נָהָר<br />
<br />
הֲדוֹךְ קָמַי חַי אֵל קַנָּא<br />
בְּמוֹג לֵבָב וּבִמְגִנָּה<br />
וְנַרְחִיב פֶּה וּנְמַלֶּאנָּה<br />
לְשׁוֹנֵנוּ לְךָ רִנָּה<br />
<br />
דְּעֵה חָכְמָה לְנַפְשֶׁךָ<br />
וְהִיא כֶתֶר לְרֹאשֶׁךָ<br />
נְצוֹר מִצְוַת קְדֹשֶׁךָ<br />
שְׁמוֹר שַׁבָּת קָדְשֶׁךָ <br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ r ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k r{{pal}} m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488762
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:46:56Z
<p>IlL: /* Comparison text (D'ror yiqrå) */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Comparison text (D'ror yiqrå) ==<br />
<poem><br />
דְּרוֹר יִקְרָא לְבֵן עִם בַּת<br />
וְיִנְצָרְכֶם כְּמוֹ בָבַת<br />
נְעִים שִׁמְכֶם וְלֹא יֻשְׁבַּת<br />
שְׁבוּ נוּחוּ בְּיוֹם שַׁבָּת<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹשׁ נָוִי וְאוּלָמִי<br />
וְאוֹת יֶשַׁע עֲשֵׂה עִמִּי<br />
נְטַע שׂוֹרֵק בְּתוֹךְ כַּרְמִי<br />
שְׁעֵה שַׁוְעַת בְּנֵי עַמִּי<br />
<br />
דְּרוֹךְ פּוּרָה בְּתוֹךְ בָּצְרָה<br />
וְגַם בָּבֶל אֲשֶׁר גָּבְרָה<br />
נְתוֹץ צָרַי בְּאַף עֶבְרָה<br />
שְׁמַע קוֹלִי בְּיוֹם אֶקְרָא<br />
<br />
אֱלֹקים תֵּן בַּמִּדְבָּר הַר<br />
הֲדַס שִׁטָּה בְּרוֹשׁ תִּדְהָר<br />
וְלַמַּזְהִיר וְלַנִּזְהָר<br />
שְׁלוֹמִים תֵּן כְּמֵי נָהָר<br />
<br />
הֲדוֹךְ קָמַי חַי אֵל קַנָּא<br />
בְּמוֹג לֵבָב וּבִמְגִנָּה<br />
וְנַרְחִיב פֶּה וּנְמַלֶּאנָּה<br />
לְשׁוֹנֵנוּ לְךָ רִנָּה<br />
<br />
דְּעֵה חָכְמָה לְנַפְשֶׁךָ<br />
וְהִיא כֶתֶר לְרֹאשֶׁךָ<br />
נְצוֹר מִצְוַת קְדֹשֶׁךָ<br />
שְׁמוֹר שַׁבָּת קָדְשֶׁךָ <br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ r ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k l m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488761
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:45:20Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Sample text (D'ror yiqrå) ==<br />
<br />
== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ r ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k l m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488760
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:44:35Z
<p>IlL: /* Korean Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w~(u after V) ㅈ h ㄸ j~(i after V) ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ r ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k l m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488759
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:43:54Z
<p>IlL: /* Japanese Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w ㅈ h ㄸ j ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ r ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w~(ɯ after V) z h t j~(i after V) k k l m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488758
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:42:59Z
<p>IlL: /* Japanese Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w ㅈ h ㄸ j ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ r ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ~0 b b g g d d h w z h t j k k l m n s ʔ~0 p~ɸ p~ɸ t{{ś}} k r {{ś}} t t/</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488757
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:39:15Z
<p>IlL: /* Japanese Hebrew */</p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w ㅈ h ㄸ j ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ r ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===<br />
/i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [iː e̞ː e̞ː aː aː o{{lowered}}ː o{{lowered}}ː ɯː ɯ a e̞ o{{lowered}}]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488755
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:33:48Z
<p>IlL: /* East Asian readings */</p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
Vowels: /i e ɛ a QG QQ o u (shva) ă ĕ ŏ/ = [i e{{lowered}} e{{lowered}} a ʌ ʌ o u ɯ a e{{lowered}} o/<br />
<br />
Consonants: /ʔ b v g ɣ d ð h w z ħ tˤ j k x l m n s ʕ p f sˤ q r ʃ t θ/ = /ʔ ㅂ ㅂ ㄱ ㄱ ㄷ ㄷ h w ㅈ h ㄸ j ㅋ ㅋ l m n ㅆ ʔ ㅍ ㅍ ㅉ ㄲ r ㅅ ㅌ ㅌ/<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488752
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:23:55Z
<p>IlL: /* East Asian readings */</p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na3) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488751
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:23:21Z
<p>IlL: /* East Asian readings */</p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===<br />
=== Japanese Hebrew ===</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488750
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:23:08Z
<p>IlL: /* East Asian readings */</p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
Qamatz gadol usually stays distinct from pataḥ; liberal use of epenthesis (shva naḥ -> shva na) to avoid finals merging into final unreleased stops<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488747
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:19:44Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>== East Asian readings ==<br />
=== Mandarin Hebrew ===<br />
=== Korean Hebrew ===</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Verse:Td%C5%ABrz%C5%AF/Hebrew&diff=488746
Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew
2026-02-21T18:18:42Z
<p>IlL: IlL moved page Verse:Irta/Hebrew to Verse:Tdūrzů/Hebrew without leaving a redirect</p>
<hr />
<div></div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Riphean/Lexicon&diff=488355
Riphean/Lexicon
2026-02-18T19:25:35Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>* ''souskrt'' (or ''zouskrt'') (n) "Sanskrit" (partial nativization of saMskrta-)<br />
* ''zechež'' (v) "to see"<br />
* ''wejtiž'' (v) "to know (a fact)"<br />
* ''cnáž'' (v) "to know (someone)"<br />
* ''swent'' (adj) "holy"<br />
* ''stína'' (f) "wall"<br />
* ''roucha'' (f) "hand, arm"<br />
* ''naha'' (f) "foot, leg"<br />
* ''líz'' (m) "forest"<br />
* ''mař'' (n) "sea"<br />
* ''camb'' (m) "tooth"<br />
* ''zen'' (adj) "old"<br />
* ''malt'' (adj) "young"<br />
* ''kejweđ'' (m) "life"<br />
* ''kejž'' (v) "to live"<br />
* ''chwíđ'' (m) "flower"<br />
* ''sejm'' (n) "family"<br />
* ''cejm'' (n) "seed"<br />
* ''ui-'' "out" (~ vy-)<br />
* ''buiž'' (v) "to be"<br />
* ''tíw'' (m) "god"<br />
* ''stár'' (adj) "firm, confident"<br />
* ''duim'' (m) "smoke"<br />
* ''tejň'' (m) "day"<br />
* ''derm'' (adj) "good"<br />
* ''ews'' (m) (archaic) "horse"<br />
* ''dzaz'' 'gas' (from g'hh2sos, cognate to ''chaos'')<br />
* ''ďouž, ďouža'' (n) 'animal' (from dhewsom)<br />
* ''séziž'' 'to declare, to decide' (~ censeō)<br />
* h1ed-esi -> ''etež'' "to eat"<br />
* neyHesi -> ''ňejž'' "to churn"<br />
* ''šľou, šľouza'' (n) "word" (ķlewos)<br />
* ''kena'' (f) "woman"<br />
* ''manč'' (m) "man"<br />
* ''wejr'' (m) (less common) "man, especially a manly one"<br />
* ''ľoudi'' "people"<br />
* ''wazra'' (f) "(poetic) spring"<br />
* ''and, anda/andza'' (n) "spring"<br />
* ''líđ, líđa'' (n) "summer"<br />
* ''ezen, ezniz'' (f) "autumn"<br />
* ''dzejma'' (f) "winter"<br />
* ''houz, houziz'' (f) "goose"<br />
* ''ků, kůiz'' (f) "cow (only female cows)"<br />
* ''ňou'' (adj) "new"<br />
* ''charwa'' (f) "cow (both sexes)"<br />
* ''jouž'' (m) "bull, ox"<br />
* ''kat'' (m) "cat"<br />
* ''muiž, muižiz'' (f) "mouse"<br />
* ''sun'' (m) "dog"<br />
* ''zuin'' (m) "son"<br />
* ''duchta'' (f) "daughter"<br />
* ''ata'' (m) "father"<br />
* ''máta'' (f) "mother"<br />
* ''brát'' (m) "brother"<br />
* ''zwestra'' (f) "sister"<br />
* ''waten'' (n) "water"<br />
* ''dzald'' (n) "gold"<br />
* ''zrber'' (n) "silver"<br />
* ''wař'' (m) "copper"<br />
* ''rđiđ'' (f) "mercury"<br />
* ''kelis'' (n) "iron"<br />
* ''stan'' (n) "tin"<br />
* ''alou'' (m) "lead"<br />
* ''wlch'' (m) "wolf"<br />
* ''oucha'' (f) "sheep"<br />
* ''dzrk'' (m) "horse"<br />
* ''swíđ'' (m) "light"<br />
* ''imen'' (n) "given name"</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Riphean&diff=488354
Riphean
2026-02-18T19:22:58Z
<p>IlL: /* Phonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Riphean/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
'''Riphean''' (''rivška'') is an Indo-European language of [[Verse:Tdūrzů|Tdūrzů]], spoken in our Poland, Prussia, Latvia and Lithuania. It is inspired by Czech and Dutch and contains vocabulary we think of as Balto-Slavic and non-English Germanic.<br />
<br />
== TODO ==<br />
Split-ergative past tense using a -n- passive participle?<br />
=== UDHR ===<br />
''Wiži dzíni kimeđ walni im lejki in zwem chejn im zwame đejžam.''<br />
<br />
/ˈʋɪ{{ž}}ɪ ˈdziːɲɪ ˈkɪməθ ˈʋalɲɪ ɪm ˈlɛjkɪ ɪn zʋɛm xɛjn ɪm ˈzʋamə ˈðɛjʒɐm/<br />
<br />
(im ~ Latin ambō) <br />
<br />
hejn ~ τῑμή 'honor', đejše ~ teisė<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
Riphean has consistent initial stress.<br />
<br />
Vowel-initial words get a glottal stop initial, at least in formal speech<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops are not aspirated<br />
<br />
w and v as in Dutch<br />
<br />
c č ď dz dž ň ř s z š ž h ch as in Czech, ľ as in Slovak, ř devoices word-finally<br />
<br />
h devoices to [x]<br />
<br />
''đ'' = [ð], devoices to [θ]<br />
<br />
Stressed ''a e i o u'' = [a ɛ ɪ ɔ u]<br />
<br />
''á é í ó ů'' = [a{{long}} e{{lowered}}{{long}} i{{long}} o{{lowered}}{{long}} u{{long}}]<br />
<br />
''ej ui ou'' = [ɛj œɥ ɔw]<br />
<br />
''l'' is velarized, ''r'' is usually an approximant. Both can be syllabic: ''wlch'' 'wolf', ''crn'' 'grain'.<br />
<br />
Auslautverhärtung<br />
<br />
Unstressed a = [ɐ] (like Portuguese)<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nouns and adjectives ===<br />
==== Masculine animate ====<br />
The dative singular has replaced the regular accusative singular for masculine animate nouns (cf. ''a'' in Spanish).<br />
<br />
manč "man"<br />
* nom. manč, manči<br />
* gen. mančez, manču<br />
* dat. manče, mančem<br />
* acc. manče, mančuz<br />
* ins. manču, mančiz<br />
<br />
==== Masculine inanimate ====<br />
Dialectally, these nouns may merge with neuter nouns: ''tam, tama''<br />
<br />
''tam'' "house"<br />
* nom. tam, tami<br />
* gen. tamez, tamu<br />
* dat. tame, tamem<br />
* acc. tam, tamuz<br />
* ins. tamu, tamiz<br />
<br />
==== Feminine -a ====<br />
kena "woman"<br />
* nom. kena, kenaz<br />
* gen. kenaz, kenu<br />
* dat. kene, kenam<br />
* acc. kenou, kenouz<br />
* ins. kenam, kenami<br />
<br />
==== Other feminine ====<br />
váni (< vađni < potnih2) "lady, Mrs."<br />
* nom. váni, vániz<br />
* gen. vániz, váňu<br />
* dat. váni, vánim<br />
* acc. váni, vániz<br />
* ins. vánim, vánimi<br />
<br />
nacht "night"<br />
* nom. nacht, nachtiz<br />
* gen. nachtiz, nachťu<br />
* dat. nachti, nachtim<br />
* acc. nachti, nachtiz<br />
* ins. nachtim, nachtmi<br />
<br />
==== Neuter ====<br />
céđ "child" (<- ģenh1tom, ~ Kind)<br />
* nom. céđ, céđa<br />
* gen. céđez, céđu<br />
* dat. céđe, céđem<br />
* acc. céđ, céđa<br />
* ins. céđu, céđiz<br />
<br />
==== Adjectives ====<br />
Indefinite and definite declensions<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
etež "to eat"<br />
<br />
ec etem, ji eteđ, ež eteđ, đam etar, jíľud eteđ, í eteđ<br />
<br />
(Polite pronoun?)<br />
<br />
negative ne<br />
<br />
==== ''buiž'' 'to be' ====<br />
ec em, ji eđ, ež es, đam ér, jiľud eđ, í zouđ<br />
<br />
Negative ec nem, ji neđ, ež nes, đam nér, jiľud neđ, í nezouđ<br />
<br />
==== Reflexive verbs ====<br />
ouchiž ze "to learn"<br />
<br />
ec ouchim ze, ji ouchiđ ze, ež ouchiđ ze, đam ouchir ze, jiľud ouchiđ ze, í ouchiđ ze<br />
<br />
=== Numerals ===<br />
ejn, tů, đrí, cheđur, véch, zest, zevouđ, astuđ, ňouđ, tezou<br />
<br />
ejnľez, twejľez, đríľez, cheđurľez, véľez, zesľez, zevaľez, astľez, ňouľez, twejcouđi<br />
<br />
đrícouđi, cheđurcouđi, vécouđi, zescouđi, zevacouđi, ascouđi, ňucouđi, stou? (random change from kmtom -> ktom, influenced by the ordinal stouđe <- ktm-tos)<br />
<br />
đouzuđ<br />
<br />
ejn "1" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. ejn, ejna, ejn<br />
<br />
tů "2" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. tů, twí, twej<br />
* gen. tweju<br />
* dat. twím<br />
* acc. tů, twí, twej<br />
* ins. twími<br />
<br />
đrí "3" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. đrí<br />
* gen. đríu<br />
* dat. đrím<br />
* acc. đrí<br />
* ins. đrími<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
German-like?<br />
<br />
== Swadesh list ==<br />
<poem><br />
I: ec<br />
thou: ji<br />
he/she/it: ež/já/it<br />
we: đam (originally a dummy word used with the impersonal, from đám "there")<br />
ye: jíľud<br />
they: í/jáz/đá<br />
this: siđe<br />
that: đađe<br />
here: sím<br />
there: đám<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
=== Schleicher's fable ===<br />
Ra oucha um ri dzrki<br />
<br />
Oucha, čá wlnou ne [had], [saw] dzrkuz</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Riphean&diff=488353
Riphean
2026-02-18T19:22:11Z
<p>IlL: /* Phonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Riphean/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
'''Riphean''' (''rivška'') is an Indo-European language of [[Verse:Tdūrzů|Tdūrzů]], spoken in our Poland, Prussia, Latvia and Lithuania. It is inspired by Czech and Dutch and contains vocabulary we think of as Balto-Slavic and non-English Germanic.<br />
<br />
== TODO ==<br />
Split-ergative past tense using a -n- passive participle?<br />
=== UDHR ===<br />
''Wiži dzíni kimeđ walni im lejki in zwem chejn im zwame đejžam.''<br />
<br />
/ˈʋɪ{{ž}}ɪ ˈdziːɲɪ ˈkɪməθ ˈʋalɲɪ ɪm ˈlɛjkɪ ɪn zʋɛm xɛjn ɪm ˈzʋamə ˈðɛjʒɐm/<br />
<br />
(im ~ Latin ambō) <br />
<br />
hejn ~ τῑμή 'honor', đejše ~ teisė<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
Riphean has consistent initial stress.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops are not aspirated<br />
<br />
w and v as in Dutch<br />
<br />
c č ď dz dž ň ř s z š ž h ch as in Czech, ľ as in Slovak, ř devoices word-finally<br />
<br />
h devoices to [x]<br />
<br />
''đ'' = [ð], devoices to [θ]<br />
<br />
Stressed ''a e i o u'' = [a ɛ ɪ ɔ u]<br />
<br />
''á é í ó ů'' = [a{{long}} e{{lowered}}{{long}} i{{long}} o{{lowered}}{{long}} u{{long}}]<br />
<br />
''ej ui ou'' = [ɛj œɥ ɔw]<br />
<br />
''l'' is velarized, ''r'' is usually an approximant. Both can be syllabic: ''wlch'' 'wolf', ''crn'' 'grain'.<br />
<br />
Auslautverhärtung<br />
<br />
Unstressed a = [ɐ] (like Portuguese)<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nouns and adjectives ===<br />
==== Masculine animate ====<br />
The dative singular has replaced the regular accusative singular for masculine animate nouns (cf. ''a'' in Spanish).<br />
<br />
manč "man"<br />
* nom. manč, manči<br />
* gen. mančez, manču<br />
* dat. manče, mančem<br />
* acc. manče, mančuz<br />
* ins. manču, mančiz<br />
<br />
==== Masculine inanimate ====<br />
Dialectally, these nouns may merge with neuter nouns: ''tam, tama''<br />
<br />
''tam'' "house"<br />
* nom. tam, tami<br />
* gen. tamez, tamu<br />
* dat. tame, tamem<br />
* acc. tam, tamuz<br />
* ins. tamu, tamiz<br />
<br />
==== Feminine -a ====<br />
kena "woman"<br />
* nom. kena, kenaz<br />
* gen. kenaz, kenu<br />
* dat. kene, kenam<br />
* acc. kenou, kenouz<br />
* ins. kenam, kenami<br />
<br />
==== Other feminine ====<br />
váni (< vađni < potnih2) "lady, Mrs."<br />
* nom. váni, vániz<br />
* gen. vániz, váňu<br />
* dat. váni, vánim<br />
* acc. váni, vániz<br />
* ins. vánim, vánimi<br />
<br />
nacht "night"<br />
* nom. nacht, nachtiz<br />
* gen. nachtiz, nachťu<br />
* dat. nachti, nachtim<br />
* acc. nachti, nachtiz<br />
* ins. nachtim, nachtmi<br />
<br />
==== Neuter ====<br />
céđ "child" (<- ģenh1tom, ~ Kind)<br />
* nom. céđ, céđa<br />
* gen. céđez, céđu<br />
* dat. céđe, céđem<br />
* acc. céđ, céđa<br />
* ins. céđu, céđiz<br />
<br />
==== Adjectives ====<br />
Indefinite and definite declensions<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
etež "to eat"<br />
<br />
ec etem, ji eteđ, ež eteđ, đam etar, jíľud eteđ, í eteđ<br />
<br />
(Polite pronoun?)<br />
<br />
negative ne<br />
<br />
==== ''buiž'' 'to be' ====<br />
ec em, ji eđ, ež es, đam ér, jiľud eđ, í zouđ<br />
<br />
Negative ec nem, ji neđ, ež nes, đam nér, jiľud neđ, í nezouđ<br />
<br />
==== Reflexive verbs ====<br />
ouchiž ze "to learn"<br />
<br />
ec ouchim ze, ji ouchiđ ze, ež ouchiđ ze, đam ouchir ze, jiľud ouchiđ ze, í ouchiđ ze<br />
<br />
=== Numerals ===<br />
ejn, tů, đrí, cheđur, véch, zest, zevouđ, astuđ, ňouđ, tezou<br />
<br />
ejnľez, twejľez, đríľez, cheđurľez, véľez, zesľez, zevaľez, astľez, ňouľez, twejcouđi<br />
<br />
đrícouđi, cheđurcouđi, vécouđi, zescouđi, zevacouđi, ascouđi, ňucouđi, stou? (random change from kmtom -> ktom, influenced by the ordinal stouđe <- ktm-tos)<br />
<br />
đouzuđ<br />
<br />
ejn "1" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. ejn, ejna, ejn<br />
<br />
tů "2" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. tů, twí, twej<br />
* gen. tweju<br />
* dat. twím<br />
* acc. tů, twí, twej<br />
* ins. twími<br />
<br />
đrí "3" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. đrí<br />
* gen. đríu<br />
* dat. đrím<br />
* acc. đrí<br />
* ins. đrími<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
German-like?<br />
<br />
== Swadesh list ==<br />
<poem><br />
I: ec<br />
thou: ji<br />
he/she/it: ež/já/it<br />
we: đam (originally a dummy word used with the impersonal, from đám "there")<br />
ye: jíľud<br />
they: í/jáz/đá<br />
this: siđe<br />
that: đađe<br />
here: sím<br />
there: đám<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
=== Schleicher's fable ===<br />
Ra oucha um ri dzrki<br />
<br />
Oucha, čá wlnou ne [had], [saw] dzrkuz</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Riphean&diff=488352
Riphean
2026-02-18T19:19:37Z
<p>IlL: /* Phonology */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Riphean/Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
'''Riphean''' (''rivška'') is an Indo-European language of [[Verse:Tdūrzů|Tdūrzů]], spoken in our Poland, Prussia, Latvia and Lithuania. It is inspired by Czech and Dutch and contains vocabulary we think of as Balto-Slavic and non-English Germanic.<br />
<br />
== TODO ==<br />
Split-ergative past tense using a -n- passive participle?<br />
=== UDHR ===<br />
''Wiži dzíni kimeđ walni im lejki in zwem chejn im zwame đejžam.''<br />
<br />
/ˈʋɪ{{ž}}ɪ ˈdziːɲɪ ˈkɪməθ ˈʋalɲɪ ɪm ˈlɛjkɪ ɪn zʋɛm xɛjn ɪm ˈzʋamə ˈðɛjʒɐm/<br />
<br />
(im ~ Latin ambō) <br />
<br />
hejn ~ τῑμή 'honor', đejše ~ teisė<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
Riphean has consistent initial stress.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops are not aspirated<br />
<br />
w and v as in Dutch<br />
<br />
c č ď dz dž ň ř s z š ž h ch as in Czech, ľ as in Slovak, ř devoices word-finally<br />
<br />
h devoices to [x]<br />
<br />
''đ'' = [ð], devoices to [θ]<br />
<br />
Stressed ''a e i o u'' = [a ɛ ɪ ɔ u]<br />
<br />
''á é í ó ů'' = [a{{long}} e{{lowered}}{{long}} i{{long}} o{{lowered}}{{long}} u{{long}}]<br />
<br />
''ej ui ou'' = [ɛj œɥ ɔw]<br />
<br />
''l'' is velarized, ''r'' may be an approximant. Both can be syllabic: ''wlch'' 'wolf', ''crn'' 'grain'.<br />
<br />
Auslautverhärtung<br />
<br />
Unstressed a = [ɐ] (like Portuguese)<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nouns and adjectives ===<br />
==== Masculine animate ====<br />
The dative singular has replaced the regular accusative singular for masculine animate nouns (cf. ''a'' in Spanish).<br />
<br />
manč "man"<br />
* nom. manč, manči<br />
* gen. mančez, manču<br />
* dat. manče, mančem<br />
* acc. manče, mančuz<br />
* ins. manču, mančiz<br />
<br />
==== Masculine inanimate ====<br />
Dialectally, these nouns may merge with neuter nouns: ''tam, tama''<br />
<br />
''tam'' "house"<br />
* nom. tam, tami<br />
* gen. tamez, tamu<br />
* dat. tame, tamem<br />
* acc. tam, tamuz<br />
* ins. tamu, tamiz<br />
<br />
==== Feminine -a ====<br />
kena "woman"<br />
* nom. kena, kenaz<br />
* gen. kenaz, kenu<br />
* dat. kene, kenam<br />
* acc. kenou, kenouz<br />
* ins. kenam, kenami<br />
<br />
==== Other feminine ====<br />
váni (< vađni < potnih2) "lady, Mrs."<br />
* nom. váni, vániz<br />
* gen. vániz, váňu<br />
* dat. váni, vánim<br />
* acc. váni, vániz<br />
* ins. vánim, vánimi<br />
<br />
nacht "night"<br />
* nom. nacht, nachtiz<br />
* gen. nachtiz, nachťu<br />
* dat. nachti, nachtim<br />
* acc. nachti, nachtiz<br />
* ins. nachtim, nachtmi<br />
<br />
==== Neuter ====<br />
céđ "child" (<- ģenh1tom, ~ Kind)<br />
* nom. céđ, céđa<br />
* gen. céđez, céđu<br />
* dat. céđe, céđem<br />
* acc. céđ, céđa<br />
* ins. céđu, céđiz<br />
<br />
==== Adjectives ====<br />
Indefinite and definite declensions<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
etež "to eat"<br />
<br />
ec etem, ji eteđ, ež eteđ, đam etar, jíľud eteđ, í eteđ<br />
<br />
(Polite pronoun?)<br />
<br />
negative ne<br />
<br />
==== ''buiž'' 'to be' ====<br />
ec em, ji eđ, ež es, đam ér, jiľud eđ, í zouđ<br />
<br />
Negative ec nem, ji neđ, ež nes, đam nér, jiľud neđ, í nezouđ<br />
<br />
==== Reflexive verbs ====<br />
ouchiž ze "to learn"<br />
<br />
ec ouchim ze, ji ouchiđ ze, ež ouchiđ ze, đam ouchir ze, jiľud ouchiđ ze, í ouchiđ ze<br />
<br />
=== Numerals ===<br />
ejn, tů, đrí, cheđur, véch, zest, zevouđ, astuđ, ňouđ, tezou<br />
<br />
ejnľez, twejľez, đríľez, cheđurľez, véľez, zesľez, zevaľez, astľez, ňouľez, twejcouđi<br />
<br />
đrícouđi, cheđurcouđi, vécouđi, zescouđi, zevacouđi, ascouđi, ňucouđi, stou? (random change from kmtom -> ktom, influenced by the ordinal stouđe <- ktm-tos)<br />
<br />
đouzuđ<br />
<br />
ejn "1" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. ejn, ejna, ejn<br />
<br />
tů "2" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. tů, twí, twej<br />
* gen. tweju<br />
* dat. twím<br />
* acc. tů, twí, twej<br />
* ins. twími<br />
<br />
đrí "3" declines as follows:<br />
* nom. đrí<br />
* gen. đríu<br />
* dat. đrím<br />
* acc. đrí<br />
* ins. đrími<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
German-like?<br />
<br />
== Swadesh list ==<br />
<poem><br />
I: ec<br />
thou: ji<br />
he/she/it: ež/já/it<br />
we: đam (originally a dummy word used with the impersonal, from đám "there")<br />
ye: jíľud<br />
they: í/jáz/đá<br />
this: siđe<br />
that: đađe<br />
here: sím<br />
there: đám<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
== Texts ==<br />
=== Schleicher's fable ===<br />
Ra oucha um ri dzrki<br />
<br />
Oucha, čá wlnou ne [had], [saw] dzrkuz</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488351
Glommish
2026-02-18T19:14:39Z
<p>IlL: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''an'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic masculine nisba names and Latin and Greek masculine -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apole, Apolenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names and feminine Arabic names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe, Safe, Safer'' 'Sappho', ''Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíer'' 'Al-Farabiyya'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized, and is less common than the past forms. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''(ta) húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488350
Glommish
2026-02-18T19:10:24Z
<p>IlL: /* dóren 'dare' */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''an'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic masculine nisba names and Latin and Greek masculine -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apole, Apolenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names and feminine Arabic names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe, Safe, Safer'' 'Sappho', ''Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíer'' 'Al-Farabiyya'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized, and is less common than the past forms. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488349
Glommish
2026-02-18T19:06:05Z
<p>IlL: /* Articles */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''an'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic masculine nisba names and Latin and Greek masculine -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apole, Apolenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names and feminine Arabic names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe, Safe, Safer'' 'Sappho', ''Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíer'' 'Al-Farabiyya'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488348
Glommish
2026-02-18T19:05:03Z
<p>IlL: /* n-stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic masculine nisba names and Latin and Greek masculine -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apole, Apolenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names and feminine Arabic names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe, Safe, Safer'' 'Sappho', ''Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíer'' 'Al-Farabiyya'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488347
Glommish
2026-02-18T18:55:45Z
<p>IlL: /* n-stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic masculine nisba names and Latin and Greek masculine -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apole, Apolenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names and feminine Arabic names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe'' 'Sappho', ''Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíe, Elь-Ferábíer'' 'Al-Farabiyya'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488340
Glommish
2026-02-18T18:54:33Z
<p>IlL: /* n-stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic masculine nisba names and Latin and Greek masculine -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apole, Apolenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe'' 'Sappho'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488337
Glommish
2026-02-18T18:53:03Z
<p>IlL: /* n-stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic masculine nisba names and Latin and Greek masculine -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apóle, Apólenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe'' 'Sappho'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488336
Glommish
2026-02-18T18:52:46Z
<p>IlL: /* n-stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic nisba names and Latin and Greek masculine -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apóle, Apólenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe'' 'Sappho'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488335
Glommish
2026-02-18T18:52:06Z
<p>IlL: /* n-stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic nisba names and Latin and Greek -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apóle, Apólenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', ''Safe'' 'Sappho'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488330
Glommish
2026-02-18T18:50:32Z
<p>IlL: /* Grab bag */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic nisba names and Latin and Greek -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apóle, Apólenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', Safe 'Sappho'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them komenь'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komenь'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488325
Glommish
2026-02-18T18:47:38Z
<p>IlL: /* Grab bag */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic nisba names and Latin and Greek -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apóle, Apólenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', Safe 'Sappho'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them kome'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komes'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish&diff=488324
Glommish
2026-02-18T18:47:18Z
<p>IlL: /* Grab bag */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|image = <br />
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]<br />
|nativename = the glómsьk<br />
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/<br />
|region = North America; Brazil<br />
|speakers = 90 million<br />
|date = 2015<br />
|familycolor=Indo-European<br />
|fam1=Indo-European<br />
|fam2=Germanic<br />
|script={{PAGENAME}} script<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.<br />
<br />
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''<br />
<br />
==TODO==<br />
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!<br />
<br />
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words<br />
<br />
Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing<br />
<br />
Dutchify the grammar<br />
<br />
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?<br />
<br />
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.<br />
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard<br />
<br />
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)<br />
<br />
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
===Native script===<br />
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.<br />
<br />
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
==Phonology (Historical)==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!colspan="2" | Labial<br />
!colspan="2" | Dental<br />
!colspan="2" | Alveolar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar<br />
!colspan="2" | Velar<br />
!rowspan="2" | Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>soft</small><br />
! <small>hard</small><br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Nasal<br />
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}<br />
| || <br />
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}<br />
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" | Stop<br />
!<small>tenuis</small><br />
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}<br />
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || <br />
| <br />
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}<br />
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}<br />
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}<br />
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}|| <br />
| <br />
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}<br />
| [dʒ]<br />
| || [g]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!<small>aspirated</small><br />
| || <br />
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || <br />
|<br />
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| || <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|Fricative<br />
!<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}<br />
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}<br />
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}<br />
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
!<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}<br />
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!colspan=2| Resonant<br />
| || <br />
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}<br />
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}<br />
| <br />
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.<br />
<br />
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)<br />
<br />
Orthographical notes: <br />
<br />
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).<br />
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.<br />
<br />
;Notes:<br />
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.<br />
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.<br />
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.<br />
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.<br />
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.<br />
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small><br />
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small><br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɪ/<br />
| '''í''' /iː/<br />
| <br />
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)<br />
| '''u''' /ʊ/<br />
| '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''é''' /eː/<br />
| ('''e''' [ə])<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
| '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''á''' /ɑː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].<br />
<br />
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.<br />
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.<br />
<br />
*Connecticut Glommish<br />
*New York Glommish<br />
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)<br />
*a Glommish-English creole<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):<br />
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')<br />
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')<br />
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')<br />
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')<br />
<br />
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.<br />
<br />
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.<br />
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.<br />
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.<br />
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.<br />
<br />
====Articles====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.<br />
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'<br />
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'<br />
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Definite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Indefinite article'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an'' || ''ne'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes'' || ''ner'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem'' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Declined likewise are:<br />
*''jín'' 'that'<br />
*''ál'' 'all'<br />
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'<br />
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''<br />
<br />
====Masculine consonant nouns====<br />
The genitive plural ''-n'' was generalized from masculine ''n''-stem nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''vulf'' (m.) 'wolf'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''bazь'' (m.) 'berry'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''sun'' (m.) 'son'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====n-stems====<br />
Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''name'' (m.) 'name'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]<br />
<br />
Arabic nisba names and Latin and Greek -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apóle, Apólenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', Safe 'Sappho'.<br />
<br />
====Feminine nouns====<br />
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''miark'' (f.) 'girl'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''óre'' (f.) 'clock'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren'' <br />
|}<br />
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Grab bag====<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' (m.) 'father'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''mádier'' (f.) 'mother'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''sviestier'' 'sister', ''duchtier'' 'daughter'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''kome'' (m.) 'comma'<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 90px;" | Case <br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nominative<br />
| ''the kome'' || ''thá komen/komete'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| ''them kome'' || ''thím komem/kometem'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| ''thes komes'' || ''thier komen/kometen'' <br />
|}<br />
Also other nouns loaned from Greek ''-ma'' nouns.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
====Declension====<br />
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Soft-stem adjectives such as ''skónь'' 'beautiful' are declined similarly.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives'''<br />
! case || singular || plural <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''skóni'''e''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''em''''' <br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en''''' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.<br />
<br />
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.<br />
<br />
Other degree words:<br />
<br />
''svinth'' = 'very'<br />
<br />
''tá'' = 'too'<br />
<br />
''jám X als'' = 'as X as'<br />
<br />
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'<br />
<br />
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'<br />
<br />
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'<br />
<br />
''miénier X'' = 'less X'<br />
<br />
''miénьst X'' = 'least X'<br />
<br />
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Meaning<br />
! Positive<br />
! Comparative<br />
! Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! "good"<br />
| ''gád'', ''vial'' (adv.)<br />
| ''batier''<br />
| ''baste''<br />
|-<br />
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"<br />
| ''druk''<br />
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')<br />
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')<br />
|-<br />
! "much, many"<br />
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myr'' (not declined)<br />
| ''myste''<br />
|-<br />
! "few, little"<br />
| ''fó'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénier'' (not declined)<br />
| ''miénьste''<br />
|}<br />
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.<br />
<br />
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative<br />
|-<br />
! m. || f. <br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''<br />
|-<br />
! acc.<br />
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''<br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)<br />
|| ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.<br />
<br />
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)<br />
<br />
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''<br />
=====Possessive pronouns=====<br />
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.<br />
<br />
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" <br />
|+ '''Possessive pronouns'''<br />
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural <br />
|-<br />
! m. || f.<br />
|-<br />
! nom.<br />
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' <br />
|-<br />
! dat.<br />
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''<br />
|-<br />
! gen.<br />
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that<br />
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that<br />
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus<br />
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there<br />
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there<br />
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there<br />
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition<br />
*''fárup'' = why<br />
*''filьk'' = which<br />
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)<br />
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')<br />
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.<br />
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.<br />
*''ál'' = all, every<br />
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both<br />
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone<br />
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary<br />
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'<br />
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]<br />
*''jethich'' = some (specific)<br />
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)<br />
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one<br />
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
====Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative====<br />
When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.<br />
*''afte'' = after<br />
*''án'' = (''high register'') on, upon; to, unto<br />
*''biefur'' = before, in front of<br />
*''yr'' = before (temporally)<br />
*''at'' = at, by, next to<br />
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.<br />
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.<br />
*''in'' = in<br />
**''in them'' > ''im''<br />
*''siúthen'' = after<br />
*''uvier'' = over<br />
*''up'' = on<br />
*''út'' = outside of, out of<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the accusative====<br />
*''furь'' = for<br />
*''gaszt'' = towards<br />
*''sunder'' = without<br />
*''thruch'' = through<br />
*''um'' = around<br />
*''vith'' = against<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the dative====<br />
*''av'' = off, from<br />
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'<br />
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with<br />
**''mid them'' > ''mim''<br />
*''ta'' = to<br />
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''<br />
*''úter'' = except<br />
<br />
====Prepositions taking the genitive====<br />
*''atstad'' = instead of<br />
*''saker'' = because of<br />
*''fíler'' = during<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:<br />
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.<br />
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.<br />
<br />
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:<br />
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')<br />
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь'' <br />
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''<br />
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.<br />
=====Hard weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''lióvend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''maken'' 'make', ''lirnen'' 'learn'<br />
<br />
=====Soft weak=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present indicative<br />
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''varmiend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'<br />
<br />
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.<br />
=====Strong class 1=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bítend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 2=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past <br />
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''czúzend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 3=====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 4=====<br />
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 5=====<br />
Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''żavend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 6=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gravend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''<br />
|}<br />
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.<br />
<br />
=====Strong class 7=====<br />
halden, hyld, halden - to hold<br />
<br />
fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall<br />
<br />
liáten, lít, liáten - to let<br />
<br />
sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep<br />
<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become<br />
===== Other strongs =====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''<br />
|}<br />
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.<br />
<br />
====Preterite-present verbs====<br />
=====''viten'' 'to know'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''vitend''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''kónen'' 'can, be able to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь'' <br />
|}<br />
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),<br />
<br />
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''<br />
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dóren'' 'dare'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use: <br />
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...<br />
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.<br />
<br />
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''<br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':<br />
<br />
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security<br />
<br />
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь'' <br />
|}<br />
=====''vín'' 'want'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Other irregular verbs====<br />
=====''bión'' 'be'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<br />
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''biónd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''dán'' 'do'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past<br />
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''dánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====''gán'' 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'=====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px<br />
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''<br />
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' <br />
|-<br />
! present<br />
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past indicative<br />
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь'' <br />
|-<br />
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup><br />
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь'' <br />
|-<br />
! imperative<br />
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!'' <br />
|-<br />
!colspan="7"|<br />
|-<br />
! present participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''gánd''<br />
|-<br />
! past participle<br />
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''<br />
|}<br />
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.<br />
<br />
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.<br />
<br />
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''<br />
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''<br />
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)<br />
<br />
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.<br />
<br />
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''<br />
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.<br />
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)<br />
<br />
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:<br />
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''<br />
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''<br />
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)<br />
<br />
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.<br />
<br />
: '''''húżen út'''''<br />
: 'to express'<br />
: '''''úthúżeng'''''<br />
: 'expression'<br />
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''<br />
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'<br />
<br />
===Negation===<br />
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.<br />
<br />
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''<br />
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''<br />
<br />
===Possession===<br />
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.<br />
<br />
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." <br />
<br />
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.<br />
<br />
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'<br />
<br />
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.<br />
<br />
===Simple tenses===<br />
====Simple present====<br />
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.<br />
<br />
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''<br />
:''I'm afraid of ants.''<br />
<br />
====Simple past====<br />
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.<br />
<br />
====Imperative====<br />
Exactly what it says on the tin.<br />
<br />
===Compound tenses===<br />
====Progressive====<br />
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.<br />
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."<br />
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."<br />
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."<br />
<br />
====Perfect====<br />
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.<br />
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"<br />
<br />
====Future====<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
====Conjunctions====<br />
*''end'' = and<br />
*''oth'' = or<br />
*''nierь'' = but<br />
*''thóch'' = although<br />
*''fanь'' = when<br />
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when<br />
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...<br />
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...<br />
*''thiersak'' = because<br />
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)<br />
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'<br />
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'<br />
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)<br />
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)<br />
*''thánь'' = then<br />
*''nisь'' = than<br />
*''thus'' = so, thus<br />
*''als'' = as<br />
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y<br />
*''sáls'' = like<br />
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.<br />
<br />
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.<br />
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)<br />
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''<br />
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'<br />
<br />
==== Indirect speech ====<br />
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Direct speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''<br />
:''He says, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He says, "I had no money."''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."''''' <br />
:''He said, "I have no money."'<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
Indirect speech<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he doesn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He says he didn't have money.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.''''' <br />
:''He said he hadn't had money.''<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
====Inverted "if" clause====<br />
Like in German.<br />
<br />
====Exclamatory inversion====<br />
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''<br />
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''<br />
<br />
==Numbers==<br />
<br />
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién<br />
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/<br />
<br />
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién<br />
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/<br />
<br />
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich<br />
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./<br />
<br />
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...<br />
<br />
100: hunderth<br />
/hʊndərθ/<br />
<br />
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''<br />
<br />
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.<br />
<br />
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:<br />
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'<br />
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''<br />
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):<br />
<br />
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.<br />
<br />
===Derivational morphology===<br />
*''-ъ-'' is often used in compound words.<br />
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives<br />
*''-bier'': '-able'<br />
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive<br />
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'<br />
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"<br />
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom<br />
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism<br />
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'<br />
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'<br />
*''er-'': telic<br />
*''fer-'': "for-"<br />
*''fur-'': "fore-"<br />
*''-fól'': "-ful"<br />
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'<br />
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns<br />
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)<br />
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood<br />
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'<br />
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'<br />
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'<br />
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'<br />
*''-iel'': forms nouns<br />
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'<br />
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'<br />
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''<br />
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)<br />
*''-lóz'': "-less"<br />
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'<br />
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"<br />
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun<br />
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'<br />
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'<br />
*''mis-'': "mis-"<br />
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"<br />
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs<br />
*''-nie'': feminine suffix<br />
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'<br />
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'<br />
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together<br />
*''-sam'': "-some"<br />
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'<br />
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'<br />
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'<br />
*''-sk'': "-ish"<br />
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people<br />
**''simbskapie'' = chorus<br />
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''<br />
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')<br />
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'<br />
*''tví-'': "twi-"<br />
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)<br />
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'<br />
*''ur-''<br />
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'<br />
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs<br />
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'<br />
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'<br />
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei<br />
<br />
==Phrasebook==<br />
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye<br />
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)<br />
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)<br />
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'<br />
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'<br />
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)<br />
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'<br />
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'<br />
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'<br />
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'<br />
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'<br />
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)<br />
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'<br />
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'<br />
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'<br />
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'<br />
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'<br />
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'<br />
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'<br />
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'<br />
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'<br />
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'<br />
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'<br />
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'<br />
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'<br />
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'<br />
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'<br />
**''... árebьsk?'' = '... Arabic?'<br />
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'<br />
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'<br />
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'<br />
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'<br />
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'<br />
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'<br />
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'<br />
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'<br />
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'<br />
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'<br />
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'<br />
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'<br />
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'<br />
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.<br />
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.<br />
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)<br />
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.<br />
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?<br />
<br />
==Names==<br />
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.<br />
<br />
==Days of the week==<br />
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays<br />
*tiúsdag = Tuesday<br />
*vánsdag = Wednesday<br />
*thunsdag = Thursday<br />
*frídag = Friday<br />
*sabsdag = Saturday<br />
*sóndag = Sunday<br />
<br />
==Elements==<br />
Elements are masculine.<br />
*vaterstuf = hydrogen<br />
*heli = helium<br />
*lithi = lithium<br />
*beriuli = Be<br />
*bóre = boron<br />
*kólstuf = carbon<br />
*palьstuf = nitrogen<br />
*súrstuf = oxygen<br />
*fluóri = fluorine<br />
*neë = neon<br />
*natri = sodium<br />
*magnézi = magnesium<br />
*alumini = aluminium<br />
*samedstuf = silicon<br />
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus<br />
*sviál = sulfur<br />
*chlóri = chlorine<br />
*arge = argon<br />
*yriene = copper<br />
*siulver/silver = silver<br />
*tin = tin<br />
*fítgulth = platinum<br />
*gulth = gold<br />
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)<br />
*bliú = lead<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Featured language banner===<br />
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''<br />
:''This language was once featured.''<br />
<br />
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''<br />
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
:'''''Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.'''''<br />
:I came, I saw, I conquered.<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''<br />
:'''''Útglith 1'''''<br />
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''<br />
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]<br />
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<br />
<br />
===Schleicher's Fable===<br />
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''<br />
<br />
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''<br />
<br />
===Gettysburg Address===<br />
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''<br />
<br />
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===<br />
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''<br />
<br />
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===<br />
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.<br />
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.<br />
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,<br />
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,<br />
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.<br />
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.<br />
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,<br />
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Jarthe]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]<br />
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish/Lexicon&diff=487383
Glommish/Lexicon
2026-02-04T17:25:50Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{sc|<big>'''Glómsьk-Angelsьk Vurdbák · Glommish-English Lexicon'''</big>}}<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
yniávьstvíz = (mathematics) inductive, by induction (lit. evernextwise)<br />
czáven = to chew<br />
the tún = border, boundary<br />
czém = poetic contraction of ik jém<br />
thá riepùblike = republic<br />
thá szinthe = fruit peel; animal hide<br />
miáven = to meow<br />
ók = also<br />
-virczend = causing X<br />
thá jámietie = ant<br />
thá mórie = ant<br />
jevrieke = eureka<br />
thá kráe = crow<br />
Czechie = Czechia<br />
Czeszisьk = (adj) Czech<br />
Czézer = (m) Caesar<br />
kyzer = (m) emperor <br />
Avtiárve = (f) New Zealand; avtiárevsьk (adj)<br />
fliáfelь = (m) falafel<br />
tvílen = (v) to doubt<br />
tvíl = (m) doubt<br />
tvíls = hardly (from tvíviels 'doubt-GEN')<br />
lió = vocative particle (from ''lióv'' 'dear')<br />
jénachtь = almost (used with past subjunctive verbs); etymologically 'without care', i.e. if one weren't careful, X would have happened<br />
Róme = (f) Rome<br />
jethmanem skrí żaven = to give someone credit for an achievement (cf. ''shoutout'')<br />
bietruchthyd = (f) 'fame'<br />
bietrucht = (adj) 'famous'<br />
trucht = (adj) (poetic) obvious, known<br />
fast = solid, firm, secure<br />
sniál = straight<br />
the húz, húzier = house<br />
ályn = alone<br />
fárien = to drive (a vehicle or an animal)<br />
lydien = to lead<br />
hialpen, hiálp, gehiulpen = to help<br />
thá hulpie = help<br />
bírien = to worship<br />
bidien = to request<br />
uvierriáden = to rule<br />
riáden = to rule<br />
the prísь = praise<br />
prísien = to praise<br />
the ráthь = (literary) praise<br />
ráthien = (literary) to praise<br />
the líchtliátь = mercy<br />
thá geniáthe = grace<br />
jérie = astray, errant<br />
thá gefluchtenen ríme = complex numbers<br />
the glaz = glass<br />
the svián = dream (*swefnaz < *swépnos)<br />
the rúm = space<br />
vríten fur = to represent<br />
the furvrit = representation<br />
the mádrúmfurvrit = state-space representation<br />
the vard = rose<br />
slicht = only<br />
naped = naked, bare<br />
thvíten, thvit, gethviten = to hew<br />
Thiúsьkland = Germany<br />
thiúsьk = German<br />
plátensьk = platonic, Platonic (all senses)<br />
Pláte, Plátenь = Plato<br />
thá fulżekánie = mathematics<br />
fulżekánlik = mathematical<br />
the fulżekánling (gender-neutral) = mathematician<br />
the ríling, rílinge = shoe<br />
daven, dáv, gedaven = (dative-stative) 'to like' (from PGmc *dabaną 'to be fitting'; cf. Vietnamese ''thích'' 'to like' <- 'to be appropriate')<br />
ferdaven, ferdáv, ferdaven = (dative-stative) 'to be of use'<br />
nutien, nutiedie, genutied 'to use'<br />
the fal = whale<br />
tonardich = tonal<br />
untonardich = atonal<br />
paretonardich = unconventionally tonal (pare ~ queer)<br />
frítonardich = microtonal, xenharmonic<br />
thá siúfnie = symphony<br />
konczert = concerto<br />
the afier = opera<br />
vang = place, -ery<br />
vanżen = to put<br />
úpvanżeng = presentation<br />
furthvanżeng = hypothesis<br />
thá bakeríe = bakery<br />
the bákvang = library<br />
thá báczeríe = literature<br />
bielóvien = to believe<br />
gelóvien = to alieve, to feel (cognatized from English ''alieve'' which is itself a neologism)<br />
siemnien = to sense (from *seb-inōnan, related to Old English sefa)<br />
thá siemnieng - sense (noun)<br />
thá karie = sorrow (Connecticut), care (New York)<br />
karich = sorrowful, sad (from PWGmc *karag)<br />
kariefól = careful (New York)<br />
karielóz = serene, without a care<br />
sunder karie = careless<br />
the maszt (< *maščid < masjid) = mosque<br />
thá czirke = church<br />
kúl = (adj) cool (English loan)<br />
smítend = (adj) cool, awesome (lit. killing)<br />
holьve = (adj) hot (sexually desirable) (a recent Arabic loan from حلوى ''Hulwā'' 'sweeter, sweetest (f.)')<br />
the anedь = duck<br />
amelien = to work/function; from PGmc *amlijaną, c.f. Old Norse aml, but influenced by Arabic '-m-l<br />
żalden, żáld, żalden = to be true; that żeldieth = that's true<br />
útczúzen, útczór, útczuren = to select<br />
thá útkurь = selection<br />
the mád = state (that something is in)<br />
fuczen, fuken = to fuck<br />
fiken (from Italian ''ficcare'' or German) = euphemism of ''fuczen''<br />
faken (from English) = euphemism of ''fuczen''<br />
thankbier = worthy of thanks; gracious (false friend with German ''dankbar'' 'thankful')<br />
fliúzen, fliór, fliuren = to sneeze<br />
thá furviareld = nature (natural world)<br />
sialvlik = natural; of course<br />
vichtlik = real<br />
thá vicht = object (synonym of ''the objèkt'')<br />
vlap = bad (low-quality) (*wlakwaz)<br />
riachtkániefól = of good conscience<br />
thá riachtkánie = conscience<br />
líkamfól = concrete<br />
thá nachtiál = nightingale<br />
klagen = to complain, to mourn, (''law'') to sue<br />
biesvieren = to complain<br />
thá fruche = fir<br />
vurdfól = verbose<br />
hych = delusional as if on drugs<br />
sialfstandich = independence<br />
sialfstandichhyd = independence<br />
unthrażeldám = (political, personal) independence, connoting liberty<br />
gúvien = purple<br />
żénen = to yawn<br />
thá amble = almond (Old Glommish amъdъla, from Greek amygdálē)<br />
vatrech = watery<br />
vatern = (jocular, faux poetic) made of water<br />
fulżen (jethmánem) = to follow<br />
hyl = quite<br />
stiádich = steady; constant<br />
thá lyze = hint, sign<br />
bielyzen = to point to, to indicate<br />
thá fríendskapь = society<br />
thá gesinstve = society<br />
andьgesinthlik = antisocial<br />
thá riástve = counsel, advice<br />
stár = aged, senile; stale; rigid, inflexible, stubborn<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán = to become<br />
thá liéze = pasture<br />
thá armnie = harmony<br />
the siestme = system<br />
the geskapь = system<br />
ócz = big; numerous<br />
ráczlóz = reckless<br />
the flít = zeal, eagerness<br />
thá miédve = meadow<br />
syr = painful<br />
dugendfól = courageous<br />
thá dugend = courage<br />
vandielen = to change<br />
the klimevandiel = climate change<br />
ferkateren = to curse<br />
ferkaterd = damn, frickin'<br />
aken, ák, aken = (literary) to disgust<br />
aczelen = to disgust<br />
aczelend = disgusting<br />
aczlik = disgusting<br />
czortelen = to chortle<br />
tulżich = firm, tall<br />
javen = equal<br />
gelík = same<br />
anthrich = different<br />
siúthen = after<br />
yr- = pre-<br />
siúth- = post-<br />
avlydien = to derive<br />
rízen, riz, rizen = to rise<br />
ryrien = to raise<br />
hanth = dexterous<br />
hinden, hiand, hiunden = to grab<br />
the hym = home<br />
ylьkich = respective(ly)<br />
thá skuld = debt (doesn't mean 'guilt' unlike the German cognate)<br />
bievizen furь = guilty of...<br />
unbievizen, the unbievíz = innocent<br />
the bievíz = guilt <br />
the bievízgefálь = (feeling of) guilt<br />
bievízen, bieviz, bievizen = (archaic) to catch someone red-handed<br />
gevlytien = to prove (NOT bievízen!)<br />
the gevlytь = proof<br />
smiúgen, smióg, smiugen = to sneak<br />
insmiúgen = to intrude<br />
smóżen = to steal<br />
thá tierspaldeng = decomposition<br />
the murg = game<br />
dán murg = to play<br />
thvingen = to be urgent<br />
the thvang = emergency<br />
thá pithe = poem<br />
thá siálthie = joy<br />
siálize mid thir = Happy birthday!<br />
thá fiárne = heel<br />
piád = ugly<br />
vadien = to promise<br />
the junżling = young (of an animal)<br />
andьsażen = to oppose<br />
gażtsażen = to gainsay, to contradict<br />
the knave = servant<br />
(kniacht is a more literary synonym)<br />
ferknaven = to serve<br />
the liómend = reputation<br />
thá vunie = desire<br />
the márfadier = grandfather<br />
thá mármádier = grandmother<br />
dón = to die<br />
biegysten = to frighten<br />
the urthank = explanation of a cause<br />
sáczen = to look for, to seek<br />
stamnien = to vote<br />
geczúren = to elect<br />
the geczurь = election<br />
brá (intj) = oh man; bruh (from ''bráthier'')<br />
riáden = to report<br />
furriáden = to declare<br />
útriáden = to declare<br />
thá furachtь = caution<br />
furachtich = careful<br />
thá lambie = lamb<br />
thá jádre = vein<br />
thá artrie = artery<br />
thá siene = sinew<br />
thá gesiene = nerve<br />
kusien = to kiss<br />
thá akste = armpit<br />
thá akstie = lizard<br />
thá akse = axis<br />
thá apsie = axe<br />
erskapen = to invent<br />
erfinden = to discover<br />
ferdiószbier = (math) commutative<br />
fersamnebier = (math) associative<br />
thá maniechfald = (math) manifold<br />
thá varijetà = (math) variety<br />
virczlik = effective (false friend with German!)<br />
kar = nice (of a person), pleasant<br />
thá karhyd = niceness<br />
thá gádavnie = charity<br />
geluken = to tempt<br />
upen = open<br />
upnen = to open<br />
upniel = key<br />
the skam = shame<br />
Skadinávie = Scandinavia (not Skand-!)<br />
thá skande = injustice, wrong<br />
skandlik = unjust, wrong<br />
víszen = to bless<br />
the hólь = hill<br />
sik blácen = to dedicate oneself<br />
thá upmiát = level; tier, caliber<br />
thá vóle = wool<br />
thá blámvóle = cotton<br />
úthużen = to express<br />
thá thruchgehugdie = theory of mind<br />
thá gehugdie = scheme, plot<br />
slythsam = slow<br />
lat = late<br />
fólьfól = complete<br />
thá fólie = fullness, fill<br />
száp = sheep<br />
miesniórь = sir, Mr. (from Romance)<br />
druchtien = (poetic) master, lord<br />
fróje = madam, Mrs./Ms.; (literary) lady<br />
thornen = to wither<br />
liuthich: ''er livieth liuthich'' = he is unemployed<br />
avnien = to keep a promise; to perform an action<br />
avnien úp = to apply (knowledge)<br />
eravnien = to implement (a plan or idea)<br />
thá eravning = implementation<br />
fandien = to walk<br />
firvь = troop (usually in plural)<br />
friaten, friát, friáten = to devour<br />
ferkónen (regular) = to despise, scorn<br />
fiech = wealth<br />
blóthien = to hinder<br />
jalpend = camel<br />
fiechżarn = greedy<br />
ogel = difficult<br />
diskel = difficult (from Greek)<br />
armъhiertich = merciful, tender-hearted<br />
bievlíten, bievlit, bievliten = to view, to regard, to consider as<br />
diúrь = expensive, dear<br />
the diór = animal<br />
darien = to hurt<br />
thá dare = pain<br />
skathlóz = harmless<br />
skathen = to harm<br />
the skathe = harm<br />
tard = tender<br />
fálien = to feel; fálien sik vial = to feel well<br />
thá farve = color<br />
the yth = oath<br />
the svár = oath<br />
the amptь = office<br />
samptь = soft<br />
bieszíten = (''vulgar'') to kid, to bullshit someone<br />
szíten up = (''vulgar'') to slander someone, to ruin someone's reputation<br />
rímen = to chant<br />
talien = to count<br />
stryken = to stroke<br />
striápen = to punish<br />
stróm = current<br />
smult = clear<br />
biesmulten = to explain, to clarify<br />
żaster = yesterday<br />
the vryt = writing system, script<br />
the gevritь = text, body of writings<br />
the strand = beach<br />
the gevrythь = wreath<br />
the stiaven = crown<br />
ónen = (''archaic'') to please (from ''*unnaną'' 'to afford, to grant'); used like German ''gefallen''<br />
kánь = skilled<br />
hóch = high<br />
liág = low<br />
triúlik = honest<br />
rask = swift, rapid<br />
the fytie = wheat<br />
thá vísnes = wisdom<br />
bán = obvious, evident; OK? Got it<br />
mir isı bán = I understand<br />
samtíd = together<br />
thá biarnes = patience<br />
thá unbiarnes = impatience<br />
biarnesfól = patient<br />
biarneslóz = impatient<br />
thá sambiareng = compassion<br />
sambiarend = compassionate<br />
the raven = raven<br />
thá anfer = answer<br />
anferien = to answer<br />
erluzien (+ dat) = to obey<br />
erbaren = to reveal<br />
thá arve = arrow<br />
the biór = beer<br />
''strang'' = tight<br />
''snióm'' = rapid<br />
''snióen'' = to hurry (''snióen yncz'' = not rushed; a tempo indication)<br />
''só piam et'' = so be it<br />
''hondfíle'' (f) = a little while<br />
''liúdlik'' = popular (of the people)<br />
''the Żúizem'' (m) = Confucianism<br />
''bacz'' (m) = beach<br />
''thus'' (conj) = thus, therefore, hence<br />
''laże'' (f) = shelf<br />
''haże'' (f) = hedge<br />
''bruże'' (f) = bridge<br />
''muże'' (f) = mosquito<br />
''urlag'' (m) = fate<br />
''sién'' (m) = intention, purpose, destination (~ German ''Sinn'')<br />
''rúne'' (f) = meaning (interpretation, connotation)<br />
''kung'' (m) = king<br />
''vrythie'' (f) = revenge<br />
''vryth'' (adj) = vengeful<br />
''vrist'' (m) = wrist<br />
''vrandie'' (f) = wren<br />
''brúdiegem'' (m) = bridegroom<br />
''valsьk'' = [[Medh Chêl]]<br />
''juczen'' = to itch<br />
''are'' (m) = 'eagle'<br />
''hovik'' (m) = 'hawk'<br />
''upvichtь'' (f) = 'buoyancy'<br />
''vriáke'' (f) = 'effect, consequence'<br />
''ferpiamen'' = 'to happen'<br />
''sik biangen av'' = 'to be afraid of'<br />
''thá rynie stamning'' = 'just intonation'<br />
''the vaż'' = 'incline'<br />
''the siczel'' = 'sickle, crescent'<br />
''thá valnutie'' = 'walnut'<br />
''thá siczelnutie'' = 'cashew'<br />
''thá jarthenutie'' = 'peanut'<br />
''thá hazelnutie'' = 'hazelnut'<br />
''thá nutie'' = 'nut'<br />
''thá liúdьhyd'' = 'nation'<br />
''liúdьhydlik'' = 'national'<br />
''the calm'' (m) = 'anthem, hymn'<br />
''the kázь'' = 'cheese'<br />
''the hyl'' = 'well-being, health'<br />
''furьsanth'' = (archaic) "forsooth"<br />
''thá orvydь'' = work<br />
''the fítlók'' ("whiteleek") = garlic<br />
''dód'' = dead<br />
''bión sammále'' = to agree<br />
''Tróst anyrьst!'' = Safety first!<br />
''the tróst'' = safety, security; ''tróstich'' = safe, secure; ''trósten'' = to save<br />
''anyrьst'' = first, at first, initially<br />
''gażen'' = again<br />
''the dóth'' = death<br />
''the lív'' = life<br />
''the líkám'' = body; (''mathematics'') field<br />
''thá geburthь'' = birth<br />
''gemynь'' = mean (adj.)<br />
''gemynlik'' = shared, in common<br />
''awj'' > ''ój'': ''strójen'' 'sow', ''fróje'' 'queen'<br />
''the szip'' = 'ship'<br />
''-skapie'' = '-ship'<br />
''the fínd'' = 'enemy'<br />
''the fríend'' = 'friend'<br />
''thá fríendskapie'' = 'friendship'<br />
''the ízer'' = 'iron'<br />
''the avsun, thá avduchtier'' = 'bastard; son of a bitch'<br />
''the friuth'' = 'peace'<br />
''liúdie, liúdiem, liúdien'' = 'people'<br />
''the andь'' = 'end'<br />
''thá yre'' (f) = 'honor'<br />
''Yrland'' = 'Ireland'<br />
''triú'' = 'loyal'<br />
''thá triúe'' = 'loyalty'<br />
''thanczen út, thachtie út, útthacht'' = 'make up'<br />
''the vy'' = 'woe'<br />
''thá tale'' = 'story'<br />
''the rím'' = 'number'<br />
''ferbióden, ferbód, ferbuden'' = forbid, prohibit<br />
''thá útthanczing isь ferbuden in thier akadiámie!'' = 'Making things up (''or:'' imagination) is not allowed in the academia!'<br />
''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár, kniétfanь, kniétfí'' = 'something, someone, somewhere, sometime, somehow' (from *ik ne wait hwat, etc.)<br />
''havien up'' = 'lift'<br />
''the rivь'' = 'rib'<br />
''liáten tá'' = 'to allow'<br />
''the vilie'' = 'will'<br />
''thá máth'' = 'unmarried/virgin woman, maiden'<br />
''ferszúken'' = 'to market'<br />
''thá nódь'' = 'dire straits, poverty'<br />
''the nódiefal'' = 'emergency'<br />
''thá aże'' = 'corner, vertex'<br />
''the thríaż, the fióraż, ...'' = 'triangle, quadrilateral, ...'<br />
thá tídь = 'time'<br />
thá jepocze = 'era/epoch'<br />
the járhunderth = 'Lõisian century (120-year period)'<br />
the jártién = 'decade'<br />
the jár = 'year'<br />
the miáneth = 'month'<br />
thá vike = 'week'<br />
thá stunde = 'hour'<br />
thá hóre = 'minute'<br />
the blik = 'second'<br />
thá getídь = 'tide/one tidal cycle'<br />
the murgen = 'morning'<br />
the aftermiddag = 'afternoon'<br />
the jévend = 'evening'<br />
thá nachtie = 'night'<br />
the tvíliócht = 'twilight'<br />
thá járstídь = 'season'<br />
the lantь = 'spring'<br />
the vazer = 'spring' (poetic)<br />
the sumer = 'summer'<br />
the harfьst = 'autumn'<br />
the vinter = 'winter'<br />
</poem><br />
[[Category:Glommish]][[Category:Dictionaries]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Glommish/Lexicon&diff=487382
Glommish/Lexicon
2026-02-04T17:25:30Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{sc|<big>'''Glómsьk-Angelsьk Vurdbák · Glommish-English Lexicon'''</big>}}<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
yniávьstvíz = inductive, by induction (lit. evernextwise)<br />
czáven = to chew<br />
the tún = border, boundary<br />
czém = poetic contraction of ik jém<br />
thá riepùblike = republic<br />
thá szinthe = fruit peel; animal hide<br />
miáven = to meow<br />
ók = also<br />
-virczend = causing X<br />
thá jámietie = ant<br />
thá mórie = ant<br />
jevrieke = eureka<br />
thá kráe = crow<br />
Czechie = Czechia<br />
Czeszisьk = (adj) Czech<br />
Czézer = (m) Caesar<br />
kyzer = (m) emperor <br />
Avtiárve = (f) New Zealand; avtiárevsьk (adj)<br />
fliáfelь = (m) falafel<br />
tvílen = (v) to doubt<br />
tvíl = (m) doubt<br />
tvíls = hardly (from tvíviels 'doubt-GEN')<br />
lió = vocative particle (from ''lióv'' 'dear')<br />
jénachtь = almost (used with past subjunctive verbs); etymologically 'without care', i.e. if one weren't careful, X would have happened<br />
Róme = (f) Rome<br />
jethmanem skrí żaven = to give someone credit for an achievement (cf. ''shoutout'')<br />
bietruchthyd = (f) 'fame'<br />
bietrucht = (adj) 'famous'<br />
trucht = (adj) (poetic) obvious, known<br />
fast = solid, firm, secure<br />
sniál = straight<br />
the húz, húzier = house<br />
ályn = alone<br />
fárien = to drive (a vehicle or an animal)<br />
lydien = to lead<br />
hialpen, hiálp, gehiulpen = to help<br />
thá hulpie = help<br />
bírien = to worship<br />
bidien = to request<br />
uvierriáden = to rule<br />
riáden = to rule<br />
the prísь = praise<br />
prísien = to praise<br />
the ráthь = (literary) praise<br />
ráthien = (literary) to praise<br />
the líchtliátь = mercy<br />
thá geniáthe = grace<br />
jérie = astray, errant<br />
thá gefluchtenen ríme = complex numbers<br />
the glaz = glass<br />
the svián = dream (*swefnaz < *swépnos)<br />
the rúm = space<br />
vríten fur = to represent<br />
the furvrit = representation<br />
the mádrúmfurvrit = state-space representation<br />
the vard = rose<br />
slicht = only<br />
naped = naked, bare<br />
thvíten, thvit, gethviten = to hew<br />
Thiúsьkland = Germany<br />
thiúsьk = German<br />
plátensьk = platonic, Platonic (all senses)<br />
Pláte, Plátenь = Plato<br />
thá fulżekánie = mathematics<br />
fulżekánlik = mathematical<br />
the fulżekánling (gender-neutral) = mathematician<br />
the ríling, rílinge = shoe<br />
daven, dáv, gedaven = (dative-stative) 'to like' (from PGmc *dabaną 'to be fitting'; cf. Vietnamese ''thích'' 'to like' <- 'to be appropriate')<br />
ferdaven, ferdáv, ferdaven = (dative-stative) 'to be of use'<br />
nutien, nutiedie, genutied 'to use'<br />
the fal = whale<br />
tonardich = tonal<br />
untonardich = atonal<br />
paretonardich = unconventionally tonal (pare ~ queer)<br />
frítonardich = microtonal, xenharmonic<br />
thá siúfnie = symphony<br />
konczert = concerto<br />
the afier = opera<br />
vang = place, -ery<br />
vanżen = to put<br />
úpvanżeng = presentation<br />
furthvanżeng = hypothesis<br />
thá bakeríe = bakery<br />
the bákvang = library<br />
thá báczeríe = literature<br />
bielóvien = to believe<br />
gelóvien = to alieve, to feel (cognatized from English ''alieve'' which is itself a neologism)<br />
siemnien = to sense (from *seb-inōnan, related to Old English sefa)<br />
thá siemnieng - sense (noun)<br />
thá karie = sorrow (Connecticut), care (New York)<br />
karich = sorrowful, sad (from PWGmc *karag)<br />
kariefól = careful (New York)<br />
karielóz = serene, without a care<br />
sunder karie = careless<br />
the maszt (< *maščid < masjid) = mosque<br />
thá czirke = church<br />
kúl = (adj) cool (English loan)<br />
smítend = (adj) cool, awesome (lit. killing)<br />
holьve = (adj) hot (sexually desirable) (a recent Arabic loan from حلوى ''Hulwā'' 'sweeter, sweetest (f.)')<br />
the anedь = duck<br />
amelien = to work/function; from PGmc *amlijaną, c.f. Old Norse aml, but influenced by Arabic '-m-l<br />
żalden, żáld, żalden = to be true; that żeldieth = that's true<br />
útczúzen, útczór, útczuren = to select<br />
thá útkurь = selection<br />
the mád = state (that something is in)<br />
fuczen, fuken = to fuck<br />
fiken (from Italian ''ficcare'' or German) = euphemism of ''fuczen''<br />
faken (from English) = euphemism of ''fuczen''<br />
thankbier = worthy of thanks; gracious (false friend with German ''dankbar'' 'thankful')<br />
fliúzen, fliór, fliuren = to sneeze<br />
thá furviareld = nature (natural world)<br />
sialvlik = natural; of course<br />
vichtlik = real<br />
thá vicht = object (synonym of ''the objèkt'')<br />
vlap = bad (low-quality) (*wlakwaz)<br />
riachtkániefól = of good conscience<br />
thá riachtkánie = conscience<br />
líkamfól = concrete<br />
thá nachtiál = nightingale<br />
klagen = to complain, to mourn, (''law'') to sue<br />
biesvieren = to complain<br />
thá fruche = fir<br />
vurdfól = verbose<br />
hych = delusional as if on drugs<br />
sialfstandich = independence<br />
sialfstandichhyd = independence<br />
unthrażeldám = (political, personal) independence, connoting liberty<br />
gúvien = purple<br />
żénen = to yawn<br />
thá amble = almond (Old Glommish amъdъla, from Greek amygdálē)<br />
vatrech = watery<br />
vatern = (jocular, faux poetic) made of water<br />
fulżen (jethmánem) = to follow<br />
hyl = quite<br />
stiádich = steady; constant<br />
thá lyze = hint, sign<br />
bielyzen = to point to, to indicate<br />
thá fríendskapь = society<br />
thá gesinstve = society<br />
andьgesinthlik = antisocial<br />
thá riástve = counsel, advice<br />
stár = aged, senile; stale; rigid, inflexible, stubborn<br />
biegrán, biegry, biegrán = to become<br />
thá liéze = pasture<br />
thá armnie = harmony<br />
the siestme = system<br />
the geskapь = system<br />
ócz = big; numerous<br />
ráczlóz = reckless<br />
the flít = zeal, eagerness<br />
thá miédve = meadow<br />
syr = painful<br />
dugendfól = courageous<br />
thá dugend = courage<br />
vandielen = to change<br />
the klimevandiel = climate change<br />
ferkateren = to curse<br />
ferkaterd = damn, frickin'<br />
aken, ák, aken = (literary) to disgust<br />
aczelen = to disgust<br />
aczelend = disgusting<br />
aczlik = disgusting<br />
czortelen = to chortle<br />
tulżich = firm, tall<br />
javen = equal<br />
gelík = same<br />
anthrich = different<br />
siúthen = after<br />
yr- = pre-<br />
siúth- = post-<br />
avlydien = to derive<br />
rízen, riz, rizen = to rise<br />
ryrien = to raise<br />
hanth = dexterous<br />
hinden, hiand, hiunden = to grab<br />
the hym = home<br />
ylьkich = respective(ly)<br />
thá skuld = debt (doesn't mean 'guilt' unlike the German cognate)<br />
bievizen furь = guilty of...<br />
unbievizen, the unbievíz = innocent<br />
the bievíz = guilt <br />
the bievízgefálь = (feeling of) guilt<br />
bievízen, bieviz, bievizen = (archaic) to catch someone red-handed<br />
gevlytien = to prove (NOT bievízen!)<br />
the gevlytь = proof<br />
smiúgen, smióg, smiugen = to sneak<br />
insmiúgen = to intrude<br />
smóżen = to steal<br />
thá tierspaldeng = decomposition<br />
the murg = game<br />
dán murg = to play<br />
thvingen = to be urgent<br />
the thvang = emergency<br />
thá pithe = poem<br />
thá siálthie = joy<br />
siálize mid thir = Happy birthday!<br />
thá fiárne = heel<br />
piád = ugly<br />
vadien = to promise<br />
the junżling = young (of an animal)<br />
andьsażen = to oppose<br />
gażtsażen = to gainsay, to contradict<br />
the knave = servant<br />
(kniacht is a more literary synonym)<br />
ferknaven = to serve<br />
the liómend = reputation<br />
thá vunie = desire<br />
the márfadier = grandfather<br />
thá mármádier = grandmother<br />
dón = to die<br />
biegysten = to frighten<br />
the urthank = explanation of a cause<br />
sáczen = to look for, to seek<br />
stamnien = to vote<br />
geczúren = to elect<br />
the geczurь = election<br />
brá (intj) = oh man; bruh (from ''bráthier'')<br />
riáden = to report<br />
furriáden = to declare<br />
útriáden = to declare<br />
thá furachtь = caution<br />
furachtich = careful<br />
thá lambie = lamb<br />
thá jádre = vein<br />
thá artrie = artery<br />
thá siene = sinew<br />
thá gesiene = nerve<br />
kusien = to kiss<br />
thá akste = armpit<br />
thá akstie = lizard<br />
thá akse = axis<br />
thá apsie = axe<br />
erskapen = to invent<br />
erfinden = to discover<br />
ferdiószbier = (math) commutative<br />
fersamnebier = (math) associative<br />
thá maniechfald = (math) manifold<br />
thá varijetà = (math) variety<br />
virczlik = effective (false friend with German!)<br />
kar = nice (of a person), pleasant<br />
thá karhyd = niceness<br />
thá gádavnie = charity<br />
geluken = to tempt<br />
upen = open<br />
upnen = to open<br />
upniel = key<br />
the skam = shame<br />
Skadinávie = Scandinavia (not Skand-!)<br />
thá skande = injustice, wrong<br />
skandlik = unjust, wrong<br />
víszen = to bless<br />
the hólь = hill<br />
sik blácen = to dedicate oneself<br />
thá upmiát = level; tier, caliber<br />
thá vóle = wool<br />
thá blámvóle = cotton<br />
úthużen = to express<br />
thá thruchgehugdie = theory of mind<br />
thá gehugdie = scheme, plot<br />
slythsam = slow<br />
lat = late<br />
fólьfól = complete<br />
thá fólie = fullness, fill<br />
száp = sheep<br />
miesniórь = sir, Mr. (from Romance)<br />
druchtien = (poetic) master, lord<br />
fróje = madam, Mrs./Ms.; (literary) lady<br />
thornen = to wither<br />
liuthich: ''er livieth liuthich'' = he is unemployed<br />
avnien = to keep a promise; to perform an action<br />
avnien úp = to apply (knowledge)<br />
eravnien = to implement (a plan or idea)<br />
thá eravning = implementation<br />
fandien = to walk<br />
firvь = troop (usually in plural)<br />
friaten, friát, friáten = to devour<br />
ferkónen (regular) = to despise, scorn<br />
fiech = wealth<br />
blóthien = to hinder<br />
jalpend = camel<br />
fiechżarn = greedy<br />
ogel = difficult<br />
diskel = difficult (from Greek)<br />
armъhiertich = merciful, tender-hearted<br />
bievlíten, bievlit, bievliten = to view, to regard, to consider as<br />
diúrь = expensive, dear<br />
the diór = animal<br />
darien = to hurt<br />
thá dare = pain<br />
skathlóz = harmless<br />
skathen = to harm<br />
the skathe = harm<br />
tard = tender<br />
fálien = to feel; fálien sik vial = to feel well<br />
thá farve = color<br />
the yth = oath<br />
the svár = oath<br />
the amptь = office<br />
samptь = soft<br />
bieszíten = (''vulgar'') to kid, to bullshit someone<br />
szíten up = (''vulgar'') to slander someone, to ruin someone's reputation<br />
rímen = to chant<br />
talien = to count<br />
stryken = to stroke<br />
striápen = to punish<br />
stróm = current<br />
smult = clear<br />
biesmulten = to explain, to clarify<br />
żaster = yesterday<br />
the vryt = writing system, script<br />
the gevritь = text, body of writings<br />
the strand = beach<br />
the gevrythь = wreath<br />
the stiaven = crown<br />
ónen = (''archaic'') to please (from ''*unnaną'' 'to afford, to grant'); used like German ''gefallen''<br />
kánь = skilled<br />
hóch = high<br />
liág = low<br />
triúlik = honest<br />
rask = swift, rapid<br />
the fytie = wheat<br />
thá vísnes = wisdom<br />
bán = obvious, evident; OK? Got it<br />
mir isı bán = I understand<br />
samtíd = together<br />
thá biarnes = patience<br />
thá unbiarnes = impatience<br />
biarnesfól = patient<br />
biarneslóz = impatient<br />
thá sambiareng = compassion<br />
sambiarend = compassionate<br />
the raven = raven<br />
thá anfer = answer<br />
anferien = to answer<br />
erluzien (+ dat) = to obey<br />
erbaren = to reveal<br />
thá arve = arrow<br />
the biór = beer<br />
''strang'' = tight<br />
''snióm'' = rapid<br />
''snióen'' = to hurry (''snióen yncz'' = not rushed; a tempo indication)<br />
''só piam et'' = so be it<br />
''hondfíle'' (f) = a little while<br />
''liúdlik'' = popular (of the people)<br />
''the Żúizem'' (m) = Confucianism<br />
''bacz'' (m) = beach<br />
''thus'' (conj) = thus, therefore, hence<br />
''laże'' (f) = shelf<br />
''haże'' (f) = hedge<br />
''bruże'' (f) = bridge<br />
''muże'' (f) = mosquito<br />
''urlag'' (m) = fate<br />
''sién'' (m) = intention, purpose, destination (~ German ''Sinn'')<br />
''rúne'' (f) = meaning (interpretation, connotation)<br />
''kung'' (m) = king<br />
''vrythie'' (f) = revenge<br />
''vryth'' (adj) = vengeful<br />
''vrist'' (m) = wrist<br />
''vrandie'' (f) = wren<br />
''brúdiegem'' (m) = bridegroom<br />
''valsьk'' = [[Medh Chêl]]<br />
''juczen'' = to itch<br />
''are'' (m) = 'eagle'<br />
''hovik'' (m) = 'hawk'<br />
''upvichtь'' (f) = 'buoyancy'<br />
''vriáke'' (f) = 'effect, consequence'<br />
''ferpiamen'' = 'to happen'<br />
''sik biangen av'' = 'to be afraid of'<br />
''thá rynie stamning'' = 'just intonation'<br />
''the vaż'' = 'incline'<br />
''the siczel'' = 'sickle, crescent'<br />
''thá valnutie'' = 'walnut'<br />
''thá siczelnutie'' = 'cashew'<br />
''thá jarthenutie'' = 'peanut'<br />
''thá hazelnutie'' = 'hazelnut'<br />
''thá nutie'' = 'nut'<br />
''thá liúdьhyd'' = 'nation'<br />
''liúdьhydlik'' = 'national'<br />
''the calm'' (m) = 'anthem, hymn'<br />
''the kázь'' = 'cheese'<br />
''the hyl'' = 'well-being, health'<br />
''furьsanth'' = (archaic) "forsooth"<br />
''thá orvydь'' = work<br />
''the fítlók'' ("whiteleek") = garlic<br />
''dód'' = dead<br />
''bión sammále'' = to agree<br />
''Tróst anyrьst!'' = Safety first!<br />
''the tróst'' = safety, security; ''tróstich'' = safe, secure; ''trósten'' = to save<br />
''anyrьst'' = first, at first, initially<br />
''gażen'' = again<br />
''the dóth'' = death<br />
''the lív'' = life<br />
''the líkám'' = body; (''mathematics'') field<br />
''thá geburthь'' = birth<br />
''gemynь'' = mean (adj.)<br />
''gemynlik'' = shared, in common<br />
''awj'' > ''ój'': ''strójen'' 'sow', ''fróje'' 'queen'<br />
''the szip'' = 'ship'<br />
''-skapie'' = '-ship'<br />
''the fínd'' = 'enemy'<br />
''the fríend'' = 'friend'<br />
''thá fríendskapie'' = 'friendship'<br />
''the ízer'' = 'iron'<br />
''the avsun, thá avduchtier'' = 'bastard; son of a bitch'<br />
''the friuth'' = 'peace'<br />
''liúdie, liúdiem, liúdien'' = 'people'<br />
''the andь'' = 'end'<br />
''thá yre'' (f) = 'honor'<br />
''Yrland'' = 'Ireland'<br />
''triú'' = 'loyal'<br />
''thá triúe'' = 'loyalty'<br />
''thanczen út, thachtie út, útthacht'' = 'make up'<br />
''the vy'' = 'woe'<br />
''thá tale'' = 'story'<br />
''the rím'' = 'number'<br />
''ferbióden, ferbód, ferbuden'' = forbid, prohibit<br />
''thá útthanczing isь ferbuden in thier akadiámie!'' = 'Making things up (''or:'' imagination) is not allowed in the academia!'<br />
''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár, kniétfanь, kniétfí'' = 'something, someone, somewhere, sometime, somehow' (from *ik ne wait hwat, etc.)<br />
''havien up'' = 'lift'<br />
''the rivь'' = 'rib'<br />
''liáten tá'' = 'to allow'<br />
''the vilie'' = 'will'<br />
''thá máth'' = 'unmarried/virgin woman, maiden'<br />
''ferszúken'' = 'to market'<br />
''thá nódь'' = 'dire straits, poverty'<br />
''the nódiefal'' = 'emergency'<br />
''thá aże'' = 'corner, vertex'<br />
''the thríaż, the fióraż, ...'' = 'triangle, quadrilateral, ...'<br />
thá tídь = 'time'<br />
thá jepocze = 'era/epoch'<br />
the járhunderth = 'Lõisian century (120-year period)'<br />
the jártién = 'decade'<br />
the jár = 'year'<br />
the miáneth = 'month'<br />
thá vike = 'week'<br />
thá stunde = 'hour'<br />
thá hóre = 'minute'<br />
the blik = 'second'<br />
thá getídь = 'tide/one tidal cycle'<br />
the murgen = 'morning'<br />
the aftermiddag = 'afternoon'<br />
the jévend = 'evening'<br />
thá nachtie = 'night'<br />
the tvíliócht = 'twilight'<br />
thá járstídь = 'season'<br />
the lantь = 'spring'<br />
the vazer = 'spring' (poetic)<br />
the sumer = 'summer'<br />
the harfьst = 'autumn'<br />
the vinter = 'winter'<br />
</poem><br />
[[Category:Glommish]][[Category:Dictionaries]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Clofabosin&diff=480086
Clofabosin
2025-12-06T13:25:21Z
<p>IlL: /* Todo */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|image = Script_Clofabosin.png<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|nativename = ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ<br/>clofabosin<br />
|pronunciation= 'kl{{den}}ofabosin{{den}}<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin|Tricin]]<br />
|familycolor=isolate<br />
|ancestor=[[Clofabosin/Middle|Middle Clofabosin]]<br />
|scripts=* Clofabian alphabet<br />
|nation=Clofabolocin<br />Dodellia<br />Quelocin<br />
|agency=''Ativa-luxedanasnusulfan'' (ALA)<br />
|notice=IPA<br />
}}<br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|rebotaxin (Lexicon)]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Phrasebook|Phrasebook]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Names|Names]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Periodic table|Periodic table]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Clofabosin|cefspirine clofabosib conacin]]<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' or '''Clofabian''' (English /kloʊˈfæbəsɪn/ ''kloh-FAB-ə-sin''; {{PAGENAME}}: ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꞰⱵΔLꝨИ ''clo·fabo·serotin'' /klofaboˈseɾotin/ 'AUG-river-language', ''clofaboluxedan'' /klofaboˈluksedan/ or simply ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ ''clofabosin'' /'klofabosin/ [ˈkʰlōfábōsì(n)] 'Clofabian [thing]') is a conlang inspired by drug generic names (international nonproprietary names, such as ''sertraline'' for Zoloft). It seeks to answer the question "What if drug names were a language?"<br />
<br />
Clofabosin is an agglutinative, fusional-ish language with a consistently head-final grammar. It is the most prominent language in the Clofabic dialect continuum, which also includes the closely related Asvasiran language. Clofabosin is the official language of [[Verse:Tricin/Clofabolocin|Clofabolocin]] ('Clofabian land') and [[Verse:Tricin/Dodellia|Dodellia]] (Clofabosin: ''dodellocridan'') in [[Verse:Tricin/Etalocin|Etalocin]].<br />
<br />
==Todo==<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/stembook-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=32a51b3c_6&download=true 2018 stem book]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/addendum-stembook2018-202210.pdf?sfvrsn=842c90_3&download=true 2022 addendum]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/prestem_suffixes_202210.pdf?sfvrsn=dbe56fc8_3&download=true 2022 prestems]<br />
<br />
"Rondexan brolifin lominilin relavex zelextranum exequin zepara duropaz limedropan tulanurifin zepara relavex."<br />
<br />
Goal: Duolingo course<br />
* Siafl·in or Siacl·in (from Lushootseed siʔał or siʔaƛ̕) = Seattle<br />
* Dalatin, Ultarin, Flanitin, Ilarnecin, Minarin, Sarnatin, Celefavisin, Cadatin<br />
*platin, poetin<br />
*''clofabosine nibucin futivir'' or ''clofabosin nibustim futivir'' = clofabosin is easy to learn<br />
*classifier ''-fos''<br />
*''-pred'': the entire...<br />
*''-flapon, -filcon''<br />
*''-nefa-''<br />
*''-pamil'': 'full of'<br />
*''-tiazem'': place names<br />
*''-(x)antrone'' (''exantrin'')<br />
*more suffixes: ''-butan, -casan, -fiban, -fentanil, -etanide, -flurane, -ganan, -osuran, -tant, -zotan, -sonan, -xaban, -glutide'' <-<br />
some of those affixes should be dialectal<br />
* Paliperidin (paliperidone) = a Clofabian religious text made up of poetry (palin = line, peridin = collection)<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
[[File:Clofabian_script.png|thumbnail|Clofabian script|750px]]<br />
<br />
Clofabosin uses a script known as ''ativasabatin'' in Clofabosin, a case-less LTR alphabet, but speakers write in a style of cursive handwriting. It was invented by the lexicographer and poet Ativan Tdap.<br />
<br />
The full letter name is used for declining, and the short form (omit the parenthesized part) is used for spelling out words. The alphabetical order is as follows:<br />
<br />
*X: D (''do'')<br />
*Ⱶ: R (''re'')<br />
*Ŧ: M (''mi'')<br />
*Ꙟ: F (''fa'')<br />
*ᖵ: S (''sol'')<br />
*Π: L (''la'')<br />
*L: T (''ti'')<br />
*Σ: G (''go'')<br />
*H: CH (''che'')<br />
*Ш: P (''pe'')<br />
*И: N (''nar'')<br />
*Ⳙ: V (''vi'')<br />
*Ꝟ: TH (''tha'')<br />
*Ỻ: B (''ba'')<br />
*Ǝ: C (''ce'')<br />
*Џ: Z (''zu'')<br />
*Ɥ: H (''ha'')<br />
*Ꝩ: I (''i'')<br />
*Ʞ: E (''e'')<br />
*Λ: A (''a'')<br />
*Δ: O (''o'')<br />
*Ξ: U (''u'')<br />
*ᒣ: Y (''y'')<br />
*Ɐ: X (''ces'') (a ligature of C and S)<br />
<br />
For sake of aesthetics, in the romanization only personal names are capitalized.<br />
===Alphabet Song (spidexostilin)===<br />
<poem><br />
''Do re mi fa sol la ti,''<br />
''go pe nar vi ba ce zu.''<br />
''I, e, a o u,''<br />
''spidexine nibuzole.''<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
Clofabosin uses a base-12 positional numeral system. The digits are as follows:<br />
<br />
ɔ ı ʎ ɺ ħ ʕ ʑ ɛ ɴ κ ə ʋ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E<br />
<br />
duodecimal point: :<br />
<br />
1728's separator (optional): ·<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
2017 = 1,201dd = ı·ʎɔı<br />
<br />
π = 3.184809493b918...dd = ɺ:ıɴħ·ɴɔк·ħкɺ·кʋı·ɴ...<br />
<br />
==Phonology== <br />
Clofabosin has a small phonemic inventory of 14 consonants and 5 vowels.<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
Stress is weak and word-initial. The pitch rises from the first syllable of a word to the second syllable, as in Tamil; the overall intonation of Standard Clofabosin is Tamil-like.<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 500px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} consonants'''<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! |Labial<br />
! |Dental/Alveolar<br />
! |Velar<br />
! |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/ <br />
|[ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t, th''' /t/<br />
| '''c, ch, k''' /k/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d/<br />
| '''g''' /g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f, ph''' /f/<br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| [x]<br />
| ('''h''' /h/)<br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
|rowspan="2"|'''v''' /v~ʋ~w/<br />
| '''z, (j)''' /z/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Approximant<br />
| '''l, ll''' /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Flap<br />
| <br />
| '''r''' /ɾ/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
*The letter '''x''' is used for the common sequence /ks/. <br />
*'''h''' /h/ occurs only in loanwords.<br />
*'''j''' occurs only in loans and is pronounced identically to '''z'''.<br />
*The spellings '''th, ch''' occur in proper names and loans.<br />
;Notes<br />
*Word-initial /p, t, k/ are lightly aspirated like in Japanese. However, they are unaspirated medially.<br />
*Word-final /b, d, g/ are devoiced to [p, t{{den}}, k]: ''ustekinumab'' [ustekinumap] 'welcome'.<br />
*/n, t, d, l/ are dental.<br />
*/ɾ/ is normally alveolar [ɾ] or retracted alveolar [ɾ̠], but may be reduced to [ɹ~ɻ] when word-final. It is pronounced as [ʀ~ʁ] in some dialects.<br />
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar in standard Clofabosin.<br />
**/z/ has more dialectal variance: [z ~ dz ~ ʒ ~ dʒ ~ ʐ ~ ɻ ~ j ~ ʝ ~ h].<br />
*[ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.<br />
*/v/ is a labiodental fricative [v] or approximant [ʋ].<br />
**[w] is an allophone of /v/ after velars /k, g/. It is transliterated '''qu, gu''' in this case.<br />
*/k/ is lenited to [x] after /e, o, a, u/ and [ç] after /i/.<br />
*In colloquial speech intervocalic /b/ is often deleted or lenited to [w]: ''clofabosin'' becomes [klofaosi] or [klofawosi]. The ending ''-mab'' is also often pronounced [ma].<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} vowels'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 60px; "|<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i, y''' /i/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /u/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /e/<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
;Notes<br />
*Word-initial syllables traditionally also had vowel length (marked with an underdot under the vowel in dictionaries), not distinguished by most younger speakers.<br />
*/u/ is often slightly fronted or compressed. However, in singing it is always fully back rounded [u].<br />
*/i, u/ are lowered to [ɪ, ʊ] before /ɾ/.<br />
*/e, o/ are mid [e̞, o̞].<br />
*/a/ is central [ä].<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
Clofabosin initial clusters are similar to Latin:<br />
<br />
*XR: pl pr bl br fl fr tr dr cl cr gl gr<br />
*sC: sp st spr (str is very rare)<br />
*Others: x (rare)<br />
<br />
Historically most instances of me- have changed to ma- or mo-.<br />
<br />
==Dialectology==<br />
===Streptomycin accent===<br />
*In the colloquial Streptomycin accent /ɾC/ sequences assimilate into geminates [Cː]: ''riconercept'' [ɾikonekkept] 'goodbye'. /n, t, d/ in this position become apical [ɳ, ʈ, ɖ].<br />
*/z/ may be pronounced [j].<br />
*Final /n/ is often dropped.<br />
===Dodellian accent===<br />
<br />
===Southern Dodellian accent===<br />
*v = [w]<br />
*f = [x]<br />
*z = [ɦ] or dropped entirely<br />
*e o = [ɛ ɔ]<br />
=== "Saigon" accent ==÷<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Clofabian nouns can take one of many case clitics, which are not true suffixes. Suffixes for "cases" other than the nominative and the accusative are attached to the combining form of the noun. Plurals are marked with ''-(a)zin'', ''-(a)z(o)-'' (e.g. ''amp·in'' person, ''ampazin'' 'people'; ''acti·n'' 'day', ''actizin'' 'days'); pluralization is usually reserved for animates, and are never used with numbers or quantifiers.<br />
====Consonant stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''efast·in'' - medicine'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''efast(o)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====i-stems====<br />
Note: Middle Clofabosin -u-in nouns merged with Middle Clofabosin -i-in nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''nepi·n'' - work'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepi(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====u-stems====<br />
-in, -ine, combining forms -in-(V-) and -u-(C-). Merges with i-stems in spoken Clofab.<!--<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''sarin, saru-'' - calamity'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''saru-, sarin-''<br />
|}<br />
--><br />
<br />
====e-stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''torcafen'' - poet'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafen''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafene''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafe(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====a-stems====<br />
Nouns from Asvasiran<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''atazan'' - story'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazan''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazane''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''ataza(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Some noun clitics====<br />
*''-fulven'' = 'until, up to'<br />
*''-setron'' = 'throughout'<br />
*''-cidib'' = 'like the X it is'<br />
*''es-'' = 'only an/the X'<br />
*''-pred'' = 'X and all, the likes of X'<br />
*''-ribin'' = 'a couple of', 'an X or two'<br />
*''-ol, -olol'' = genitive<br />
*''-abine'' = 'in front of, before'<br />
*''-acetam'' = 'behind, after'<br />
*''-anserin'' = 'around'<br />
*''-azepam'' = 'by means of'<br />
*''-ib'' = 'in', 'at'<br />
**Normatively, ''-ib'' is not used with weekdays or months - ''-in'' is used instead.<br />
*''-one'' = 'to'<br />
*''-isant'' = 'from'<br />
*''-ase'' = 'with'<br />
*''aril-'' = 'the only X'<br />
*''-arit'' = 'without', '-less'<br />
*''-adox, -ox'' = benefactive<br />
*''-stat'' = 'like'<br />
*''-ast, -ium'' = 'and'<br />
**Both ''-ase'' and ''-ast'' are commonly shortened to ''-as'' in the spoken language.<br />
*''-conast'' = 'than' (< see-CONJ, "after seeing")<br />
*''-imod'' = emphatic, 'X itself'<br />
*''-coxib'' = 'between'<br />
*''-cogin'' = 'inside, amidst'<br />
*''-imex'' = 'among'<br />
*''-protafib'' = 'about' (lit. "at the tree-trunk of")<br />
*''-nabant'' = 'about, regarding, with respect to'<br />
*''-dutant'' = 'above'<br />
*''-nertant'' = 'below'<br />
*''-pitant'' = 'because of'<br />
*''-lubant'' = 'despite'<br />
*''-tibant'' = 'through, via'<br />
*''-stinel'' = 'on behalf of'<br />
*''-antel'' = 'against'<br />
*''-ampanel/-ampator'' = 'including'<br />
*''-berel'' = 'except'<br />
*''-apsel'' = 'instead of, rather than'<br />
*''-grel, -grelor'' = 'following, according to"<br />
*''-ac'' = 'as'<br />
*''-ibat'' = 'each'<br />
*''-gatran'' = 'thanks to'<br />
*''-estrant'' = 'to the right of'<br />
*''-pafant'' = 'to the left of'<br />
*''-asvir'' = (bookish) 'by means of', used to mark agent in passive sentences<br />
*''-lisib'' = outside<br />
*''-pladib'' = inside<br />
*''-pladone'' = into<br />
*''alfa, -al'': 'X also'<br />
*''-stim'' = translative, becoming X<br />
*''-xantrone'' = near<br />
*''-fusp'' = as X as, used with the equative<br />
*''-ixafor'' = regardless of, no matter, even with<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
*''endin, valin'' = 1st, 2nd person singular.<br />
**It is common to shorten the nominative and accusative forms: ''endin, endine'' > ''en, ene'' and ''valin, valine'' > ''van, vane''.<br />
*''ezin, vazin'' = 1st, 2nd person plural<br />
*''dapsin, -dapsin'' = reflexive pronoun<br />
<br />
====Correlatives====<br />
*''cef-, cesin, cerin'' = this X, this (thing), this (person); colloquially shortened to ''cen'', which also means 'yes'<br />
*''flu-, flusin, flurin'' = that X, that (thing), that (person); colloquially shortened to ''flin''<br />
*''gli-, glisin, glirin'' = what X?, what? who? colloquially shortened to ''glin''<br />
*''cef(pa)stat, flu(pa)stat, gli(pa)stat'' = like this, like that, how<br />
*''cefstavir, flustavir, glistavir'' = is like this, is like that, how is.../what is it like<br />
*''pred-, presin, prerin'' = all X, everything, everyone<br />
*''nal-, nasin, narin'' = many<br />
*''som-, somosin, somorin'' = some<br />
*''vin-, visin, virin'' = few<br />
*''rifa-, rifasin, rifarin'' = another, more, other<br />
*''dex-, dexosin, dexorin'' = any<br />
*''glirtib, glisertib'' = when?<br />
*''certib, cefsertib'' = now<br />
*''flurtib, flusertib'' = then<br />
*''cefib, flufib, glifib'' = here, there, where?<br />
**predicative forms: ''cefivir, flufivir, glifivir''<br />
*''-sin'' and ''-rin'' are used to nominalize genitives and ordinal numbers as well: ''rivasin'' = second (thing), ''rivarin'' = second (person), ''amposin'' = of the person; even the name of the language ''clofabosin'' is derived from this construction<br />
*''cef-'', ''flu-'', and ''gli-'' can be used as object affixes on verbs: for example, ''fluconazole!'' means '(I) saw that!' or '(I) saw that person/thing!'<br />
**''cefpavir, flupavir, glipavir'' = say this, say that, say what<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
====Tense and mood====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} verbs are completely regular and inflect for tense and mood. Subjects may be omitted, as in Japanese and Korean. In tables below, affixes in parentheses denote non-standard or dialectal forms.<br />
<br />
Consonant-stem verbs have the following endings:<br />
*''-avir''<br />
*''-umab''<br />
*''-azole''<br />
For V + b, c, d, g, l, m, n, p, r, s, t + suffix beginning with t:<br />
*''-ptinib, -ctinib, -tinib, -ctinib-, -ltinib, -mtinib, -ntinib, -ptinib, -rtinib, -stinib, -tinib''<br />
*''-ptu-, -ctu-, -tu, -ctu-, -ltu-, -mtu-, -ntu-, -ptu-, -rtu-, -stu-, -tu-''<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! "If" !! "Only if" !! "When" !! "While" !! Conjunctive !! Adverbial !! Resultative !! Optative !! "Because" / Quotative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-(a)zole'' [-(a)zol] || ''-(a)zumab'' || ''-(a)zosartan'', ''-(a)zartan'' || ''-(a)zobactam'' || ''-(a)zosertib'', ''-(a)zertib'', ''-(a)zokalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-sermin'' || ''-(a)zolast'' <br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stat''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stim'', ''-mostim''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(a)mer'' || ''-pirdine'' [-piɾdin]<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-(a)vir'' || ''-(u)mab'', ''-mumab'', ''-momab'', ''-virumab'' || ''-sartan'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-bactam'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-sertib'', ''-kalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-fermin'' || ''-lukast''<br />
|| ''-(a)vudine'', ''-(a)virdine'', ''-fenadine''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tinib'' || ''-vetmab'' [vemab] or [veɾmab] || ''-tisartan'', ''-tartan'' || ''-termin'' ||''-trodast'' || ''-tadine'', ''-tidine'' [-tidin]<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cept'', ''-vircept'' || ''-ximab'', ''-viximab'' || ''-cisartan'', ''-xartan'' || ''-xermin'' || ''-lukast'' || ''-clidine'' [-klidin]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<sup>&dagger;</sup> somewhat high register; connotes "in view of the fact that..."<br />
<br />
The present tense may be optionally inflected for person as follows (though pronouns in the subject force the verb to be in the third person):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Present subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-virenz'' [-viɾens]<br />
|''-viroc''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-virsen''<br />
|''-virine''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-vir''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
(The present tense also has a mirative form, ''-virimat''.)<br />
<br />
Analogously the past tense may be inflected as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Past subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-(a)zolam, -(a)zam''<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|''-(a)zoline''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-(a)zole''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive is used like the infinitive and imperative in other languages (e.g. ''stilocamab!'' 'Sing!'). It can also be used to indicate uncertainty, like "may" or "might".<br />
<br />
Yes-no questions are formed by adding the question particle ''pegol'' to the subjunctive: ''zenazumab pegol?'' (Did he go?). In spoken Clofabosin ''-mab pegol'' is often shortened to ''-mapel'' or ''-pel''. ''Indirect'' yes-no questions use ''-mantine'' instead of ''-mab pegol'': ''endolpane valin spozumantine epamab!'' "Tell me if you ate my apple!"<br />
<br />
Wh-questions are treated like declaratives:<br />
* ''cesin gliserotin(avir)?'' = What language is this?<br />
* ''cesin gliserotina(vir)dine rovavir'' = I know what language this is<br />
<br />
For realis forms (e.g. indicative, attributive, "when", "while", conjunctive), the negative marker is ''-fo-'': ''sabafovir'' 'he does not write'. For irrealis forms (e.g. subjunctive, conditional, optative, verbal noun), the negative marker is ''-tu(mo)-'': ''sabatumab!'', ''sabatumumab!'' or ''sabatumomab!'' means 'Don't write!'<br />
<br />
*'can' (ability) uses ''-tecan'' (inflected as if it were ''-tecavir''; the attributive is ''-taxel'')<br />
**For the related sense "can do X [noun]" or "know how to do X", use ''X atevir'' (dative-stative; cf. Japanese ''dekiru'').<br />
*'must' uses ''-mab tiuxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-matixan''); the subject is put into the dative.<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mab tiuxetanupel?'' or ''-matixapel?''<br />
**''-tumab tiuxetan'' means 'must not'.<br />
*'should' uses ''-mab cituxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-macituxan'' or ''-macixan'')<br />
*'may' (permission) uses ''-mab vedotin'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-mavertin'')<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mavertimpel?'' in spoken Clofabosin<br />
**''-tumab vedotin'' means 'doesn't have to'.<br />
*'is worth' uses ''-xaban''<br />
*'probably' uses ''-mab merpentan''<br />
*'right when' uses ''-fingol'' or ''-zofingol''<br />
*Emphasis or agreement uses ''-toxa-''/''-toxu-'': ''Ene nelcatoxaximab pegol?'' means 'Will he really love me?'<br />
*There is an archaic imperative ''-kinra''.<br />
*"regardless of" uses ''-mab elucaine''.<br />
<br />
The verbal noun uses the suffix ''-cin''/''-kin''/''-kiren''. For negating verbal nouns, ''-tucin'' is used: ''Gositucin guancumavir'' 'Not giving is worse'.<br />
<br />
The desiderative uses the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-prazole'', (-''prozole'', ''-prole'') || ''-prazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-profen'', ''-previr'', (''-provir'') || ''-promab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-protinib'' || ''-provetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-procept'' || ''-proximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''raxin plocaprofen.'' = 'I want to drink water.'<br />
<br />
For "I want [noun]", the verb used depends on the context: for example, "I want a car" is translated as ''fusnan ibuprofen'' ("I want to have a car"), and "I want an apple" is rendered ''olpan spoprofen'' ("I want to eat an apple").<br />
<br />
The desiderative can also be used for ''dative-stative'' (the "logical subject" is in the dative) verbs with 1st person logical subjects: <br />
<br />
*''endone clofabosinatecaprofen.'' = 'I want to be able to speak Clofabosin.'<br />
<br />
Predicate nouns can fill in for both ''cytavir'' (copula) and ''keravir'' (to exist). The predicative is formed by replacing the final -n in the nominative case of a noun with the following suffixes (which can be omitted):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ '''Predicative suffixes'''<br />
|-<br />
! !! Affirmative indicative !! Negative indicative !! Affirmative subjunctive !! Negative subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-nazole'' || ''-fozole'' || ''-nazumab'' || ''-tuzumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-navir'' || ''-fovir'' || ''-numab'' || ''-tumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-natinib'' || ''-fotinib'' || ''-navetmab'' || ''-tuvetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-nercept'', ''-navircept'' || ''-focept'' || ''-naximab'' || ''-tuximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The copular verb ''cytavir'' (often shortened to ''tavir'' in colloquial Clofabosin) may also be used. For example: ''endin voprafenavir'' and ''endin voprafen cytavir'' both mean "I am a teacher". Using ''cytavir'' is necessary when using an oblique case NP as a predicate: ''endin funanetamib cytavir.'' 'I am in my bedroom.' <br />
<br />
The predicative and desiderative suffixes may be fused as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-noprazole'' || ''-noprazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-noprofen'' || ''-nopromab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-noprotinib'' || ''-noprovetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-noprocept'' || ''-noproximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example: ''endin voprafenoprofen'' means "I want to be a teacher".<br />
<br />
====Attributive verbs====<br />
Attributive verbs are used to form relative clauses. They may be formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil'' (''-pidil'') || ''-prozil''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil'' || ''-pril''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril, -til'' || ''-protil''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil'' || ''-pracil''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''clorodil taxin'' means 'a big book'; ''endin drepazil taxin'' means 'the book that I've read'.<br />
<br />
Nominalized attributives have the following forms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil·in'' || ''-prozil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil·in'' || ''-pril·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril·in'' || ''-protil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil·in'' || ''-pracil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Tenseless <br />
| ''-(a)n·in'' || ''-pran·in''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derivational suffixes====<br />
The suffix ''-tin, -t(o)-'' is used as a patientive: ''spovir'' 'eat' → ''spotin'' 'food', ''inosivir'' 'dwell, inhabit' → ''inositin'' 'apartment'<br />
<br />
The suffix ''-(o)cavir'' 'do' may be used to "verb" nouns or borrowed words: for example, ''spuisocavir'' means 'He plays the ''sbwiþ'' (a Talmic plucked instrument with sympathetic strings)'.<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
The suffixes ''-li'' and ''-ca'' are used to form the passive resp. causative forms. (e.g. ''spovir'' 'eat' > ''spolivir'' 'is eaten').<br />
<br />
There is also a less productive causative affix ''-si'', which causes umlaut. (e.g. ''spesivir'' 'to feed' from ''spovir'')<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
*''bol-'' = 'too much'<br />
*''clo-'' = 'very'<br />
*''luta-'' = equative ("as X as"); also a suffective ("sufficiently X")<br />
**"X like Y" uses ''Y-ac (luta-)X''<br />
**"as X as Y" uses ''Y-filcon (luta-)X''<br />
**"X enough for Y" uses ''Y-one luta-X''<br />
*''guan-'' = comparative (optional when there is a comparandum, which is marked with ''-conast'')<br />
*''peg-'' = superlative<br />
<br />
''gadovir'' 'good' has an irregular comparative and superlative: ''adip.avir'' and ''dip.avir''.<br />
<br />
For example, ''Clofabosin tricib pegnibulidil serotinavir.'' means 'Clofabosin is the world's most studied language.'<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
*''-bendavir'' 'to inadvertently X, to end up X-ing, to finish X-ing' (< 'to fall')<br />
*''-conavir'' 'to try X-ing' (< 'to see')<br />
*''-ciclovir'' 'to receive someone's X-ing; to benefit from someone's X-ing' (< 'to receive')<br />
*''-floxavir'' 'to refuse to X'<br />
*''-gosivir'' 'to X for someone' (< 'to give')<br />
*''-nidavir'' 'to X in advance' (< 'to place')<br />
*''-spovir'' 'to X for one's own benefit' (< 'to eat')<br />
*''-codavir'' 'to out-X' (< 'to surpass')<br />
<br />
====Other affixes====<br />
*''-campator'' 'instead of (verb)-ing'<br />
*''-cillin'': 'let alone'<br />
*''-cog'': cohortative<br />
**''Ilocog!'' 'Let's play!'<br />
**''En alfa spocog!'' 'Let me eat it too!'<br />
*''ri-'': 'again, re-'<br />
*''-trexed'': 'the more...'<br />
*''-nesib'': 'by X-ing'<br />
*''-parin'': like -vudine eparin<br />
*''-ro-'' = perfect tense, ''-xi-'' = future in the present/...<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses a base-10 numeral system. For attributive numerals the ''-in'' is replaced with the classifier suffix ''-fos'': for example, ''esin'' becomes ''esofos''. The ''-avir'' suffix is used to build ordinals; -il is also an ordinal suffix but is used in compounds.<br />
<br />
The counting numbers:<br />
*0: ''viuzan''<br />
*1: ''esin'' (inanimate), ''erin'' (animate)<br />
**"first" is ''sulcavir'', ''sulcil''<br />
*2: ''ribin''<br />
*3: ''salin''<br />
*4: ''lopin''<br />
*5: ''orfin''<br />
*6: ''quibin''/''quin''<br />
*7: ''zolin''<br />
*8: ''tixin''<br />
*9: ''vadin''<br />
*10: ''clutin''<br />
*11: ''clutesin''<br />
*12: ''cluribin''<br />
*13: ''clusalin''<br />
*14: ''clulopin''<br />
*15: ''clutorfin''<br />
*16: ''cluquibin''/''cluquin''<br />
*17: ''cluzolin''<br />
*18: ''clutixin''<br />
*19: ''cluvadin''<br />
*20: ''resvin''<br />
*30: ''tebin''<br />
*40: ''prolin''<br />
*50: ''aruzin''<br />
*60: ''quidin''<br />
*70: ''zoledin''<br />
*80: ''tixedin''<br />
*90: ''varedin''<br />
*100: ''sanin''<br />
*1000: ''ictin''<br />
<br />
Short attributive forms: efos, rifos, salfos, lofos, orfos, quifos, zofos, tifos, vafos, clufos<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} is almost completely head-final, and has SOV as the unmarked word order.<br />
<br />
:'''''endol maximaxine nelcavir.'''''<br />
:''I love my grandmother.''<br />
<br />
Conjunctions:<br />
*''beta'' = but<br />
===Existence clauses===<br />
For expressing existence the verb ''kera-'' "to exist" is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''etamib suxitin keravir.'''''<br />
:''There is a picture on the wall.''<br />
===Liking and wanting===<br />
Clofabosin expresses "I like Y" by the construction ''Y dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''olpan dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like apples.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga suki da.'')<br />
<br />
"I like to do Y" can similarly be expressed with ''Y-cin dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''faldicin dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like swimming.''<br />
<br />
For "X likes Y" the construction ''X-NOM Y-ACC dasabuvir'' is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpane dasabuvir.'''''<br />
:''Lunesta likes apples.''<br />
<br />
Similarly for desideratives:<br />
:'''''olpan spoprofen.'''''<br />
:''I want an apple.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga tabetai.'')<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpan spoprobuvir.''<br />
:''Lunesta wants an apple.''<br />
<br />
===Cause clauses===<br />
Cause clauses are formed with the quotative.<br />
===Complement clauses===<br />
Complement clauses ("''that'' + [statement]" in English) are formed using the quotative. The bare quotative is enough when using it with a "quoting" verb such as ''epavir'' 'say' or ''atrivir'' 'believe'. To use the complement clause as a noun ''eparin'', the verbal noun of ''epavir'', is often used: ''Felavudine eparin vocivir.'' 'I don't like the fact that it's cold'.<br />
<br />
===Purpose clauses===<br />
Purpose clauses can be formed with -DESID + -QUOT (''-provudine'' in the present tense and ''-propirdine'' in the past tense). Colloquially -RES (''-stim''/''-mostim'') can be used.<br />
<br />
:'''''drepatine clofabosinaprovudine fumazole.'''''<br />
:''drepa-t-ine clofab-osi-na-pro-vudine fuma-zole''<br />
:read-PAT-ACC Clofabian-ATT.INAN-PRED-DES-PRES.QUOT buy-PAST.IND<br />
:''He bought the book in order to be able to speak Clofabosin.'' (lit. ''... saying "I want to be able to speak Clofabosin"'')<br />
<br />
In the first person -DESID + -CONJ can be used (''-prolukast'' in the present tense and ''-prazolast'' in the past tense).<br />
<br />
===Tense agreement===<br />
Tense agreement states that dependent clauses must have the same tense as the main clause.<br />
<br />
:'''''endozopin obinutu{{blue|zu}}mab, predsertib dirali{{blue|zole}}.'''''<br />
:''So that my body might not be dirty, I always got washed.''<br />
<br />
==Derivational morphology==<br />
*''-bendan'': '-ization'<br />
*''-cavir'': verbs nouns, like Japanese ''suru''<br />
*''bol-, -bol-'': too much<br />
*''-ici·n'': diminutive<br />
*''clo-'': augmentative<br />
*''des-'': apart, dis-<br />
*''-entan'': -liness, -ability<br />
*''-myci·n'': -ability<br />
*''-stat·in'': abstract noun<br />
**''rovastat·in'' 'knowledge' < ''rovavir'' 'be known'<br />
*''-t·in'': patient noun<br />
*''-ax·in'': instrument<br />
*''-st·in'': instrument<br />
*''-fen'': agentive<br />
*''-siban'': agentive<br />
*''-dan'': nominalizer<br />
*''-prazan'': place noun<br />
*''-sulfan'': institutions<br />
*''-fluran'': agentive<br />
*''gado-'': eu-, well<br />
*''mito-'': dys-, mis-<br />
*''-ex·in'': collective<br />
*''-fax·in'': collective (< ''afaxin'' 'forest')<br />
*''iod-/io-'': ur-<br />
*''-triptan'': -ness (degree)<br />
*''-pivir'': adjectivizer<br />
*''-amivir'': full of, frequentative<br />
*''-fravir'': tending to do/be X<br />
*''-luvir'': made of X<br />
*''-vaptan'': method<br />
*''-lesovir'': X-less<br />
*''ar-'': un-<br />
===Compounds===<br />
Compound nouns can be of the form noun+noun or verb+noun.<br />
===Foreign words===<br />
Loaned nouns and names are declined as follows:<br />
*nom: ''Aleve'', ''Lipitor''<br />
*acc: ''Aleve''':ne''''', ''Lipitor''':ine''''' (colloquially ''Lipitor''':e''')<br />
*gen: ''Aleve''':nol''''', ''Lipitor''':ol'''<br />
*"except": ''Aleve''':berel''''', ''Lipitor''':oberel'''''<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Saturday Night Live skit===<br />
...<br />
<br />
''2004-procib rufiporfib cefsulfan "Seasonique" 'dine efastine ceprazole. Flufabine 1997-procib endin cibine ibuzole. Seasonique:one abacamab dapivirenz!''<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
''cefoxitin Tylenol:ine savtuprazanib irinostim minzatinercept!''<br />
<br />
===''cefditoren'' (national anthem of Clofabolocin)===<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''cefditoren'''<br />
<br />
''cefditoren rupalimab,''<br />
''ziruvenin conalimab, ''<br />
''apizanol vactolepin, ''<br />
''boracenol seprabuctan, ''<br />
''soxaplatril pelonosvan, ''<br />
''clorofabol camporaxin, ''<br />
''Picumenol empalocib ''<br />
''predampafib butilimab.''<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''May This ''Ditoren'''''<br />
<br />
May this ''ditoren'' (an instrument) be heard,<br />
The beautiful ''enin'' (a bird) be seen,<br />
The sweetness of the ''apizan'' (a fruit), <br />
The fragrant ''buctan'' (a flower) of the rainforest,<br />
The gentle breezes of the north,<br />
The cooling waters of the Clofabin (the river),<br />
Be felt by every soul in the homeland of Picumen (a historical figure).<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
===Hippocratic Oath===<br />
<br />
''Novartis efafenium GlaxoSmithKline:ium Astrazeneca:nium Amgen:ium pretropazone adrovirenz. fluvolazine conasibastim calukast, atecium bixocogrelor cefadrotium cefsapacium trimavirenz.''<br />
<br />
''endorosnifene cefblisib zocrafestat conalukast; moctib pristinalukast; minzatin tenosartan flurase tazelukast; flurupline dapsoruxizac conalukast uplone cefblisine nibuprosartan minzatine levo sapacine medofolukast nibucalukast; aril-dapsoblosazonium rosnifenol blosazonium cefadrotine demazil derotranazone, enilarbene alfa rebasium predrifastat rosnicine gosivirenz; beta dexrifarazone cefcafovirenz.''<br />
<br />
===Tower of Babel===<br />
<br />
#''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
#''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
#''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
#''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
#''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
#''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
#''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
#''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
#''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
<br />
:''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
:sertib pre-tric-ib amp-az-one esofos luxedan-ium esofos sero-t-ina-zole<br />
:time-LOC all-world-LOC person-PL-DAT one language-and one speak-NOMZ-COP-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
:amp-az-in docel-one distu-sermin, Sinar-ib elca-loc-ine pide-zolast fluf-ib let-azole<br />
:person-PL-NOM east-DAT move-PST.while Shinar-LOC flat-land-ACC find-PST.CONJ there-LOC settle-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
:amp-az-in afer-one epa-zil-in: capl-ine gale-lukast gado-tovaca-cog. fluz-in capl-ine uld-ac epso-zolast cisp-ine braxist-ac epso-zole<br />
:person-PL-NOM each_other-DAT say-PST.ATTR-NOM brick-ACC make-PRES.CONJ well-fire-COHORT that.PL-NOM brick-ACC stone-as use-PST.CONJ tar-ACC cement-CONJ use-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
:cefast epa=zil-in: benz-ine fexo-lukast ceso-pladib vexa-fulven mixi-cil pirol-ine fexo-cog ez-astili-ne rupa-ca-lukast pre-trico-setron amiti-li-tu-cog<br />
:then say-PST.ATTR-NOM city-ACC build-PRES.CONJ that.SG.INAN-inside sky-until rise-FUT.ATTR tower-ACC build-COHORT 1PL-name-ACC hear-CAUS-FUT.CONJ whole-world-throughout scatter-PASS-NEG.IRR-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
:beta trop-in amp-az-in fexo-zil benz-ium pirol-ine carsa-pro-pirdine bini-zole<br />
:but god-NOM person-PL-NOM build-PST.ATTR city-and tower-ACC observe-DES-PST.QUOT descend-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
:trop-in epa-zil-in eso-fos met-in eso-fos luxeda-ne sero-lukast cef-ca-stim draxo-ro-vir cef-kalant fluz-in gli-ca-promab elucaine octa-teca-for-cept<br />
:god-NOM say-PST.ATTR-NOM one-CLF tribe-NOM one-CLF language-ACC speak-PRES.CONJ this-do-RES start-PERF-PRES.IND this-in_view_of that.PL-NOM what-do-DES.PRES.SUBJ regardless_of that.PL-ACC prevent-can-NEG-FUT<br />
<br />
:''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
:bini-lukast flu-luxeda-ne niva-lukast fluz-in afer-ine mavri-tu-mab cacog<br />
:descend-PRES.CONJ their-language-ACC confuse-PRES.CONJ that.PL-NOM each_other-ACC understand-NEG.IRR-SUBJ do-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
:cefast trop-in fluf-isant fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zolast fluz-in benz-ine fexo-cine ido-zole<br />
:then god-NOM there-from that.PL-ACC whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.CONJ that.PL-NOM city-ACC build-VN-ACC stop-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
:cefase flu-benz-one B. epa-tinib cala-n trop-in fluf-ib pre-tric-ol luxeda-ne niva-ro-tidine epar-in fluf-isant trop-in fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zole<br />
:hence that-city-DAT B. say-GNOM.IND reason-NOM god-NOM there-LOC whole-world-GEN language-ACC confuse-PERF-GNOM.QUOT saying-NOM there-from god-NOM whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.IND<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
''tibazolam, conazolam, urazolam.''<br />
<br />
===Qui bibit, sanctus est===<br />
<poem><br />
''plocatrilin certolitinib.''<br />
''certolutrilin surnacafotinib.''<br />
''surnacafotrilin profitinib.''<br />
''cefase plocatrilin profitinib.''<br />
<br />
Qui bibit, dormit;<br />
Qui dormit, non peccat;<br />
Qui non peccat, sanctus est;<br />
Ergo qui bibit, sanctus est.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Hamlet soliloquy===<br />
:'''''moxicin levo moxifloxacin, flusimod frunecin.'''''<br />
:''To be or not to be (lit. to live or to refuse to live), that is the question.''<br />
<br />
===The North Wind and the Sun===<br />
'''''peloclevinast grian'''''<br />
<br />
''peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine cecroxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole. cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole. flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.''<br />
<br />
====Gloss====<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloklevinast gɾian]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM<br />
| translation = The North Wind and the Sun<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine croxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevinast grian afeɾin dapsimot gwanoɾlitidine kɾoksazoseɾtip daxizil pevuksazepam fidozil ilpefen laxufizol]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n afer-in daps-imod guan-orli-tidine croxa-zosertib, daci-zil pevu-st-azepam fido-zil ilpe-fe-n lacufi-zole<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM each_other-NOM self-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT have_an_argument-PST.when warm-PAST.ATTR cover-INSTRUMENT-INST wear-PST.ATTR travel-AGT-NOM run_into-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind and the sun were arguing, each claiming to be the stronger one, when a traveler wearing a warm cloak happened upon the scene.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluɾibin ilpefenol pevuksine sulkip nilpaxazil fluɾin gwanoɾlitidine lepsolizumap sumaxazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-ribin ilpefen-ol pevux-ine sulcib nilpa-ca-zil flur-in guan-orli-tidine lepso-li-zumab sumaca-zole. <br />
| gloss = that-two-NOM traveler-GEN cloak-ACC first take_off-CAUS-PST.ATTR that-NOM COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT consider-PASS-PST.SBJV unite-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The two agreed that the one who first made the traveler take off his cloak should be considered stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevin pɾetkoxsine gɾebimostim olmezol beta olmezaɾtan olmetɾekset ilpefen zopinanseɾin pevuksine gwanfamizol]<br />
| morphemes = Pelo-clevi-n pred-cox-ine grebi-mostim olme-zole beta olm-azartan olme-trexed ilpefe-n zopin-anserin pevux-ine guan-fami-zole.<br />
| gloss = north-wind-NOM all-strength-ACC put_in-RES blow-PST.IND but blow-PST.COND blow-the_more traveler-NOM body-around cloak-ACC more-wrap-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind blew with all his strength, but the more he blew the more did the traveler wrapped his cloak around his body.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole.<br />
|pinyin =<br />
|IPA = [kefoxsitin peloxlevin tiabendazol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-oxit-in pelo-clevi-n tia-benda-zole<br />
| gloss = this-end-NOM north-wind-NOM let_go-end_up-PAST<br />
| translation = In the end, the north wind gave up.<br />
| index =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluseɾtip grian daxizil vaɾine moxazofingol ilpefen pevuksine nilpazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-sertib gria-n daci-zil vari-ne moca-zofingol ilpefe-n pevux-ine nilpa-zole<br />
| gloss = that-when sun-NOM warm-PST.ATTR light-ACC radiate-PST.moment traveler-NOM cloak-ACC take_off-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Then, right when the sun shone out warm light, the traveler took off his cloak.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [flukalant peloxlevin grianimot gwanoɾlitidine stiunizumap kwinulizol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-kalant pelo-clevi-n grian-imod guan-orli-tidine stiuni-zumab quinu-li-zole<br />
| gloss = that-in_view_of north-wind-NOM sun-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT confess-PST.SBJV constrain-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thus the north wind was forced to acknowledge that it was the sun who is stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
''predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib. ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.''<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [pɾedampin zokɾalitril seɾtisant koplitɾodast tulkast pitanabant inflitinip]<br />
| morphemes = pred-amp-in zocra-li-tril sert-imod copli-trodast tulc-ast pita-nabant infli-tinib<br />
| gloss = all-human-NOM give_birth-PASS-GNOM.ATT time-ABL free-GNOM.CONJ worth-and entitlement-regarding equal-GNOM.IND<br />
| translation = All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [ampin ziudiksisant ketiɾizast dapsolopɾitine kiklotɾodast ǀ afeɾon ɾuksinelol temazepam evikovemap tiuksetan]<br />
| morphemes = amp-in ziudix-imod cetiriz-ast dapso-lopri-t-ine ciclo-trodast, afer-one ruxi-nel-ol tem-azepam evico-tumab tiuxetan<br />
| gloss = human-NOM nature-ABL rationality-and self-control-NOMZ-ACC receive-GNOM.CONJ, each_other-DAT brother-love-GEN spirit-PL.INST act-GNOM.SUBJ must<br />
| translation = They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Featured banner===<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefluxedan esertib natalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [kefluksedan eseɾtip natalizol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-lukseda-n e-sert-ib nata-li-zole<br />
| gloss = this-language-NOM one-time-LOC display-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = This language was once featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fedostatium darusentanium epsostogatran, natalizumab procalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fedostatium daɾusentanium epsostogatɾan, natalizumap pɾoxalizol]<br />
| morphemes = fedo-stat-ium darusentan-ium epso-sto-gatɾan, nata-li-zumab proca-li-zole<br />
| gloss = fine-ABS-and realism-and use-INST-thanks_to, display-PASS-PAST.SBJV choose-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thanks to its quality, plausibility and usage features, it was voted to be featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Other resources==<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*]]<br />
[[Category:Clofabic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Tricin]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Clofabosin&diff=474788
Clofabosin
2025-11-04T08:12:21Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|image = Script_Clofabosin.png<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|nativename = ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ<br/>clofabosin<br />
|pronunciation= 'kl{{den}}ofabosin{{den}}<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin|Tricin]]<br />
|familycolor=isolate<br />
|ancestor=[[Clofabosin/Middle|Middle Clofabosin]]<br />
|scripts=* Clofabian alphabet<br />
|nation=Clofabolocin<br />Dodellia<br />Quelocin<br />
|agency=''Ativa-luxedanasnusulfan'' (ALA)<br />
|notice=IPA<br />
}}<br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|rebotaxin (Lexicon)]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Phrasebook|Phrasebook]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Names|Names]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Periodic table|Periodic table]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Clofabosin|cefspirine clofabosib conacin]]<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' or '''Clofabian''' (English /kloʊˈfæbəsɪn/ ''kloh-FAB-ə-sin''; {{PAGENAME}}: ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꞰⱵΔLꝨИ ''clo·fabo·serotin'' /klofaboˈseɾotin/ 'AUG-river-language', ''clofaboluxedan'' /klofaboˈluksedan/ or simply ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ ''clofabosin'' /'klofabosin/ [ˈkʰlōfábōsì(n)] 'Clofabian [thing]') is a conlang inspired by drug generic names (international nonproprietary names, such as ''sertraline'' for Zoloft). It seeks to answer the question "What if drug names were a language?"<br />
<br />
Clofabosin is an agglutinative, fusional-ish language with a consistently head-final grammar. It is the most prominent language in the Clofabic dialect continuum, which also includes the closely related Asvasiran language. Clofabosin is the official language of [[Verse:Tricin/Clofabolocin|Clofabolocin]] ('Clofabian land') and [[Verse:Tricin/Dodellia|Dodellia]] (Clofabosin: ''dodellocridan'') in [[Verse:Tricin/Etalocin|Etalocin]].<br />
<br />
==Todo==<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/stembook-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=32a51b3c_6&download=true 2018 stem book]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/addendum-stembook2018-202210.pdf?sfvrsn=842c90_3&download=true 2022 addendum]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/prestem_suffixes_202210.pdf?sfvrsn=dbe56fc8_3&download=true 2022 prestems]<br />
<br />
"Rondexan brolifin lominilin relavex zelextranum exequin zepara duropaz limedropan tulanurifin zepara relavex."<br />
<br />
Goal: Duolingo course<br />
* Siafl·in or Siacl·in (from Lushootseed siʔał or siʔaƛ̕) = Seattle<br />
* Dalatin, Ultarin, Flanitin, Ilarnecin, Minarin, Sarnatin, Celefavisin, Cadatin<br />
*platin, poetin<br />
*''clofabosine nibucin futivir'' or ''clofabosin nibustim futivir'' = clofabosin is easy to learn<br />
*classifier ''-fos''<br />
*''-pred'': the entire...<br />
*''-flapon, -filcon''<br />
*''-nefa-''<br />
*''-pamil'': 'full of'<br />
*''-tiazem'': place names<br />
*''-(x)antrone'' (''exantrin'')<br />
*more suffixes: ''-butan, -casan, -fiban, -fentanil, -etanide, -flurane, -ganan, -osuran, -tant, -zotan, -sonan, -xaban'' <-<br />
some of those affixes should be dialectal<br />
* Paliperidin (paliperidone) = a Clofabian religious text made up of poetry (palin = line, peridin = collection)<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
[[File:Clofabian_script.png|thumbnail|Clofabian script|750px]]<br />
<br />
Clofabosin uses a script known as ''ativasabatin'' in Clofabosin, a case-less LTR alphabet, but speakers write in a style of cursive handwriting. It was invented by the lexicographer and poet Ativan Tdap.<br />
<br />
The full letter name is used for declining, and the short form (omit the parenthesized part) is used for spelling out words. The alphabetical order is as follows:<br />
<br />
*X: D (''do'')<br />
*Ⱶ: R (''re'')<br />
*Ŧ: M (''mi'')<br />
*Ꙟ: F (''fa'')<br />
*ᖵ: S (''sol'')<br />
*Π: L (''la'')<br />
*L: T (''ti'')<br />
*Σ: G (''go'')<br />
*H: CH (''che'')<br />
*Ш: P (''pe'')<br />
*И: N (''nar'')<br />
*Ⳙ: V (''vi'')<br />
*Ꝟ: TH (''tha'')<br />
*Ỻ: B (''ba'')<br />
*Ǝ: C (''ce'')<br />
*Џ: Z (''zu'')<br />
*Ɥ: H (''ha'')<br />
*Ꝩ: I (''i'')<br />
*Ʞ: E (''e'')<br />
*Λ: A (''a'')<br />
*Δ: O (''o'')<br />
*Ξ: U (''u'')<br />
*ᒣ: Y (''y'')<br />
*Ɐ: X (''ces'') (a ligature of C and S)<br />
<br />
For sake of aesthetics, in the romanization only personal names are capitalized.<br />
===Alphabet Song (spidexostilin)===<br />
<poem><br />
''Do re mi fa sol la ti,''<br />
''go pe nar vi ba ce zu.''<br />
''I, e, a o u,''<br />
''spidexine nibuzole.''<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
Clofabosin uses a base-12 positional numeral system. The digits are as follows:<br />
<br />
ɔ ı ʎ ɺ ħ ʕ ʑ ɛ ɴ κ ə ʋ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E<br />
<br />
duodecimal point: :<br />
<br />
1728's separator (optional): ·<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
2017 = 1,201dd = ı·ʎɔı<br />
<br />
π = 3.184809493b918...dd = ɺ:ıɴħ·ɴɔк·ħкɺ·кʋı·ɴ...<br />
<br />
==Phonology== <br />
Clofabosin has a small phonemic inventory of 14 consonants and 5 vowels.<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
Stress is weak and word-initial. The pitch rises from the first syllable of a word to the second syllable, as in Tamil; the overall intonation of Standard Clofabosin is Tamil-like.<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 500px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} consonants'''<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! |Labial<br />
! |Dental/Alveolar<br />
! |Velar<br />
! |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/ <br />
|[ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t, th''' /t/<br />
| '''c, ch, k''' /k/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d/<br />
| '''g''' /g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f, ph''' /f/<br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| [x]<br />
| ('''h''' /h/)<br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
|rowspan="2"|'''v''' /v~ʋ~w/<br />
| '''z, (j)''' /z/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Approximant<br />
| '''l, ll''' /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Flap<br />
| <br />
| '''r''' /ɾ/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
*The letter '''x''' is used for the common sequence /ks/. <br />
*'''h''' /h/ occurs only in loanwords.<br />
*'''j''' occurs only in loans and is pronounced identically to '''z'''.<br />
*The spellings '''th, ch''' occur in proper names and loans.<br />
;Notes<br />
*Word-initial /p, t, k/ are lightly aspirated like in Japanese. However, they are unaspirated medially.<br />
*Word-final /b, d, g/ are devoiced to [p, t{{den}}, k]: ''ustekinumab'' [ustekinumap] 'welcome'.<br />
*/n, t, d, l/ are dental.<br />
*/ɾ/ is normally alveolar [ɾ] or retracted alveolar [ɾ̠], but may be reduced to [ɹ~ɻ] when word-final. It is pronounced as [ʀ~ʁ] in some dialects.<br />
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar in standard Clofabosin.<br />
**/z/ has more dialectal variance: [z ~ dz ~ ʒ ~ dʒ ~ ʐ ~ ɻ ~ j ~ ʝ ~ h].<br />
*[ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.<br />
*/v/ is a labiodental fricative [v] or approximant [ʋ].<br />
**[w] is an allophone of /v/ after velars /k, g/. It is transliterated '''qu, gu''' in this case.<br />
*/k/ is lenited to [x] after /e, o, a, u/ and [ç] after /i/.<br />
*In colloquial speech intervocalic /b/ is often deleted or lenited to [w]: ''clofabosin'' becomes [klofaosi] or [klofawosi]. The ending ''-mab'' is also often pronounced [ma].<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} vowels'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 60px; "|<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i, y''' /i/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /u/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /e/<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
;Notes<br />
*Word-initial syllables traditionally also had vowel length (marked with an underdot under the vowel in dictionaries), not distinguished by most younger speakers.<br />
*/u/ is often slightly fronted or compressed. However, in singing it is always fully back rounded [u].<br />
*/i, u/ are lowered to [ɪ, ʊ] before /ɾ/.<br />
*/e, o/ are mid [e̞, o̞].<br />
*/a/ is central [ä].<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
Clofabosin initial clusters are similar to Latin:<br />
<br />
*XR: pl pr bl br fl fr tr dr cl cr gl gr<br />
*sC: sp st spr (str is very rare)<br />
*Others: x (rare)<br />
<br />
Historically most instances of me- have changed to ma- or mo-.<br />
<br />
==Dialectology==<br />
===Streptomycin accent===<br />
*In the colloquial Streptomycin accent /ɾC/ sequences assimilate into geminates [Cː]: ''riconercept'' [ɾikonekkept] 'goodbye'. /n, t, d/ in this position become apical [ɳ, ʈ, ɖ].<br />
*/z/ may be pronounced [j].<br />
*Final /n/ is often dropped.<br />
===Dodellian accent===<br />
<br />
===Southern Dodellian accent===<br />
*v = [w]<br />
*f = [x]<br />
*z = [ɦ] or dropped entirely<br />
*e o = [ɛ ɔ]<br />
=== "Saigon" accent ==÷<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Clofabian nouns can take one of many case clitics, which are not true suffixes. Suffixes for "cases" other than the nominative and the accusative are attached to the combining form of the noun. Plurals are marked with ''-(a)zin'', ''-(a)z(o)-'' (e.g. ''amp·in'' person, ''ampazin'' 'people'; ''acti·n'' 'day', ''actizin'' 'days'); pluralization is usually reserved for animates, and are never used with numbers or quantifiers.<br />
====Consonant stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''efast·in'' - medicine'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''efast(o)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====i-stems====<br />
Note: Middle Clofabosin -u-in nouns merged with Middle Clofabosin -i-in nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''nepi·n'' - work'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepi(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====u-stems====<br />
-in, -ine, combining forms -in-(V-) and -u-(C-). Merges with i-stems in spoken Clofab.<!--<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''sarin, saru-'' - calamity'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''saru-, sarin-''<br />
|}<br />
--><br />
<br />
====e-stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''torcafen'' - poet'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafen''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafene''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafe(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====a-stems====<br />
Nouns from Asvasiran<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''atazan'' - story'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazan''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazane''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''ataza(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Some noun clitics====<br />
*''-fulven'' = 'until, up to'<br />
*''-setron'' = 'throughout'<br />
*''-cidib'' = 'like the X it is'<br />
*''es-'' = 'only an/the X'<br />
*''-pred'' = 'X and all, the likes of X'<br />
*''-ribin'' = 'a couple of', 'an X or two'<br />
*''-ol, -olol'' = genitive<br />
*''-abine'' = 'in front of, before'<br />
*''-acetam'' = 'behind, after'<br />
*''-anserin'' = 'around'<br />
*''-azepam'' = 'by means of'<br />
*''-ib'' = 'in', 'at'<br />
**Normatively, ''-ib'' is not used with weekdays or months - ''-in'' is used instead.<br />
*''-one'' = 'to'<br />
*''-isant'' = 'from'<br />
*''-ase'' = 'with'<br />
*''aril-'' = 'the only X'<br />
*''-arit'' = 'without', '-less'<br />
*''-adox, -ox'' = benefactive<br />
*''-stat'' = 'like'<br />
*''-ast, -ium'' = 'and'<br />
**Both ''-ase'' and ''-ast'' are commonly shortened to ''-as'' in the spoken language.<br />
*''-conast'' = 'than' (< see-CONJ, "after seeing")<br />
*''-imod'' = emphatic, 'X itself'<br />
*''-coxib'' = 'between'<br />
*''-cogin'' = 'inside, amidst'<br />
*''-imex'' = 'among'<br />
*''-protafib'' = 'about' (lit. "at the tree-trunk of")<br />
*''-nabant'' = 'about, regarding, with respect to'<br />
*''-dutant'' = 'above'<br />
*''-nertant'' = 'below'<br />
*''-pitant'' = 'because of'<br />
*''-lubant'' = 'despite'<br />
*''-tibant'' = 'through, via'<br />
*''-stinel'' = 'on behalf of'<br />
*''-antel'' = 'against'<br />
*''-ampanel/-ampator'' = 'including'<br />
*''-berel'' = 'except'<br />
*''-apsel'' = 'instead of, rather than'<br />
*''-grel, -grelor'' = 'following, according to"<br />
*''-ac'' = 'as'<br />
*''-ibat'' = 'each'<br />
*''-gatran'' = 'thanks to'<br />
*''-estrant'' = 'to the right of'<br />
*''-pafant'' = 'to the left of'<br />
*''-asvir'' = (bookish) 'by means of', used to mark agent in passive sentences<br />
*''-lisib'' = outside<br />
*''-pladib'' = inside<br />
*''-pladone'' = into<br />
*''alfa, -al'': 'X also'<br />
*''-stim'' = translative, becoming X<br />
*''-xantrone'' = near<br />
*''-fusp'' = as X as, used with the equative<br />
*''-ixafor'' = regardless of, no matter, even with<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
*''endin, valin'' = 1st, 2nd person singular.<br />
**It is common to shorten the nominative and accusative forms: ''endin, endine'' > ''en, ene'' and ''valin, valine'' > ''van, vane''.<br />
*''ezin, vazin'' = 1st, 2nd person plural<br />
*''dapsin, -dapsin'' = reflexive pronoun<br />
<br />
====Correlatives====<br />
*''cef-, cesin, cerin'' = this X, this (thing), this (person); colloquially shortened to ''cen'', which also means 'yes'<br />
*''flu-, flusin, flurin'' = that X, that (thing), that (person); colloquially shortened to ''flin''<br />
*''gli-, glisin, glirin'' = what X?, what? who? colloquially shortened to ''glin''<br />
*''cef(pa)stat, flu(pa)stat, gli(pa)stat'' = like this, like that, how<br />
*''cefstavir, flustavir, glistavir'' = is like this, is like that, how is.../what is it like<br />
*''pred-, presin, prerin'' = all X, everything, everyone<br />
*''nal-, nasin, narin'' = many<br />
*''som-, somosin, somorin'' = some<br />
*''vin-, visin, virin'' = few<br />
*''rifa-, rifasin, rifarin'' = another, more, other<br />
*''dex-, dexosin, dexorin'' = any<br />
*''glirtib, glisertib'' = when?<br />
*''certib, cefsertib'' = now<br />
*''flurtib, flusertib'' = then<br />
*''cefib, flufib, glifib'' = here, there, where?<br />
**predicative forms: ''cefivir, flufivir, glifivir''<br />
*''-sin'' and ''-rin'' are used to nominalize genitives and ordinal numbers as well: ''rivasin'' = second (thing), ''rivarin'' = second (person), ''amposin'' = of the person; even the name of the language ''clofabosin'' is derived from this construction<br />
*''cef-'', ''flu-'', and ''gli-'' can be used as object affixes on verbs: for example, ''fluconazole!'' means '(I) saw that!' or '(I) saw that person/thing!'<br />
**''cefpavir, flupavir, glipavir'' = say this, say that, say what<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
====Tense and mood====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} verbs are completely regular and inflect for tense and mood. Subjects may be omitted, as in Japanese and Korean. In tables below, affixes in parentheses denote non-standard or dialectal forms.<br />
<br />
Consonant-stem verbs have the following endings:<br />
*''-avir''<br />
*''-umab''<br />
*''-azole''<br />
For V + b, c, d, g, l, m, n, p, r, s, t + suffix beginning with t:<br />
*''-ptinib, -ctinib, -tinib, -ctinib-, -ltinib, -mtinib, -ntinib, -ptinib, -rtinib, -stinib, -tinib''<br />
*''-ptu-, -ctu-, -tu, -ctu-, -ltu-, -mtu-, -ntu-, -ptu-, -rtu-, -stu-, -tu-''<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! "If" !! "Only if" !! "When" !! "While" !! Conjunctive !! Adverbial !! Resultative !! Optative !! "Because" / Quotative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-(a)zole'' [-(a)zol] || ''-(a)zumab'' || ''-(a)zosartan'', ''-(a)zartan'' || ''-(a)zobactam'' || ''-(a)zosertib'', ''-(a)zertib'', ''-(a)zokalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-sermin'' || ''-(a)zolast'' <br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stat''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stim'', ''-mostim''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(a)mer'' || ''-pirdine'' [-piɾdin]<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-(a)vir'' || ''-(u)mab'', ''-mumab'', ''-momab'', ''-virumab'' || ''-sartan'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-bactam'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-sertib'', ''-kalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-fermin'' || ''-lukast''<br />
|| ''-(a)vudine'', ''-(a)virdine'', ''-fenadine''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tinib'' || ''-vetmab'' [vemab] or [veɾmab] || ''-tisartan'', ''-tartan'' || ''-termin'' ||''-trodast'' || ''-tadine'', ''-tidine'' [-tidin]<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cept'', ''-vircept'' || ''-ximab'', ''-viximab'' || ''-cisartan'', ''-xartan'' || ''-xermin'' || ''-lukast'' || ''-clidine'' [-klidin]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<sup>&dagger;</sup> somewhat high register; connotes "in view of the fact that..."<br />
<br />
The present tense may be optionally inflected for person as follows (though pronouns in the subject force the verb to be in the third person):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Present subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-virenz'' [-viɾens]<br />
|''-viroc''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-virsen''<br />
|''-virine''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-vir''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
(The present tense also has a mirative form, ''-virimat''.)<br />
<br />
Analogously the past tense may be inflected as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Past subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-(a)zolam, -(a)zam''<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|''-(a)zoline''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-(a)zole''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive is used like the infinitive and imperative in other languages (e.g. ''stilocamab!'' 'Sing!'). It can also be used to indicate uncertainty, like "may" or "might".<br />
<br />
Yes-no questions are formed by adding the question particle ''pegol'' to the subjunctive: ''zenazumab pegol?'' (Did he go?). In spoken Clofabosin ''-mab pegol'' is often shortened to ''-mapel'' or ''-pel''. ''Indirect'' yes-no questions use ''-mantine'' instead of ''-mab pegol'': ''endolpane valin spozumantine epamab!'' "Tell me if you ate my apple!"<br />
<br />
Wh-questions are treated like declaratives:<br />
* ''cesin gliserotin(avir)?'' = What language is this?<br />
* ''cesin gliserotina(vir)dine rovavir'' = I know what language this is<br />
<br />
For realis forms (e.g. indicative, attributive, "when", "while", conjunctive), the negative marker is ''-fo-'': ''sabafovir'' 'he does not write'. For irrealis forms (e.g. subjunctive, conditional, optative, verbal noun), the negative marker is ''-tu(mo)-'': ''sabatumab!'', ''sabatumumab!'' or ''sabatumomab!'' means 'Don't write!'<br />
<br />
*'can' (ability) uses ''-tecan'' (inflected as if it were ''-tecavir''; the attributive is ''-taxel'')<br />
**For the related sense "can do X [noun]" or "know how to do X", use ''X atevir'' (dative-stative; cf. Japanese ''dekiru'').<br />
*'must' uses ''-mab tiuxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-matixan''); the subject is put into the dative.<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mab tiuxetanupel?'' or ''-matixapel?''<br />
**''-tumab tiuxetan'' means 'must not'.<br />
*'should' uses ''-mab cituxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-macituxan'' or ''-macixan'')<br />
*'may' (permission) uses ''-mab vedotin'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-mavertin'')<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mavertimpel?'' in spoken Clofabosin<br />
**''-tumab vedotin'' means 'doesn't have to'.<br />
*'is worth' uses ''-xaban''<br />
*'probably' uses ''-mab merpentan''<br />
*'right when' uses ''-fingol'' or ''-zofingol''<br />
*Emphasis or agreement uses ''-toxa-''/''-toxu-'': ''Ene nelcatoxaximab pegol?'' means 'Will he really love me?'<br />
*There is an archaic imperative ''-kinra''.<br />
*"regardless of" uses ''-mab elucaine''.<br />
<br />
The verbal noun uses the suffix ''-cin''/''-kin''/''-kiren''. For negating verbal nouns, ''-tucin'' is used: ''Gositucin guancumavir'' 'Not giving is worse'.<br />
<br />
The desiderative uses the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-prazole'', (-''prozole'', ''-prole'') || ''-prazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-profen'', ''-previr'', (''-provir'') || ''-promab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-protinib'' || ''-provetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-procept'' || ''-proximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''raxin plocaprofen.'' = 'I want to drink water.'<br />
<br />
For "I want [noun]", the verb used depends on the context: for example, "I want a car" is translated as ''fusnan ibuprofen'' ("I want to have a car"), and "I want an apple" is rendered ''olpan spoprofen'' ("I want to eat an apple").<br />
<br />
The desiderative can also be used for ''dative-stative'' (the "logical subject" is in the dative) verbs with 1st person logical subjects: <br />
<br />
*''endone clofabosinatecaprofen.'' = 'I want to be able to speak Clofabosin.'<br />
<br />
Predicate nouns can fill in for both ''cytavir'' (copula) and ''keravir'' (to exist). The predicative is formed by replacing the final -n in the nominative case of a noun with the following suffixes (which can be omitted):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ '''Predicative suffixes'''<br />
|-<br />
! !! Affirmative indicative !! Negative indicative !! Affirmative subjunctive !! Negative subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-nazole'' || ''-fozole'' || ''-nazumab'' || ''-tuzumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-navir'' || ''-fovir'' || ''-numab'' || ''-tumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-natinib'' || ''-fotinib'' || ''-navetmab'' || ''-tuvetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-nercept'', ''-navircept'' || ''-focept'' || ''-naximab'' || ''-tuximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The copular verb ''cytavir'' (often shortened to ''tavir'' in colloquial Clofabosin) may also be used. For example: ''endin voprafenavir'' and ''endin voprafen cytavir'' both mean "I am a teacher". Using ''cytavir'' is necessary when using an oblique case NP as a predicate: ''endin funanetamib cytavir.'' 'I am in my bedroom.' <br />
<br />
The predicative and desiderative suffixes may be fused as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-noprazole'' || ''-noprazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-noprofen'' || ''-nopromab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-noprotinib'' || ''-noprovetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-noprocept'' || ''-noproximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example: ''endin voprafenoprofen'' means "I want to be a teacher".<br />
<br />
====Attributive verbs====<br />
Attributive verbs are used to form relative clauses. They may be formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil'' (''-pidil'') || ''-prozil''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil'' || ''-pril''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril, -til'' || ''-protil''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil'' || ''-pracil''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''clorodil taxin'' means 'a big book'; ''endin drepazil taxin'' means 'the book that I've read'.<br />
<br />
Nominalized attributives have the following forms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil·in'' || ''-prozil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil·in'' || ''-pril·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril·in'' || ''-protil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil·in'' || ''-pracil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Tenseless <br />
| ''-(a)n·in'' || ''-pran·in''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derivational suffixes====<br />
The suffix ''-tin, -t(o)-'' is used as a patientive: ''spovir'' 'eat' → ''spotin'' 'food', ''inosivir'' 'dwell, inhabit' → ''inositin'' 'apartment'<br />
<br />
The suffix ''-(o)cavir'' 'do' may be used to "verb" nouns or borrowed words: for example, ''spuisocavir'' means 'He plays the ''sbwiþ'' (a Talmic plucked instrument with sympathetic strings)'.<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
The suffixes ''-li'' and ''-ca'' are used to form the passive resp. causative forms. (e.g. ''spovir'' 'eat' > ''spolivir'' 'is eaten').<br />
<br />
There is also a less productive causative affix ''-si'', which causes umlaut. (e.g. ''spesivir'' 'to feed' from ''spovir'')<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
*''bol-'' = 'too much'<br />
*''clo-'' = 'very'<br />
*''luta-'' = equative ("as X as"); also a suffective ("sufficiently X")<br />
**"X like Y" uses ''Y-ac (luta-)X''<br />
**"as X as Y" uses ''Y-filcon (luta-)X''<br />
**"X enough for Y" uses ''Y-one luta-X''<br />
*''guan-'' = comparative (optional when there is a comparandum, which is marked with ''-conast'')<br />
*''peg-'' = superlative<br />
<br />
''gadovir'' 'good' has an irregular comparative and superlative: ''adip.avir'' and ''dip.avir''.<br />
<br />
For example, ''Clofabosin tricib pegnibulidil serotinavir.'' means 'Clofabosin is the world's most studied language.'<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
*''-bendavir'' 'to inadvertently X, to end up X-ing, to finish X-ing' (< 'to fall')<br />
*''-conavir'' 'to try X-ing' (< 'to see')<br />
*''-ciclovir'' 'to receive someone's X-ing; to benefit from someone's X-ing' (< 'to receive')<br />
*''-floxavir'' 'to refuse to X'<br />
*''-gosivir'' 'to X for someone' (< 'to give')<br />
*''-nidavir'' 'to X in advance' (< 'to place')<br />
*''-spovir'' 'to X for one's own benefit' (< 'to eat')<br />
*''-codavir'' 'to out-X' (< 'to surpass')<br />
<br />
====Other affixes====<br />
*''-campator'' 'instead of (verb)-ing'<br />
*''-cillin'': 'let alone'<br />
*''-cog'': cohortative<br />
**''Ilocog!'' 'Let's play!'<br />
**''En alfa spocog!'' 'Let me eat it too!'<br />
*''ri-'': 'again, re-'<br />
*''-trexed'': 'the more...'<br />
*''-nesib'': 'by X-ing'<br />
*''-parin'': like -vudine eparin<br />
*''-ro-'' = perfect tense, ''-xi-'' = future in the present/...<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses a base-10 numeral system. For attributive numerals the ''-in'' is replaced with the classifier suffix ''-fos'': for example, ''esin'' becomes ''esofos''. The ''-avir'' suffix is used to build ordinals; -il is also an ordinal suffix but is used in compounds.<br />
<br />
The counting numbers:<br />
*0: ''viuzan''<br />
*1: ''esin'' (inanimate), ''erin'' (animate)<br />
**"first" is ''sulcavir'', ''sulcil''<br />
*2: ''ribin''<br />
*3: ''salin''<br />
*4: ''lopin''<br />
*5: ''orfin''<br />
*6: ''quibin''/''quin''<br />
*7: ''zolin''<br />
*8: ''tixin''<br />
*9: ''vadin''<br />
*10: ''clutin''<br />
*11: ''clutesin''<br />
*12: ''cluribin''<br />
*13: ''clusalin''<br />
*14: ''clulopin''<br />
*15: ''clutorfin''<br />
*16: ''cluquibin''/''cluquin''<br />
*17: ''cluzolin''<br />
*18: ''clutixin''<br />
*19: ''cluvadin''<br />
*20: ''resvin''<br />
*30: ''tebin''<br />
*40: ''prolin''<br />
*50: ''aruzin''<br />
*60: ''quidin''<br />
*70: ''zoledin''<br />
*80: ''tixedin''<br />
*90: ''varedin''<br />
*100: ''sanin''<br />
*1000: ''ictin''<br />
<br />
Short attributive forms: efos, rifos, salfos, lofos, orfos, quifos, zofos, tifos, vafos, clufos<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} is almost completely head-final, and has SOV as the unmarked word order.<br />
<br />
:'''''endol maximaxine nelcavir.'''''<br />
:''I love my grandmother.''<br />
<br />
Conjunctions:<br />
*''beta'' = but<br />
===Existence clauses===<br />
For expressing existence the verb ''kera-'' "to exist" is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''etamib suxitin keravir.'''''<br />
:''There is a picture on the wall.''<br />
===Liking and wanting===<br />
Clofabosin expresses "I like Y" by the construction ''Y dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''olpan dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like apples.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga suki da.'')<br />
<br />
"I like to do Y" can similarly be expressed with ''Y-cin dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''faldicin dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like swimming.''<br />
<br />
For "X likes Y" the construction ''X-NOM Y-ACC dasabuvir'' is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpane dasabuvir.'''''<br />
:''Lunesta likes apples.''<br />
<br />
Similarly for desideratives:<br />
:'''''olpan spoprofen.'''''<br />
:''I want an apple.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga tabetai.'')<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpan spoprobuvir.''<br />
:''Lunesta wants an apple.''<br />
<br />
===Cause clauses===<br />
Cause clauses are formed with the quotative.<br />
===Complement clauses===<br />
Complement clauses ("''that'' + [statement]" in English) are formed using the quotative. The bare quotative is enough when using it with a "quoting" verb such as ''epavir'' 'say' or ''atrivir'' 'believe'. To use the complement clause as a noun ''eparin'', the verbal noun of ''epavir'', is often used: ''Felavudine eparin vocivir.'' 'I don't like the fact that it's cold'.<br />
<br />
===Purpose clauses===<br />
Purpose clauses can be formed with -DESID + -QUOT (''-provudine'' in the present tense and ''-propirdine'' in the past tense). Colloquially -RES (''-stim''/''-mostim'') can be used.<br />
<br />
:'''''drepatine clofabosinaprovudine fumazole.'''''<br />
:''drepa-t-ine clofab-osi-na-pro-vudine fuma-zole''<br />
:read-PAT-ACC Clofabian-ATT.INAN-PRED-DES-PRES.QUOT buy-PAST.IND<br />
:''He bought the book in order to be able to speak Clofabosin.'' (lit. ''... saying "I want to be able to speak Clofabosin"'')<br />
<br />
In the first person -DESID + -CONJ can be used (''-prolukast'' in the present tense and ''-prazolast'' in the past tense).<br />
<br />
===Tense agreement===<br />
Tense agreement states that dependent clauses must have the same tense as the main clause.<br />
<br />
:'''''endozopin obinutu{{blue|zu}}mab, predsertib dirali{{blue|zole}}.'''''<br />
:''So that my body might not be dirty, I always got washed.''<br />
<br />
==Derivational morphology==<br />
*''-bendan'': '-ization'<br />
*''-cavir'': verbs nouns, like Japanese ''suru''<br />
*''bol-, -bol-'': too much<br />
*''-ici·n'': diminutive<br />
*''clo-'': augmentative<br />
*''des-'': apart, dis-<br />
*''-entan'': -liness, -ability<br />
*''-myci·n'': -ability<br />
*''-stat·in'': abstract noun<br />
**''rovastat·in'' 'knowledge' < ''rovavir'' 'be known'<br />
*''-t·in'': patient noun<br />
*''-ax·in'': instrument<br />
*''-st·in'': instrument<br />
*''-fen'': agentive<br />
*''-siban'': agentive<br />
*''-dan'': nominalizer<br />
*''-prazan'': place noun<br />
*''-sulfan'': institutions<br />
*''-fluran'': agentive<br />
*''gado-'': eu-, well<br />
*''mito-'': dys-, mis-<br />
*''-ex·in'': collective<br />
*''-fax·in'': collective (< ''afaxin'' 'forest')<br />
*''iod-/io-'': ur-<br />
*''-triptan'': -ness (degree)<br />
*''-pivir'': adjectivizer<br />
*''-amivir'': full of, frequentative<br />
*''-fravir'': tending to do/be X<br />
*''-luvir'': made of X<br />
*''-vaptan'': method<br />
*''-lesovir'': X-less<br />
*''ar-'': un-<br />
===Compounds===<br />
Compound nouns can be of the form noun+noun or verb+noun.<br />
===Foreign words===<br />
Loaned nouns and names are declined as follows:<br />
*nom: ''Aleve'', ''Lipitor''<br />
*acc: ''Aleve''':ne''''', ''Lipitor''':ine''''' (colloquially ''Lipitor''':e''')<br />
*gen: ''Aleve''':nol''''', ''Lipitor''':ol'''<br />
*"except": ''Aleve''':berel''''', ''Lipitor''':oberel'''''<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Saturday Night Live skit===<br />
...<br />
<br />
''2004-procib rufiporfib cefsulfan "Seasonique" 'dine efastine ceprazole. Flufabine 1997-procib endin cibine ibuzole. Seasonique:one abacamab dapivirenz!''<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
''cefoxitin Tylenol:ine savtuprazanib irinostim minzatinercept!''<br />
<br />
===''cefditoren'' (national anthem of Clofabolocin)===<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''cefditoren'''<br />
<br />
''cefditoren rupalimab,''<br />
''ziruvenin conalimab, ''<br />
''apizanol vactolepin, ''<br />
''boracenol seprabuctan, ''<br />
''soxaplatril pelonosvan, ''<br />
''clorofabol camporaxin, ''<br />
''Picumenol empalocib ''<br />
''predampafib butilimab.''<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''May This ''Ditoren'''''<br />
<br />
May this ''ditoren'' (an instrument) be heard,<br />
The beautiful ''enin'' (a bird) be seen,<br />
The sweetness of the ''apizan'' (a fruit), <br />
The fragrant ''buctan'' (a flower) of the rainforest,<br />
The gentle breezes of the north,<br />
The cooling waters of the Clofabin (the river),<br />
Be felt by every soul in the homeland of Picumen (a historical figure).<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
===Hippocratic Oath===<br />
<br />
''Novartis efafenium GlaxoSmithKline:ium Astrazeneca:nium Amgen:ium pretropazone adrovirenz. fluvolazine conasibastim calukast, atecium bixocogrelor cefadrotium cefsapacium trimavirenz.''<br />
<br />
''endorosnifene cefblisib zocrafestat conalukast; moctib pristinalukast; minzatin tenosartan flurase tazelukast; flurupline dapsoruxizac conalukast uplone cefblisine nibuprosartan minzatine levo sapacine medofolukast nibucalukast; aril-dapsoblosazonium rosnifenol blosazonium cefadrotine demazil derotranazone, enilarbene alfa rebasium predrifastat rosnicine gosivirenz; beta dexrifarazone cefcafovirenz.''<br />
<br />
===Tower of Babel===<br />
<br />
#''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
#''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
#''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
#''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
#''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
#''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
#''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
#''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
#''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
<br />
:''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
:sertib pre-tric-ib amp-az-one esofos luxedan-ium esofos sero-t-ina-zole<br />
:time-LOC all-world-LOC person-PL-DAT one language-and one speak-NOMZ-COP-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
:amp-az-in docel-one distu-sermin, Sinar-ib elca-loc-ine pide-zolast fluf-ib let-azole<br />
:person-PL-NOM east-DAT move-PST.while Shinar-LOC flat-land-ACC find-PST.CONJ there-LOC settle-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
:amp-az-in afer-one epa-zil-in: capl-ine gale-lukast gado-tovaca-cog. fluz-in capl-ine uld-ac epso-zolast cisp-ine braxist-ac epso-zole<br />
:person-PL-NOM each_other-DAT say-PST.ATTR-NOM brick-ACC make-PRES.CONJ well-fire-COHORT that.PL-NOM brick-ACC stone-as use-PST.CONJ tar-ACC cement-CONJ use-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
:cefast epa=zil-in: benz-ine fexo-lukast ceso-pladib vexa-fulven mixi-cil pirol-ine fexo-cog ez-astili-ne rupa-ca-lukast pre-trico-setron amiti-li-tu-cog<br />
:then say-PST.ATTR-NOM city-ACC build-PRES.CONJ that.SG.INAN-inside sky-until rise-FUT.ATTR tower-ACC build-COHORT 1PL-name-ACC hear-CAUS-FUT.CONJ whole-world-throughout scatter-PASS-NEG.IRR-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
:beta trop-in amp-az-in fexo-zil benz-ium pirol-ine carsa-pro-pirdine bini-zole<br />
:but god-NOM person-PL-NOM build-PST.ATTR city-and tower-ACC observe-DES-PST.QUOT descend-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
:trop-in epa-zil-in eso-fos met-in eso-fos luxeda-ne sero-lukast cef-ca-stim draxo-ro-vir cef-kalant fluz-in gli-ca-promab elucaine octa-teca-for-cept<br />
:god-NOM say-PST.ATTR-NOM one-CLF tribe-NOM one-CLF language-ACC speak-PRES.CONJ this-do-RES start-PERF-PRES.IND this-in_view_of that.PL-NOM what-do-DES.PRES.SUBJ regardless_of that.PL-ACC prevent-can-NEG-FUT<br />
<br />
:''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
:bini-lukast flu-luxeda-ne niva-lukast fluz-in afer-ine mavri-tu-mab cacog<br />
:descend-PRES.CONJ their-language-ACC confuse-PRES.CONJ that.PL-NOM each_other-ACC understand-NEG.IRR-SUBJ do-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
:cefast trop-in fluf-isant fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zolast fluz-in benz-ine fexo-cine ido-zole<br />
:then god-NOM there-from that.PL-ACC whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.CONJ that.PL-NOM city-ACC build-VN-ACC stop-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
:cefase flu-benz-one B. epa-tinib cala-n trop-in fluf-ib pre-tric-ol luxeda-ne niva-ro-tidine epar-in fluf-isant trop-in fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zole<br />
:hence that-city-DAT B. say-GNOM.IND reason-NOM god-NOM there-LOC whole-world-GEN language-ACC confuse-PERF-GNOM.QUOT saying-NOM there-from god-NOM whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.IND<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
''tibazolam, conazolam, urazolam.''<br />
<br />
===Qui bibit, sanctus est===<br />
<poem><br />
''plocatrilin certolitinib.''<br />
''certolutrilin surnacafotinib.''<br />
''surnacafotrilin profitinib.''<br />
''cefase plocatrilin profitinib.''<br />
<br />
Qui bibit, dormit;<br />
Qui dormit, non peccat;<br />
Qui non peccat, sanctus est;<br />
Ergo qui bibit, sanctus est.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Hamlet soliloquy===<br />
:'''''moxicin levo moxifloxacin, flusimod frunecin.'''''<br />
:''To be or not to be (lit. to live or to refuse to live), that is the question.''<br />
<br />
===The North Wind and the Sun===<br />
'''''peloclevinast grian'''''<br />
<br />
''peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine cecroxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole. cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole. flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.''<br />
<br />
====Gloss====<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloklevinast gɾian]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM<br />
| translation = The North Wind and the Sun<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine croxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevinast grian afeɾin dapsimot gwanoɾlitidine kɾoksazoseɾtip daxizil pevuksazepam fidozil ilpefen laxufizol]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n afer-in daps-imod guan-orli-tidine croxa-zosertib, daci-zil pevu-st-azepam fido-zil ilpe-fe-n lacufi-zole<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM each_other-NOM self-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT have_an_argument-PST.when warm-PAST.ATTR cover-INSTRUMENT-INST wear-PST.ATTR travel-AGT-NOM run_into-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind and the sun were arguing, each claiming to be the stronger one, when a traveler wearing a warm cloak happened upon the scene.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluɾibin ilpefenol pevuksine sulkip nilpaxazil fluɾin gwanoɾlitidine lepsolizumap sumaxazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-ribin ilpefen-ol pevux-ine sulcib nilpa-ca-zil flur-in guan-orli-tidine lepso-li-zumab sumaca-zole. <br />
| gloss = that-two-NOM traveler-GEN cloak-ACC first take_off-CAUS-PST.ATTR that-NOM COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT consider-PASS-PST.SBJV unite-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The two agreed that the one who first made the traveler take off his cloak should be considered stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevin pɾetkoxsine gɾebimostim olmezol beta olmezaɾtan olmetɾekset ilpefen zopinanseɾin pevuksine gwanfamizol]<br />
| morphemes = Pelo-clevi-n pred-cox-ine grebi-mostim olme-zole beta olm-azartan olme-trexed ilpefe-n zopin-anserin pevux-ine guan-fami-zole.<br />
| gloss = north-wind-NOM all-strength-ACC put_in-RES blow-PST.IND but blow-PST.COND blow-the_more traveler-NOM body-around cloak-ACC more-wrap-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind blew with all his strength, but the more he blew the more did the traveler wrapped his cloak around his body.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole.<br />
|pinyin =<br />
|IPA = [kefoxsitin peloxlevin tiabendazol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-oxit-in pelo-clevi-n tia-benda-zole<br />
| gloss = this-end-NOM north-wind-NOM let_go-end_up-PAST<br />
| translation = In the end, the north wind gave up.<br />
| index =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluseɾtip grian daxizil vaɾine moxazofingol ilpefen pevuksine nilpazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-sertib gria-n daci-zil vari-ne moca-zofingol ilpefe-n pevux-ine nilpa-zole<br />
| gloss = that-when sun-NOM warm-PST.ATTR light-ACC radiate-PST.moment traveler-NOM cloak-ACC take_off-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Then, right when the sun shone out warm light, the traveler took off his cloak.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [flukalant peloxlevin grianimot gwanoɾlitidine stiunizumap kwinulizol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-kalant pelo-clevi-n grian-imod guan-orli-tidine stiuni-zumab quinu-li-zole<br />
| gloss = that-in_view_of north-wind-NOM sun-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT confess-PST.SBJV constrain-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thus the north wind was forced to acknowledge that it was the sun who is stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
''predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib. ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.''<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [pɾedampin zokɾalitril seɾtisant koplitɾodast tulkast pitanabant inflitinip]<br />
| morphemes = pred-amp-in zocra-li-tril sert-imod copli-trodast tulc-ast pita-nabant infli-tinib<br />
| gloss = all-human-NOM give_birth-PASS-GNOM.ATT time-ABL free-GNOM.CONJ worth-and entitlement-regarding equal-GNOM.IND<br />
| translation = All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [ampin ziudiksisant ketiɾizast dapsolopɾitine kiklotɾodast ǀ afeɾon ɾuksinelol temazepam evikovemap tiuksetan]<br />
| morphemes = amp-in ziudix-imod cetiriz-ast dapso-lopri-t-ine ciclo-trodast, afer-one ruxi-nel-ol tem-azepam evico-tumab tiuxetan<br />
| gloss = human-NOM nature-ABL rationality-and self-control-NOMZ-ACC receive-GNOM.CONJ, each_other-DAT brother-love-GEN spirit-PL.INST act-GNOM.SUBJ must<br />
| translation = They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Featured banner===<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefluxedan esertib natalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [kefluksedan eseɾtip natalizol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-lukseda-n e-sert-ib nata-li-zole<br />
| gloss = this-language-NOM one-time-LOC display-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = This language was once featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fedostatium darusentanium epsostogatran, natalizumab procalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fedostatium daɾusentanium epsostogatɾan, natalizumap pɾoxalizol]<br />
| morphemes = fedo-stat-ium darusentan-ium epso-sto-gatɾan, nata-li-zumab proca-li-zole<br />
| gloss = fine-ABS-and realism-and use-INST-thanks_to, display-PASS-PAST.SBJV choose-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thanks to its quality, plausibility and usage features, it was voted to be featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Other resources==<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*]]<br />
[[Category:Clofabic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Tricin]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Clofabosin/Lexicon&diff=474070
Clofabosin/Lexicon
2025-10-19T23:51:58Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Clofabosin/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/>[[Clofabosin/Phrasebook|Phrasebook]]<br />
<br />
;Notes<br />
<br />
*''-·in'' denotes nouns that take the combining form ''-(o)-''; ''-i·n'' denotes nouns that take the combining form ''-i(n)-''.<br />
*''-·avir'' denotes verbs whose stem ends in a consonant; ''-a·vir'' denotes verbs whose stem ends in ''a''.<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
abaca·vir: greet<br />
aban: ''formal greeting, irrespective of target's gender or number'' (from Dodellian ''ıbı'' 'father', which was also an honorific)<br />
acetam: later (in time)<br />
aclan: sugar<br />
aclarubic·in: diabetes<br />
acti·n: day<br />
ada·vir: destroy<br />
adrovir: swear<br />
aglen: team<br />
agleprist·in: teammate<br />
alfa: and<br />
alicontin: RTT<br />
alteplase: of course<br />
alufin: uncle<br />
amaxi.n: mother<br />
ambri.n: poetry<br />
amitivir: true, correct, okay<br />
amp·in: human<br />
ampaf·in: soul<br />
anivot·in: celebration<br />
anivovir: bless, celebrate<br />
anlos·in, anloserot·in: English language<br />
anlor·in: English person<br />
apaxi.n: father<br />
apidan: range<br />
aptica·vir: lay, put<br />
aptilivir: lie down<br />
aptivir: be lying somewhere<br />
arben: rule<br />
artabine: ante meridiem<br />
artacetam: post meridiem<br />
artacti·n: noon, midday<br />
arteflen: middle ground<br />
artelt·in: lunch<br />
arten: middle, interval<br />
artenimi·n: middle class<br />
asnudan: science<br />
asnusiban: scientist<br />
asnusulfan: academy<br />
asovir: late<br />
astil·in: name<br />
astilici·n: nickname<br />
atacivir: leave<br />
atamestan: foreigner (from Dodellian; ata- is cognate with Etalocin)<br />
atazaca·vir: narrate, recount<br />
atazan: story<br />
atazasiban: narrator<br />
atevir: can, to be able to<br />
atran: belief; faith<br />
atrivir: believe<br />
axovir: stand<br />
baci·n: half<br />
bacifors·in: estuary<br />
bacitrac·in: peninsula<br />
baclofen: actor<br />
baclovir: to act out<br />
balivir: visit<br />
baruca·vir: kill<br />
barusiban: mortal<br />
baruvir: die<br />
becand·in: copper<br />
Becand·in: Bjeheond<br />
bel·avir: dream<br />
beloran: channel<br />
bendavir: fall<br />
benz·in: city<br />
beta: but<br />
bex·in: store<br />
bibivir: to rub, to mix<br />
bicivir: help<br />
binivir: go/come down<br />
bisavir: wake up<br />
biuzan: ego, self<br />
bixovir: judge<br />
blis·in: art<br />
blos·in: child<br />
bolcuvir: to backstab<br />
bradi·n: flower<br />
briavir: be patient<br />
brinase: already<br />
brom·in: foot<br />
burivir: sink<br />
busuvir: slow<br />
butivir: feel<br />
butrin: daughter<br />
ca·vir: do, make<br />
cabadan: agriculture<br />
cabafen: farmer<br />
cabavir: cultivate<br />
calan: reason<br />
calca·vir: thank<br />
cambrilocin: Wales<br />
cambririn: Welsh person<br />
cambriserotin/cambrisin: Welsh language<br />
cam·in: leg<br />
canavir: forgive<br />
caran: crow<br />
carluvir: to beware<br />
carsa.vir: to observe<br />
casan: table (diagram)<br />
cedovir: to think (engage in cognition)<br />
cefacti.n: today<br />
cefan: today<br />
cefoxitin: in the end<br />
cel.in: lip<br />
cen: this; yes<br />
cepra·vir: create<br />
certoburivir: fall asleep<br />
certoc·in: sleep (noun)<br />
certolivir: sleep<br />
cetacti.n: the day after tomorrow<br />
cetan: the day after tomorrow<br />
cibi·n: child<br />
ciclovir: receive<br />
cin·in: ear<br />
clanfa·vir: to stop<br />
clofabos·in: Clofabosin<br />
clorovir: big<br />
clotrimazole: good job!<br />
colivir: to sway, vibrate<br />
cona·vir: see<br />
corsat·in: eternity<br />
cracan: raven<br />
cravir: to be painful<br />
cridan: kingdom, realm<br />
crizovir: dissolve<br />
crus·in: evening<br />
cruselt·in: dinner<br />
cacan: shit<br />
dabi·n: gift<br />
dacivir: warm<br />
daclovir: important<br />
dalf.in: womb<br />
dalfoprist.in: sibling<br />
danuvir: to stay<br />
dapivir: to invite<br />
daps·in: self, oneself<br />
dapsumenintedan: Independence Day<br />
dapsumestatin: independence<br />
dasa·vir: to be pleasing<br />
dastuvir: to close<br />
deb.avir: white<br />
dec.avir: simple<br />
del.avir: old<br />
dem·avir: take<br />
dembr·in: key<br />
dembrex·in: keyboard<br />
depluvir: run<br />
derotran: student<br />
des.avir: different<br />
desmerpan: disagreement, dissent<br />
dex-: any<br />
diclofen: sculptor<br />
diclovir: to sculpt<br />
difen: (''obsolete'') carpenter<br />
dir·avir: wash<br />
dirman: group<br />
distusiban: machine<br />
distuvir: move<br />
docel·in: east<br />
domavir: mix<br />
domorel·in: Saturday<br />
doran: level<br />
doxer·in: potato<br />
dranavir: thin<br />
draxovir: start<br />
drepavir: read<br />
dumica·vir: hang sth/so<br />
dumivir: be hanging; (''idiomatic'') something feels...<br />
dusp·in: soap<br />
efa·vir: heal<br />
efafen: doctor, physician<br />
efast·in: medicine<br />
efen, efe: path<br />
efeprist·in: companion<br />
elivir: become<br />
elt·in: meal<br />
elzi·n: maple tree<br />
end·in: I<br />
enemavir: to shit<br />
enil·in: ethics<br />
enteca·vir: to burn (transitive)<br />
entevir: to burn (intransitive)<br />
epavir: to say<br />
epsovir: to use (dative-stative)<br />
erid·in: animal, beast<br />
erub·in: ice<br />
espivir: straight<br />
estran: right (direction)<br />
etam·in: wall<br />
exevir: to be in bloom<br />
fab·in: river<br />
famivir: wrap<br />
famorel·in: Tuesday<br />
faravir: be exalted, raised<br />
farmavir: to understand<br />
fasuvir: blue<br />
febuvir: to record, etch<br />
febuxin: pencil, pen<br />
fedovir: fine, high quality<br />
felavir: cold<br />
fend·in: color, paint<br />
fendoca·vir: to paint<br />
fesbuvir: to Facebook<br />
fexovir: to build<br />
filcon: at __ o'clock<br />
filcon·in: hour<br />
filgevir: to know (''conocer'')<br />
fili·n: card, tag<br />
filibuvir: dyed-in-the-wool, card-carrying<br />
filidemac·in: inauguration<br />
fingol·in: moment<br />
fingolib (or just fingol?): at the moment, right now<br />
fletivir: hard<br />
flidevir: sad<br />
floxavir: to stop<br />
fors·in: sea<br />
fost·avir: black<br />
froxavir: to fit, be appropriate; OK<br />
fudevir: to open<br />
fumavir: to buy<br />
funan: bed<br />
fura·vir: ripe<br />
furi·n: peace<br />
fusil·in: hat<br />
futivir: easy; (slang) consenting readily to sex or dates<br />
futran: order (arrangement)<br />
gabar·in: ten<br />
gadovir: good<br />
galevir: to make (manufacture, produce)<br />
gam·in: south<br />
gaptan: member<br />
gativir: to clap<br />
glasdegin: nonsense<br />
glasp·in: rice<br />
glican: why<br />
glicerol, glice-: how many<br />
glifos: how many (specifically countable)<br />
glitazar: how much, to what extent<br />
glitazone: how much, to what extent<br />
gluta-: how much (of a thing), how many<br />
glutasin: how much of it<br />
gosivir: to give<br />
grian: sun<br />
gubi·n: thirst<br />
ibacavir: influence<br />
ibrivir: to grow<br />
ibuvir: to carry, to have<br />
icatibant: by means of...<br />
ic·avir: to build<br />
idovir: to block, to prevent<br />
ilsan: hawk<br />
inflivir: equal<br />
inovir: to be worth it<br />
ipamorel·in: (''slang'') fictional day of the week; when pigs fly<br />
ipavir: ???<br />
irinovir: to send<br />
it.avir: low<br />
itr·in: wheat<br />
ixevir: think (be of the opinion)<br />
kerat·in: thing, existence<br />
keravir: exist<br />
lagavul.in: whiskey<br />
lamivir: hold<br />
lamorel·in: Thursday<br />
landevir: bind<br />
lani·n: fog<br />
lanibuvir: foggy<br />
lapsivir: (''vulgar'') have sex<br />
lasmiditan: pharmacy<br />
lasmisiban: pharmacist<br />
leprican: (''Earth, CF Tricin'') leprechaun<br />
lequi·n: sister<br />
lesovir: to lack<br />
levo: xor<br />
lifavir: to bake<br />
litivir: finish<br />
lofavir: (''vulgar'') to rot, to perish<br />
lopran: text<br />
lorin: tongue<br />
loxavir: to kill<br />
lucrifen: bodyguard<br />
lucrivir: to watch<br />
lumevir: to fry, sauté<br />
lumexin: frying pan<br />
lusevir: bitter<br />
maloc·in: fever<br />
malovir: hot<br />
maman: mom<br />
maravir: to belong<br />
maximaxi·n: mother's mother<br />
maxipaxi·n: mother's father<br />
mec.in: hate<br />
mecl·in: flag<br />
med·in: hand<br />
medovir: demand<br />
mefen: shape, form<br />
merpentan: probability (-mab merpentan: probably)<br />
mevir: to hate<br />
miavin: cat<br />
miavocavir: to meow<br />
mifen: back<br />
mifepristin: best friend<br />
miglustat: exactly<br />
migluvir: exact<br />
mimorel·in: Monday<br />
minzafen: merchant<br />
minzavir: exchange<br />
mir·avir: young<br />
mirvevir: laugh<br />
mitovir: bad<br />
moca.vir: radiate (light, sound)<br />
moctin: life<br />
morel·in: day of the week<br />
moxivir: to live<br />
mozavaptan: grammar<br />
mudan: occasion, opportunity<br />
nabconavir: to look for<br />
nabdrepafen: student<br />
nabdrepavir: to study<br />
nabitavir: to remember<br />
nabovir: to call<br />
nadivir: to return, go back<br />
nafevir: to drift<br />
napsivir: to be flat<br />
nasarupl·in: a man's in-laws<br />
nata.vir: to display<br />
neflivir: practice<br />
nel·in: love<br />
nelca·vir: to love<br />
neman: aunt<br />
nepi·n: work<br />
nepi·vir: to work<br />
nesan: office<br />
nesapivir: official<br />
nesuvir: to swell; to exaggerate<br />
nevtan: spice<br />
nibuca·vir: to teach<br />
nibuvir: to learn<br />
nid.avir: to place<br />
nifurserotin: conlang<br />
nimi·n: stratum, class<br />
nintecavir: celebrate a holiday<br />
nintedan: festival<br />
nipti·n: garden<br />
nit.in: statement<br />
nocuvir: thick<br />
nusmadan: administration, executive branch<br />
nusmasiban: president (of a nation or an organization), CEO<br />
nusmavir: to preside<br />
nuxi·n: west<br />
obinuvir: dirty<br />
ocrase: still, yet<br />
ocrevir: to ask<br />
oduvir: to invite<br />
ọlen: town square<br />
olid·in: morning<br />
olidelt·in: breakfast<br />
olpan: apple<br />
opavir: new<br />
orlivir: strong<br />
osel.in: proud<br />
oseltamivir: proud<br />
otetan: period of time<br />
pad·in: autumn<br />
pafan: left (direction)<br />
pali.n: line of poetry<br />
paluvir: to obey, to submit<br />
papan: dad<br />
pastruvir: determine, rule<br />
paximaxi·n: father's mother<br />
paxipaxi·n: father's father<br />
pefet·in: cake<br />
pel·in: north<br />
pẹr·in: cloud<br />
perid.in: collection<br />
petivir: to hope<br />
pevuvir: to cover, to hide<br />
pevuxin: cloak<br />
pezadan: eclipse<br />
pidevir: find<br />
pilavir: similar<br />
pimacti.n: yesterday<br />
piman: yesterday<br />
pin·in: mouth<br />
pingavir: (''slang'') to understand<br />
piravir: add<br />
pirmitiz·in: flights of fancy<br />
pitan: rights<br />
plad·in: belly<br />
platacti.n: the day before yesterday<br />
platan: the day before yesterday<br />
plex·in: chain<br />
ploc·avir: drink<br />
poet·in: mountain pass<br />
pona·vir: be attracted to<br />
poptin: (vulgar pejorative)<br />
pot·avir: high<br />
prantan: cape gooseberry<br />
prazan: space, room<br />
prema.vir: to bloom<br />
pren·in: pine tree<br />
pricol·in: metal<br />
prist·in: mate, friend<br />
pritevir: to sell<br />
privir: to bring<br />
probut·in: will<br />
proca·vir: choose<br />
proctivir: holy<br />
prot·in: tree<br />
protaf·in: tree trunk<br />
provol·in: honorific 2nd person pronoun<br />
quab·in: rainbow<br />
quacartuvir: narrow<br />
quetivir: cool, great<br />
quinupristin: frenemy<br />
quinuvir: to happen by fate, to be forced/determined<br />
quix.in: blanket<br />
rab·in: star<br />
ranivir: sour<br />
raxin: water<br />
rebin, rebo-: word<br />
rebotaxin: dictionary<br />
ref·in: glass<br />
remorel·in: Sunday<br />
repsivir: be surprised<br />
rib·in: two<br />
riduvir (-ase): fight<br />
rifaponadilin: a straight person<br />
riftavir: to mean<br />
rituvir: to count<br />
rixavir: to kick<br />
rosnivir: to teach<br />
rotam·in: squash<br />
rovastat·in: knowledge<br />
rovavir: know (dative-stative)<br />
rubic·in: disease<br />
rubivir: sick<br />
rupaca·vir: announce; advertise; causative of rupa- (hear)<br />
rupakac·in: advertising<br />
rupintrivir: perfect<br />
ruxi·n: brother<br />
saba·vir: write<br />
sapa·vir: agree by contract<br />
sapran: poison<br />
sapt·in: persimmon<br />
saqu·in: kite<br />
sarbovir: collect<br />
sarin, saru-: (literary) disaster, calamity<br />
sartan: condition<br />
sarupl·in: a woman's in-laws<br />
satavaptan: morphology<br />
savinoteplin: Halloween<br />
savtuprazan: university<br />
savtuvir: to study<br />
sebuvir: wish<br />
selacti.n: tomorrow<br />
selan: tomorrow<br />
sepovir: brown<br />
serotin: language<br />
serotonin: dialect<br />
serovir: to speak<br />
sert·in: time<br />
-setron: towards<br />
setrobuvir: to turn towards<br />
sifavir: melt<br />
sifli·n: woman<br />
siguazovir: marry<br />
silase: soon<br />
silpavir: early<br />
simendan: class (''learning'')<br />
sirpec·in: question<br />
sirpevir: to ask<br />
sita.vir: sad<br />
solmorel·in: Wednesday<br />
sontacavir: to be painful<br />
sontan: pain<br />
sop·in: fish; euphemism for ''soptin''<br />
soptin: (vulgar pejorative)<br />
sorbivir: to post<br />
spacti·n: hunger<br />
spaluvir: busy<br />
spar·in: horse<br />
spid·in: letter (character)<br />
spidex·in: alphabet, writing system<br />
spot·in: food<br />
spoter·in: restaurant<br />
spovir: to eat<br />
sta·vir: same<br />
staponadilin: a gay person<br />
stat·in: quality, trait<br />
stil·in: song<br />
stiloca·vir: to sing<br />
stilofen: singer<br />
sturan: cat<br />
subran: yard<br />
sul·in: eye<br />
sulfan: institution<br />
surnan: vice, sin<br />
suxitin: picture<br />
suxivir: draw<br />
tacivir: happy<br />
talbi·n: bread<br />
tanuvir: to fear<br />
tax·in: book<br />
tazevir: share<br />
tegra·vir: to answer<br />
tenofovir: there is no need<br />
tenovir: there is a need<br />
tepl.in: night<br />
ter·in: house<br />
teravir: knock<br />
tia·vir: abandon, give up (?)<br />
tibavir: come<br />
til·avir: blow<br />
timorel·in: Friday<br />
tipr·in: car<br />
tir·avir: bite<br />
tivozacavir: pronounce<br />
tivozan: sound<br />
tixavir: purple<br />
tixuvir: cry<br />
ton·in: variety, kind<br />
topti.n: bed<br />
-toran: -ism (ideology), theory of...<br />
tosivir: forget<br />
tox·avir: to be right<br />
trabuc·in: magic, incantation<br />
trabuvir: to summon, to conjure<br />
trac·in: island<br />
tric·in: world<br />
trim·avir: make an effort<br />
trips·in: king<br />
trop.in: god<br />
trox·in: snow<br />
tulc·in: worth, value<br />
tupevir: green (natural things)<br />
tur·in: salt<br />
turobuvir: salty<br />
tuxovir: difficult<br />
uld·in: stone<br />
umivir: deep<br />
upl·in: family<br />
ur·avir: to win, to defeat<br />
vacl.in: lid<br />
vactovir: sweet<br />
vadadustat: falteringly (onomatopoeic)<br />
vanc·in: gold<br />
vaptan: method<br />
vari·n: light<br />
vatiran: quinoa<br />
vecrivir: to leave (transitive)<br />
veli·n: noun<br />
veravir: to realize<br />
vesti·n: man<br />
vet.avir: to continue<br />
vexan: sky<br />
vigid·in: spouse (gender neutral)<br />
vipr·in: blood<br />
viquivir: gray<br />
viuzan: zero<br />
vol·in: place<br />
voril·in: pill, pellet<br />
vorivir: to push, to press<br />
vorpan: sword<br />
vul·in: alcoholic drink<br />
zacevir: knock<br />
zanamivir: play<br />
zantupi·n: religion<br />
zardan: oak tree<br />
zef·in: heart<br />
zenat·in: way, path<br />
zenavir: go, walk<br />
zepavir: change<br />
zetovir: to be clear<br />
zinovir: follow<br />
ziruvir: beautiful<br />
zob·in: nose<br />
zocracti·n: birthday<br />
zocravir: give birth<br />
zolof·in: fox<br />
zopi·n: body<br />
zoxi·n: message<br />
zoxibuvir: to notify<br />
zoxil·in: bean<br />
zupsevir: steal<br />
-axovir: perfect tense<br />
-dar: emphatic particle<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
==Dodello-Clofabosin morphemes and native counterparts==<br />
<br />
<poem><br />
-mestan = -orin, ampin<br />
-siban = -fen<br />
-dan/-tan = -cin (the -tan allomorph is used after voiceless C)<br />
-bendan = -cacin<br />
ditan = terin<br />
-poetin = ?<br />
-prazan/-siran/-osuran = -mycin/benzin (mycin is an early Quame loan, from smukʷ-; Naquian ''muqui'' 'house')<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
[[Category:Dictionaries]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Clofabosin&diff=473974
Clofabosin
2025-10-19T08:11:09Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|image = Script_Clofabosin.png<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|nativename = ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ<br/>clofabosin<br />
|pronunciation= 'kl{{den}}ofabosin{{den}}<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin|Tricin]]<br />
|familycolor=isolate<br />
|ancestor=[[Clofabosin/Middle|Middle Clofabosin]]<br />
|scripts=* Clofabian alphabet<br />
|nation=Clofabolocin<br />Dodellia<br />Quelocin<br />
|agency=''Ativa-luxedanasnusulfan'' (ALA)<br />
|notice=IPA<br />
}}<br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|rebotaxin (Lexicon)]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Phrasebook|Phrasebook]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Names|Names]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Periodic table|Periodic table]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Clofabosin|cefspirine clofabosib conacin]]<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' or '''Clofabian''' (English /kloʊˈfæbəsɪn/ ''kloh-FAB-ə-sin''; {{PAGENAME}}: ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꞰⱵΔLꝨИ ''clo·fabo·serotin'' /klofaboˈseɾotin/ 'AUG-river-language', ''clofaboluxedan'' /klofaboˈluksedan/ or simply ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ ''clofabosin'' /'klofabosin/ [ˈkʰlōfábōsì(n)] 'Clofabian [thing]') is a conlang inspired by drug generic names (international nonproprietary names, such as ''sertraline'' for Zoloft). It seeks to answer the question "What if drug names were a language?"<br />
<br />
Clofabosin is an agglutinative, fusional-ish language with a consistently head-final grammar. It is the most prominent language in the Clofabic dialect continuum, which also includes the closely related Asvasiran language. Clofabosin is the official language of [[Verse:Tricin/Clofabolocin|Clofabolocin]] ('Clofabian land') and [[Verse:Tricin/Dodellia|Dodellia]] (Clofabosin: ''dodellocridan'') in [[Verse:Tricin/Etalocin|Etalocin]].<br />
<br />
==Todo==<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/stembook-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=32a51b3c_6&download=true 2018 stem book]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/addendum-stembook2018-202210.pdf?sfvrsn=842c90_3&download=true 2022 addendum]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/prestem_suffixes_202210.pdf?sfvrsn=dbe56fc8_3&download=true 2022 prestems]<br />
<br />
"Rondexan brolifin lominilin relavex zelextranum exequin zepara duropaz limedropan tulanurifin zepara relavex."<br />
<br />
Goal: Duolingo course<br />
* Siafl·in or Siacl·in (from Lushootseed siʔał or siʔaƛ̕) = Seattle<br />
* Dalatin, Ultarin, Flanitin, Ilarnecin, Minarin, Sarnatin, Celefavisin, Cadatin<br />
*platin, poetin<br />
*''clofabosine nibucin futivir'' or ''clofabosin nibustim futivir'' = clofabosin is easy to learn<br />
*classifier ''-fos''<br />
*''-pred'': the entire...<br />
*''-flapon, -filcon''<br />
*''-nefa-''<br />
*''-pamil'': 'full of'<br />
*''-tiazem'': place names<br />
*''-(x)antrone'' (''exantrin'')<br />
*more suffixes: ''-butan, -casan, -fiban, -fentanil, -etanide, -flurane, -ganan, -osuran, -tant, -zotan, -sonan, -xaban'' <-<br />
some of those affixes should be dialectal<br />
* Paliperidin (paliperidone) = a Clofabian religious text made up of poetry (palin = line, peridin = collection)<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
[[File:Clofabian_script.png|thumbnail|Clofabian script|750px]]<br />
<br />
Clofabosin uses a script known as ''ativasabatin'' in Clofabosin, a case-less LTR alphabet, but speakers write in a style of cursive handwriting. It was invented by the lexicographer and poet Ativan Tdap.<br />
<br />
The full letter name is used for declining, and the short form (omit the parenthesized part) is used for spelling out words. The alphabetical order is as follows:<br />
<br />
*X: D (''do'')<br />
*Ⱶ: R (''re'')<br />
*Ŧ: M (''mi'')<br />
*Ꙟ: F (''fa'')<br />
*ᖵ: S (''sol'')<br />
*Π: L (''la'')<br />
*L: T (''ti'')<br />
*Σ: G (''go'')<br />
*H: CH (''che'')<br />
*Ш: P (''pe'')<br />
*И: N (''nar'')<br />
*Ⳙ: V (''vi'')<br />
*Ꝟ: TH (''tha'')<br />
*Ỻ: B (''ba'')<br />
*Ǝ: C (''ce'')<br />
*Џ: Z (''zu'')<br />
*Ɥ: H (''ha'')<br />
*Ꝩ: I (''i'')<br />
*Ʞ: E (''e'')<br />
*Λ: A (''a'')<br />
*Δ: O (''o'')<br />
*Ξ: U (''u'')<br />
*ᒣ: Y (''y'')<br />
*Ɐ: X (''ces'') (a ligature of C and S)<br />
<br />
For sake of aesthetics, in the romanization only personal names are capitalized.<br />
===Alphabet Song (spidexostilin)===<br />
<poem><br />
''Do re mi fa sol la ti,''<br />
''go pe nar vi ba ce zu.''<br />
''I, e, a o u,''<br />
''spidexine nibuzole.''<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
Clofabosin uses a base-12 positional numeral system. The digits are as follows:<br />
<br />
ɔ ı ʎ ɺ ħ ʕ ʑ ɛ ɴ κ ə ʋ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E<br />
<br />
duodecimal point: :<br />
<br />
1728's separator (optional): ·<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
2017 = 1,201dd = ı·ʎɔı<br />
<br />
π = 3.184809493b918...dd = ɺ:ıɴħ·ɴɔк·ħкɺ·кʋı·ɴ...<br />
<br />
==Phonology== <br />
Clofabosin has a small phonemic inventory of 14 consonants and 5 vowels.<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
Stress is weak and word-initial. The pitch rises from the first syllable of a word to the second syllable, as in Tamil; the overall intonation of Standard Clofabosin is Tamil-like.<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 500px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} consonants'''<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! |Labial<br />
! |Dental/Alveolar<br />
! |Velar<br />
! |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/ <br />
|[ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t, th''' /t/<br />
| '''c, ch, k''' /k/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d/<br />
| '''g''' /g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f, ph''' /f/<br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| [x]<br />
| ('''h''' /h/)<br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
|rowspan="2"|'''v''' /v~ʋ~w/<br />
| '''z, (j)''' /z/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Approximant<br />
| '''l, ll''' /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Flap<br />
| <br />
| '''r''' /ɾ/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
*The letter '''x''' is used for the common sequence /ks/. <br />
*'''h''' /h/ occurs only in loanwords.<br />
*'''j''' occurs only in loans and is pronounced identically to '''z'''.<br />
*The spellings '''th, ch''' occur in proper names and loans.<br />
;Notes<br />
*Syllable-initial /p, t, k/ are lightly aspirated like in Japanese. However, they are unaspirated after /s/.<br />
*Word-final /b, d, g/ are devoiced to [p, t{{den}}, k]: ''ustekinumab'' [ustekinumap] 'welcome'.<br />
*/n, t, d, l/ are dental.<br />
*/ɾ/ is normally alveolar [ɾ] or retracted alveolar [ɾ̠], but may be reduced to [ɹ~ɻ] when word-final. It is pronounced as [ʀ~ʁ] in some dialects.<br />
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar in standard Clofabosin.<br />
**/z/ has more dialectal variance: [z ~ dz ~ ʒ ~ dʒ ~ ʐ ~ ɻ ~ j ~ ʝ ~ h].<br />
*[ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.<br />
*/v/ is a labiodental fricative [v] or approximant [ʋ].<br />
**[w] is an allophone of /v/ after velars /k, g/. It is transliterated '''qu, gu''' in this case.<br />
*/k/ is lenited to [x] after /e, o, a, u/ and [ç] after /i/.<br />
*In colloquial speech intervocalic /b/ is often deleted or lenited to [w]: ''clofabosin'' becomes [klofaosi] or [klofawosi]. The ending ''-mab'' is also often pronounced [ma].<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} vowels'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 60px; "|<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i, y''' /i/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /u/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /e/<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
;Notes<br />
*Word-initial syllables traditionally also had vowel length (marked with an underdot under the vowel in dictionaries), not distinguished by most younger speakers.<br />
*/u/ is often slightly fronted or compressed. However, in singing it is always fully back rounded [u].<br />
*/i, u/ are lowered to [ɪ, ʊ] before /ɾ/.<br />
*/e, o/ are mid [e̞, o̞].<br />
*/a/ is central [ä].<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
Clofabosin initial clusters are similar to Latin:<br />
<br />
*XR: pl pr bl br fl fr tr dr cl cr gl gr<br />
*sC: sp st spr (str is very rare)<br />
*Others: x (rare)<br />
<br />
Historically most instances of me- have changed to ma- or mo-.<br />
<br />
==Dialectology==<br />
===Streptomycin accent===<br />
*In the colloquial Streptomycin accent /ɾC/ sequences assimilate into geminates [Cː]: ''riconercept'' [ɾikonekkept] 'goodbye'. /n, t, d/ in this position become apical [ɳ, ʈ, ɖ].<br />
*/z/ may be pronounced [j].<br />
*Final /n/ is often dropped.<br />
===Dodellian accent===<br />
<br />
===Southern Dodellian accent===<br />
*v = [w]<br />
*f = [x]<br />
*z = [ɦ] or dropped entirely<br />
*e o = [ɛ ɔ]<br />
=== "Saigon" accent ==÷<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Clofabian nouns can take one of many case clitics, which are not true suffixes. Suffixes for "cases" other than the nominative and the accusative are attached to the combining form of the noun. Plurals are marked with ''-(a)zin'', ''-(a)z(o)-'' (e.g. ''amp·in'' person, ''ampazin'' 'people'; ''acti·n'' 'day', ''actizin'' 'days'); pluralization is usually reserved for animates, and are never used with numbers or quantifiers.<br />
====Consonant stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''efast·in'' - medicine'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''efast(o)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====i-stems====<br />
Note: Middle Clofabosin -u-in nouns merged with Middle Clofabosin -i-in nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''nepi·n'' - work'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepi(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====u-stems====<br />
-in, -ine, combining forms -in-(V-) and -u-(C-). Merges with i-stems in spoken Clofab.<!--<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''sarin, saru-'' - calamity'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''saru-, sarin-''<br />
|}<br />
--><br />
<br />
====e-stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''torcafen'' - poet'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafen''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafene''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafe(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====a-stems====<br />
Nouns from Asvasiran<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''atazan'' - story'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazan''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazane''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''ataza(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Some noun clitics====<br />
*''-fulven'' = 'until, up to'<br />
*''-setron'' = 'throughout'<br />
*''-cidib'' = 'like the X it is'<br />
*''es-'' = 'only an/the X'<br />
*''-pred'' = 'X and all, the likes of X'<br />
*''-ribin'' = 'a couple of', 'an X or two'<br />
*''-ol, -olol'' = genitive<br />
*''-abine'' = 'in front of, before'<br />
*''-acetam'' = 'behind, after'<br />
*''-anserin'' = 'around'<br />
*''-azepam'' = 'by means of'<br />
*''-ib'' = 'in', 'at'<br />
**Normatively, ''-ib'' is not used with weekdays or months - ''-in'' is used instead.<br />
*''-one'' = 'to'<br />
*''-isant'' = 'from'<br />
*''-ase'' = 'with'<br />
*''aril-'' = 'the only X'<br />
*''-arit'' = 'without', '-less'<br />
*''-adox, -ox'' = benefactive<br />
*''-stat'' = 'like'<br />
*''-ast, -ium'' = 'and'<br />
**Both ''-ase'' and ''-ast'' are commonly shortened to ''-as'' in the spoken language.<br />
*''-conast'' = 'than' (< see-CONJ, "after seeing")<br />
*''-imod'' = emphatic, 'X itself'<br />
*''-coxib'' = 'between'<br />
*''-cogin'' = 'inside, amidst'<br />
*''-imex'' = 'among'<br />
*''-protafib'' = 'about' (lit. "at the tree-trunk of")<br />
*''-nabant'' = 'about, regarding, with respect to'<br />
*''-dutant'' = 'above'<br />
*''-nertant'' = 'below'<br />
*''-pitant'' = 'because of'<br />
*''-lubant'' = 'despite'<br />
*''-tibant'' = 'through, via'<br />
*''-stinel'' = 'on behalf of'<br />
*''-antel'' = 'against'<br />
*''-ampanel/-ampator'' = 'including'<br />
*''-berel'' = 'except'<br />
*''-apsel'' = 'instead of, rather than'<br />
*''-grel, -grelor'' = 'following, according to"<br />
*''-ac'' = 'as'<br />
*''-ibat'' = 'each'<br />
*''-gatran'' = 'thanks to'<br />
*''-estrant'' = 'to the right of'<br />
*''-pafant'' = 'to the left of'<br />
*''-asvir'' = (bookish) 'by means of', used to mark agent in passive sentences<br />
*''-lisib'' = outside<br />
*''-pladib'' = inside<br />
*''-pladone'' = into<br />
*''alfa, -al'': 'X also'<br />
*''-stim'' = translative, becoming X<br />
*''-xantrone'' = near<br />
*''-fusp'' = as X as, used with the equative<br />
*''-ixafor'' = regardless of, no matter, even with<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
*''endin, valin'' = 1st, 2nd person singular.<br />
**It is common to shorten the nominative and accusative forms: ''endin, endine'' > ''en, ene'' and ''valin, valine'' > ''van, vane''.<br />
*''ezin, vazin'' = 1st, 2nd person plural<br />
*''dapsin, -dapsin'' = reflexive pronoun<br />
<br />
====Correlatives====<br />
*''cef-, cesin, cerin'' = this X, this (thing), this (person); colloquially shortened to ''cen'', which also means 'yes'<br />
*''flu-, flusin, flurin'' = that X, that (thing), that (person); colloquially shortened to ''flin''<br />
*''gli-, glisin, glirin'' = what X?, what? who? colloquially shortened to ''glin''<br />
*''cef(pa)stat, flu(pa)stat, gli(pa)stat'' = like this, like that, how<br />
*''cefstavir, flustavir, glistavir'' = is like this, is like that, how is.../what is it like<br />
*''pred-, presin, prerin'' = all X, everything, everyone<br />
*''nal-, nasin, narin'' = many<br />
*''som-, somosin, somorin'' = some<br />
*''vin-, visin, virin'' = few<br />
*''rifa-, rifasin, rifarin'' = another, more, other<br />
*''dex-, dexosin, dexorin'' = any<br />
*''glirtib, glisertib'' = when?<br />
*''certib, cefsertib'' = now<br />
*''flurtib, flusertib'' = then<br />
*''cefib, flufib, glifib'' = here, there, where?<br />
**predicative forms: ''cefivir, flufivir, glifivir''<br />
*''-sin'' and ''-rin'' are used to nominalize genitives and ordinal numbers as well: ''rivasin'' = second (thing), ''rivarin'' = second (person), ''amposin'' = of the person; even the name of the language ''clofabosin'' is derived from this construction<br />
*''cef-'', ''flu-'', and ''gli-'' can be used as object affixes on verbs: for example, ''fluconazole!'' means '(I) saw that!' or '(I) saw that person/thing!'<br />
**''cefpavir, flupavir, glipavir'' = say this, say that, say what<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
====Tense and mood====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} verbs are completely regular and inflect for tense and mood. Subjects may be omitted, as in Japanese and Korean. In tables below, affixes in parentheses denote non-standard or dialectal forms.<br />
<br />
Consonant-stem verbs have the following endings:<br />
*''-avir''<br />
*''-umab''<br />
*''-azole''<br />
For V + b, c, d, g, l, m, n, p, r, s, t + suffix beginning with t:<br />
*''-ptinib, -ctinib, -tinib, -ctinib-, -ltinib, -mtinib, -ntinib, -ptinib, -rtinib, -stinib, -tinib''<br />
*''-ptu-, -ctu-, -tu, -ctu-, -ltu-, -mtu-, -ntu-, -ptu-, -rtu-, -stu-, -tu-''<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! "If" !! "Only if" !! "When" !! "While" !! Conjunctive !! Adverbial !! Resultative !! Optative !! "Because" / Quotative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-(a)zole'' [-(a)zol] || ''-(a)zumab'' || ''-(a)zosartan'', ''-(a)zartan'' || ''-(a)zobactam'' || ''-(a)zosertib'', ''-(a)zertib'', ''-(a)zokalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-sermin'' || ''-(a)zolast'' <br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stat''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stim'', ''-mostim''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(a)mer'' || ''-pirdine'' [-piɾdin]<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-(a)vir'' || ''-(u)mab'', ''-mumab'', ''-momab'', ''-virumab'' || ''-sartan'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-bactam'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-sertib'', ''-kalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-fermin'' || ''-lukast''<br />
|| ''-(a)vudine'', ''-(a)virdine'', ''-fenadine''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tinib'' || ''-vetmab'' [vemab] or [veɾmab] || ''-tisartan'', ''-tartan'' || ''-termin'' ||''-trodast'' || ''-tadine'', ''-tidine'' [-tidin]<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cept'', ''-vircept'' || ''-ximab'', ''-viximab'' || ''-cisartan'', ''-xartan'' || ''-xermin'' || ''-lukast'' || ''-clidine'' [-klidin]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<sup>&dagger;</sup> somewhat high register; connotes "in view of the fact that..."<br />
<br />
The present tense may be optionally inflected for person as follows (though pronouns in the subject force the verb to be in the third person):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Present subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-virenz'' [-viɾens]<br />
|''-viroc''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-virsen''<br />
|''-virine''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-vir''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
(The present tense also has a mirative form, ''-virimat''.)<br />
<br />
Analogously the past tense may be inflected as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Past subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-(a)zolam, -(a)zam''<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|''-(a)zoline''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-(a)zole''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive is used like the infinitive and imperative in other languages (e.g. ''stilocamab!'' 'Sing!'). It can also be used to indicate uncertainty, like "may" or "might".<br />
<br />
Yes-no questions are formed by adding the question particle ''pegol'' to the subjunctive: ''zenazumab pegol?'' (Did he go?). In spoken Clofabosin ''-mab pegol'' is often shortened to ''-mapel'' or ''-pel''. ''Indirect'' yes-no questions use ''-mantine'' instead of ''-mab pegol'': ''endolpane valin spozumantine epamab!'' "Tell me if you ate my apple!"<br />
<br />
Wh-questions are treated like declaratives:<br />
* ''cesin gliserotin(avir)?'' = What language is this?<br />
* ''cesin gliserotina(vir)dine rovavir'' = I know what language this is<br />
<br />
For realis forms (e.g. indicative, attributive, "when", "while", conjunctive), the negative marker is ''-fo-'': ''sabafovir'' 'he does not write'. For irrealis forms (e.g. subjunctive, conditional, optative, verbal noun), the negative marker is ''-tu(mo)-'': ''sabatumab!'', ''sabatumumab!'' or ''sabatumomab!'' means 'Don't write!'<br />
<br />
*'can' (ability) uses ''-tecan'' (inflected as if it were ''-tecavir''; the attributive is ''-taxel'')<br />
**For the related sense "can do X [noun]" or "know how to do X", use ''X atevir'' (dative-stative; cf. Japanese ''dekiru'').<br />
*'must' uses ''-mab tiuxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-matixan''); the subject is put into the dative.<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mab tiuxetanupel?'' or ''-matixapel?''<br />
**''-tumab tiuxetan'' means 'must not'.<br />
*'should' uses ''-mab cituxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-macituxan'' or ''-macixan'')<br />
*'may' (permission) uses ''-mab vedotin'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-mavertin'')<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mavertimpel?'' in spoken Clofabosin<br />
**''-tumab vedotin'' means 'doesn't have to'.<br />
*'is worth' uses ''-xaban''<br />
*'probably' uses ''-mab merpentan''<br />
*'right when' uses ''-fingol'' or ''-zofingol''<br />
*Emphasis or agreement uses ''-toxa-''/''-toxu-'': ''Ene nelcatoxaximab pegol?'' means 'Will he really love me?'<br />
*There is an archaic imperative ''-kinra''.<br />
*"regardless of" uses ''-mab elucaine''.<br />
<br />
The verbal noun uses the suffix ''-cin''/''-kin''/''-kiren''. For negating verbal nouns, ''-tucin'' is used: ''Gositucin guancumavir'' 'Not giving is worse'.<br />
<br />
The desiderative uses the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-prazole'', (-''prozole'', ''-prole'') || ''-prazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-profen'', ''-previr'', (''-provir'') || ''-promab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-protinib'' || ''-provetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-procept'' || ''-proximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''raxin plocaprofen.'' = 'I want to drink water.'<br />
<br />
For "I want [noun]", the verb used depends on the context: for example, "I want a car" is translated as ''fusnan ibuprofen'' ("I want to have a car"), and "I want an apple" is rendered ''olpan spoprofen'' ("I want to eat an apple").<br />
<br />
The desiderative can also be used for ''dative-stative'' (the "logical subject" is in the dative) verbs with 1st person logical subjects: <br />
<br />
*''endone clofabosinatecaprofen.'' = 'I want to be able to speak Clofabosin.'<br />
<br />
Predicate nouns can fill in for both ''cytavir'' (copula) and ''keravir'' (to exist). The predicative is formed by replacing the final -n in the nominative case of a noun with the following suffixes (which can be omitted):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ '''Predicative suffixes'''<br />
|-<br />
! !! Affirmative indicative !! Negative indicative !! Affirmative subjunctive !! Negative subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-nazole'' || ''-fozole'' || ''-nazumab'' || ''-tuzumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-navir'' || ''-fovir'' || ''-numab'' || ''-tumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-natinib'' || ''-fotinib'' || ''-navetmab'' || ''-tuvetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-nercept'', ''-navircept'' || ''-focept'' || ''-naximab'' || ''-tuximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The copular verb ''cytavir'' (often shortened to ''tavir'' in colloquial Clofabosin) may also be used. For example: ''endin voprafenavir'' and ''endin voprafen cytavir'' both mean "I am a teacher". Using ''cytavir'' is necessary when using an oblique case NP as a predicate: ''endin funanetamib cytavir.'' 'I am in my bedroom.' <br />
<br />
The predicative and desiderative suffixes may be fused as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-noprazole'' || ''-noprazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-noprofen'' || ''-nopromab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-noprotinib'' || ''-noprovetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-noprocept'' || ''-noproximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example: ''endin voprafenoprofen'' means "I want to be a teacher".<br />
<br />
====Attributive verbs====<br />
Attributive verbs are used to form relative clauses. They may be formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil'' (''-pidil'') || ''-prozil''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil'' || ''-pril''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril, -til'' || ''-protil''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil'' || ''-pracil''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''clorodil taxin'' means 'a big book'; ''endin drepazil taxin'' means 'the book that I've read'.<br />
<br />
Nominalized attributives have the following forms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil·in'' || ''-prozil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil·in'' || ''-pril·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril·in'' || ''-protil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil·in'' || ''-pracil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Tenseless <br />
| ''-(a)n·in'' || ''-pran·in''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derivational suffixes====<br />
The suffix ''-tin, -t(o)-'' is used as a patientive: ''spovir'' 'eat' → ''spotin'' 'food', ''inosivir'' 'dwell, inhabit' → ''inositin'' 'apartment'<br />
<br />
The suffix ''-(o)cavir'' 'do' may be used to "verb" nouns or borrowed words: for example, ''spuisocavir'' means 'He plays the ''sbwiþ'' (a Talmic plucked instrument with sympathetic strings)'.<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
The suffixes ''-li'' and ''-ca'' are used to form the passive resp. causative forms. (e.g. ''spovir'' 'eat' > ''spolivir'' 'is eaten').<br />
<br />
There is also a less productive causative affix ''-si'', which causes umlaut. (e.g. ''spesivir'' 'to feed' from ''spovir'')<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
*''bol-'' = 'too much'<br />
*''clo-'' = 'very'<br />
*''luta-'' = equative ("as X as"); also a suffective ("sufficiently X")<br />
**"X like Y" uses ''Y-ac (luta-)X''<br />
**"as X as Y" uses ''Y-filcon (luta-)X''<br />
**"X enough for Y" uses ''Y-one luta-X''<br />
*''guan-'' = comparative (optional when there is a comparandum, which is marked with ''-conast'')<br />
*''peg-'' = superlative<br />
<br />
''gadovir'' 'good' has an irregular comparative and superlative: ''adip.avir'' and ''dip.avir''.<br />
<br />
For example, ''Clofabosin tricib pegnibulidil serotinavir.'' means 'Clofabosin is the world's most studied language.'<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
*''-bendavir'' 'to inadvertently X, to end up X-ing, to finish X-ing' (< 'to fall')<br />
*''-conavir'' 'to try X-ing' (< 'to see')<br />
*''-ciclovir'' 'to receive someone's X-ing; to benefit from someone's X-ing' (< 'to receive')<br />
*''-floxavir'' 'to refuse to X'<br />
*''-gosivir'' 'to X for someone' (< 'to give')<br />
*''-nidavir'' 'to X in advance' (< 'to place')<br />
*''-spovir'' 'to X for one's own benefit' (< 'to eat')<br />
*''-codavir'' 'to out-X' (< 'to surpass')<br />
<br />
====Other affixes====<br />
*''-campator'' 'instead of (verb)-ing'<br />
*''-cillin'': 'let alone'<br />
*''-cog'': cohortative<br />
**''Ilocog!'' 'Let's play!'<br />
**''En alfa spocog!'' 'Let me eat it too!'<br />
*''ri-'': 'again, re-'<br />
*''-trexed'': 'the more...'<br />
*''-nesib'': 'by X-ing'<br />
*''-parin'': like -vudine eparin<br />
*''-ro-'' = perfect tense, ''-xi-'' = future in the present/...<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses a base-10 numeral system. For attributive numerals the ''-in'' is replaced with the classifier suffix ''-fos'': for example, ''esin'' becomes ''esofos''. The ''-avir'' suffix is used to build ordinals; -il is also an ordinal suffix but is used in compounds.<br />
<br />
The counting numbers:<br />
*0: ''viuzan''<br />
*1: ''esin'' (inanimate), ''erin'' (animate)<br />
**"first" is ''sulcavir'', ''sulcil''<br />
*2: ''ribin''<br />
*3: ''salin''<br />
*4: ''lopin''<br />
*5: ''orfin''<br />
*6: ''quibin''/''quin''<br />
*7: ''zolin''<br />
*8: ''tixin''<br />
*9: ''vadin''<br />
*10: ''clutin''<br />
*11: ''clutesin''<br />
*12: ''cluribin''<br />
*13: ''clusalin''<br />
*14: ''clulopin''<br />
*15: ''clutorfin''<br />
*16: ''cluquibin''/''cluquin''<br />
*17: ''cluzolin''<br />
*18: ''clutixin''<br />
*19: ''cluvadin''<br />
*20: ''resvin''<br />
*30: ''tebin''<br />
*40: ''prolin''<br />
*50: ''aruzin''<br />
*60: ''quidin''<br />
*70: ''zoledin''<br />
*80: ''tixedin''<br />
*90: ''varedin''<br />
*100: ''sanin''<br />
*1000: ''ictin''<br />
<br />
Short attributive forms: efos, rifos, salfos, lofos, orfos, quifos, zofos, tifos, vafos, clufos<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} is almost completely head-final, and has SOV as the unmarked word order.<br />
<br />
:'''''endol maximaxine nelcavir.'''''<br />
:''I love my grandmother.''<br />
<br />
Conjunctions:<br />
*''beta'' = but<br />
===Existence clauses===<br />
For expressing existence the verb ''kera-'' "to exist" is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''etamib suxitin keravir.'''''<br />
:''There is a picture on the wall.''<br />
===Liking and wanting===<br />
Clofabosin expresses "I like Y" by the construction ''Y dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''olpan dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like apples.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga suki da.'')<br />
<br />
"I like to do Y" can similarly be expressed with ''Y-cin dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''faldicin dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like swimming.''<br />
<br />
For "X likes Y" the construction ''X-NOM Y-ACC dasabuvir'' is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpane dasabuvir.'''''<br />
:''Lunesta likes apples.''<br />
<br />
Similarly for desideratives:<br />
:'''''olpan spoprofen.'''''<br />
:''I want an apple.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga tabetai.'')<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpan spoprobuvir.''<br />
:''Lunesta wants an apple.''<br />
<br />
===Cause clauses===<br />
Cause clauses are formed with the quotative.<br />
===Complement clauses===<br />
Complement clauses ("''that'' + [statement]" in English) are formed using the quotative. The bare quotative is enough when using it with a "quoting" verb such as ''epavir'' 'say' or ''atrivir'' 'believe'. To use the complement clause as a noun ''eparin'', the verbal noun of ''epavir'', is often used: ''Felavudine eparin vocivir.'' 'I don't like the fact that it's cold'.<br />
<br />
===Purpose clauses===<br />
Purpose clauses can be formed with -DESID + -QUOT (''-provudine'' in the present tense and ''-propirdine'' in the past tense). Colloquially -RES (''-stim''/''-mostim'') can be used.<br />
<br />
:'''''drepatine clofabosinaprovudine fumazole.'''''<br />
:''drepa-t-ine clofab-osi-na-pro-vudine fuma-zole''<br />
:read-PAT-ACC Clofabian-ATT.INAN-PRED-DES-PRES.QUOT buy-PAST.IND<br />
:''He bought the book in order to be able to speak Clofabosin.'' (lit. ''... saying "I want to be able to speak Clofabosin"'')<br />
<br />
In the first person -DESID + -CONJ can be used (''-prolukast'' in the present tense and ''-prazolast'' in the past tense).<br />
<br />
===Tense agreement===<br />
Tense agreement states that dependent clauses must have the same tense as the main clause.<br />
<br />
:'''''endozopin obinutu{{blue|zu}}mab, predsertib dirali{{blue|zole}}.'''''<br />
:''So that my body might not be dirty, I always got washed.''<br />
<br />
==Derivational morphology==<br />
*''-bendan'': '-ization'<br />
*''-cavir'': verbs nouns, like Japanese ''suru''<br />
*''bol-, -bol-'': too much<br />
*''-ici·n'': diminutive<br />
*''clo-'': augmentative<br />
*''des-'': apart, dis-<br />
*''-entan'': -liness, -ability<br />
*''-myci·n'': -ability<br />
*''-stat·in'': abstract noun<br />
**''rovastat·in'' 'knowledge' < ''rovavir'' 'be known'<br />
*''-t·in'': patient noun<br />
*''-ax·in'': instrument<br />
*''-st·in'': instrument<br />
*''-fen'': agentive<br />
*''-siban'': agentive<br />
*''-dan'': nominalizer<br />
*''-prazan'': place noun<br />
*''-sulfan'': institutions<br />
*''-fluran'': agentive<br />
*''gado-'': eu-, well<br />
*''mito-'': dys-, mis-<br />
*''-ex·in'': collective<br />
*''-fax·in'': collective (< ''afaxin'' 'forest')<br />
*''iod-/io-'': ur-<br />
*''-triptan'': -ness (degree)<br />
*''-pivir'': adjectivizer<br />
*''-amivir'': full of, frequentative<br />
*''-fravir'': tending to do/be X<br />
*''-luvir'': made of X<br />
*''-vaptan'': method<br />
*''-lesovir'': X-less<br />
*''ar-'': un-<br />
===Compounds===<br />
Compound nouns can be of the form noun+noun or verb+noun.<br />
===Foreign words===<br />
Loaned nouns and names are declined as follows:<br />
*nom: ''Aleve'', ''Lipitor''<br />
*acc: ''Aleve''':ne''''', ''Lipitor''':ine''''' (colloquially ''Lipitor''':e''')<br />
*gen: ''Aleve''':nol''''', ''Lipitor''':ol'''<br />
*"except": ''Aleve''':berel''''', ''Lipitor''':oberel'''''<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Saturday Night Live skit===<br />
...<br />
<br />
''2004-procib rufiporfib cefsulfan "Seasonique" 'dine efastine ceprazole. Flufabine 1997-procib endin cibine ibuzole. Seasonique:one abacamab dapivirenz!''<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
''cefoxitin Tylenol:ine savtuprazanib irinostim minzatinercept!''<br />
<br />
===''cefditoren'' (national anthem of Clofabolocin)===<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''cefditoren'''<br />
<br />
''cefditoren rupalimab,''<br />
''ziruvenin conalimab, ''<br />
''apizanol vactolepin, ''<br />
''boracenol seprabuctan, ''<br />
''soxaplatril pelonosvan, ''<br />
''clorofabol camporaxin, ''<br />
''Picumenol empalocib ''<br />
''predampafib butilimab.''<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''May This ''Ditoren'''''<br />
<br />
May this ''ditoren'' (an instrument) be heard,<br />
The beautiful ''enin'' (a bird) be seen,<br />
The sweetness of the ''apizan'' (a fruit), <br />
The fragrant ''buctan'' (a flower) of the rainforest,<br />
The gentle breezes of the north,<br />
The cooling waters of the Clofabin (the river),<br />
Be felt by every soul in the homeland of Picumen (a historical figure).<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
===Hippocratic Oath===<br />
<br />
''Novartis efafenium GlaxoSmithKline:ium Astrazeneca:nium Amgen:ium pretropazone adrovirenz. fluvolazine conasibastim calukast, atecium bixocogrelor cefadrotium cefsapacium trimavirenz.''<br />
<br />
''endorosnifene cefblisib zocrafestat conalukast; moctib pristinalukast; minzatin tenosartan flurase tazelukast; flurupline dapsoruxizac conalukast uplone cefblisine nibuprosartan minzatine levo sapacine medofolukast nibucalukast; aril-dapsoblosazonium rosnifenol blosazonium cefadrotine demazil derotranazone, enilarbene alfa rebasium predrifastat rosnicine gosivirenz; beta dexrifarazone cefcafovirenz.''<br />
<br />
===Tower of Babel===<br />
<br />
#''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
#''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
#''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
#''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
#''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
#''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
#''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
#''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
#''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
<br />
:''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
:sertib pre-tric-ib amp-az-one esofos luxedan-ium esofos sero-t-ina-zole<br />
:time-LOC all-world-LOC person-PL-DAT one language-and one speak-NOMZ-COP-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
:amp-az-in docel-one distu-sermin, Sinar-ib elca-loc-ine pide-zolast fluf-ib let-azole<br />
:person-PL-NOM east-DAT move-PST.while Shinar-LOC flat-land-ACC find-PST.CONJ there-LOC settle-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
:amp-az-in afer-one epa-zil-in: capl-ine gale-lukast gado-tovaca-cog. fluz-in capl-ine uld-ac epso-zolast cisp-ine braxist-ac epso-zole<br />
:person-PL-NOM each_other-DAT say-PST.ATTR-NOM brick-ACC make-PRES.CONJ well-fire-COHORT that.PL-NOM brick-ACC stone-as use-PST.CONJ tar-ACC cement-CONJ use-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
:cefast epa=zil-in: benz-ine fexo-lukast ceso-pladib vexa-fulven mixi-cil pirol-ine fexo-cog ez-astili-ne rupa-ca-lukast pre-trico-setron amiti-li-tu-cog<br />
:then say-PST.ATTR-NOM city-ACC build-PRES.CONJ that.SG.INAN-inside sky-until rise-FUT.ATTR tower-ACC build-COHORT 1PL-name-ACC hear-CAUS-FUT.CONJ whole-world-throughout scatter-PASS-NEG.IRR-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
:beta trop-in amp-az-in fexo-zil benz-ium pirol-ine carsa-pro-pirdine bini-zole<br />
:but god-NOM person-PL-NOM build-PST.ATTR city-and tower-ACC observe-DES-PST.QUOT descend-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
:trop-in epa-zil-in eso-fos met-in eso-fos luxeda-ne sero-lukast cef-ca-stim draxo-ro-vir cef-kalant fluz-in gli-ca-promab elucaine octa-teca-for-cept<br />
:god-NOM say-PST.ATTR-NOM one-CLF tribe-NOM one-CLF language-ACC speak-PRES.CONJ this-do-RES start-PERF-PRES.IND this-in_view_of that.PL-NOM what-do-DES.PRES.SUBJ regardless_of that.PL-ACC prevent-can-NEG-FUT<br />
<br />
:''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
:bini-lukast flu-luxeda-ne niva-lukast fluz-in afer-ine mavri-tu-mab cacog<br />
:descend-PRES.CONJ their-language-ACC confuse-PRES.CONJ that.PL-NOM each_other-ACC understand-NEG.IRR-SUBJ do-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
:cefast trop-in fluf-isant fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zolast fluz-in benz-ine fexo-cine ido-zole<br />
:then god-NOM there-from that.PL-ACC whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.CONJ that.PL-NOM city-ACC build-VN-ACC stop-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
:cefase flu-benz-one B. epa-tinib cala-n trop-in fluf-ib pre-tric-ol luxeda-ne niva-ro-tidine epar-in fluf-isant trop-in fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zole<br />
:hence that-city-DAT B. say-GNOM.IND reason-NOM god-NOM there-LOC whole-world-GEN language-ACC confuse-PERF-GNOM.QUOT saying-NOM there-from god-NOM whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.IND<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
''tibazolam, conazolam, urazolam.''<br />
<br />
===Qui bibit, sanctus est===<br />
<poem><br />
''plocatrilin certolitinib.''<br />
''certolutrilin surnacafotinib.''<br />
''surnacafotrilin profitinib.''<br />
''cefase plocatrilin profitinib.''<br />
<br />
Qui bibit, dormit;<br />
Qui dormit, non peccat;<br />
Qui non peccat, sanctus est;<br />
Ergo qui bibit, sanctus est.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Hamlet soliloquy===<br />
:'''''moxicin levo moxifloxacin, flusimod frunecin.'''''<br />
:''To be or not to be (lit. to live or to refuse to live), that is the question.''<br />
<br />
===The North Wind and the Sun===<br />
'''''peloclevinast grian'''''<br />
<br />
''peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine cecroxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole. cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole. flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.''<br />
<br />
====Gloss====<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloklevinast gɾian]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM<br />
| translation = The North Wind and the Sun<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine croxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevinast grian afeɾin dapsimot gwanoɾlitidine kɾoksazoseɾtip daxizil pevuksazepam fidozil ilpefen laxufizol]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n afer-in daps-imod guan-orli-tidine croxa-zosertib, daci-zil pevu-st-azepam fido-zil ilpe-fe-n lacufi-zole<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM each_other-NOM self-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT have_an_argument-PST.when warm-PAST.ATTR cover-INSTRUMENT-INST wear-PST.ATTR travel-AGT-NOM run_into-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind and the sun were arguing, each claiming to be the stronger one, when a traveler wearing a warm cloak happened upon the scene.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluɾibin ilpefenol pevuksine sulkip nilpaxazil fluɾin gwanoɾlitidine lepsolizumap sumaxazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-ribin ilpefen-ol pevux-ine sulcib nilpa-ca-zil flur-in guan-orli-tidine lepso-li-zumab sumaca-zole. <br />
| gloss = that-two-NOM traveler-GEN cloak-ACC first take_off-CAUS-PST.ATTR that-NOM COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT consider-PASS-PST.SBJV unite-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The two agreed that the one who first made the traveler take off his cloak should be considered stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevin pɾetkoxsine gɾebimostim olmezol beta olmezaɾtan olmetɾekset ilpefen zopinanseɾin pevuksine gwanfamizol]<br />
| morphemes = Pelo-clevi-n pred-cox-ine grebi-mostim olme-zole beta olm-azartan olme-trexed ilpefe-n zopin-anserin pevux-ine guan-fami-zole.<br />
| gloss = north-wind-NOM all-strength-ACC put_in-RES blow-PST.IND but blow-PST.COND blow-the_more traveler-NOM body-around cloak-ACC more-wrap-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind blew with all his strength, but the more he blew the more did the traveler wrapped his cloak around his body.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole.<br />
|pinyin =<br />
|IPA = [kefoxsitin peloxlevin tiabendazol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-oxit-in pelo-clevi-n tia-benda-zole<br />
| gloss = this-end-NOM north-wind-NOM let_go-end_up-PAST<br />
| translation = In the end, the north wind gave up.<br />
| index =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluseɾtip grian daxizil vaɾine moxazofingol ilpefen pevuksine nilpazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-sertib gria-n daci-zil vari-ne moca-zofingol ilpefe-n pevux-ine nilpa-zole<br />
| gloss = that-when sun-NOM warm-PST.ATTR light-ACC radiate-PST.moment traveler-NOM cloak-ACC take_off-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Then, right when the sun shone out warm light, the traveler took off his cloak.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [flukalant peloxlevin grianimot gwanoɾlitidine stiunizumap kwinulizol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-kalant pelo-clevi-n grian-imod guan-orli-tidine stiuni-zumab quinu-li-zole<br />
| gloss = that-in_view_of north-wind-NOM sun-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT confess-PST.SBJV constrain-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thus the north wind was forced to acknowledge that it was the sun who is stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
''predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib. ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.''<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [pɾedampin zokɾalitril seɾtisant koplitɾodast tulkast pitanabant inflitinip]<br />
| morphemes = pred-amp-in zocra-li-tril sert-imod copli-trodast tulc-ast pita-nabant infli-tinib<br />
| gloss = all-human-NOM give_birth-PASS-GNOM.ATT time-ABL free-GNOM.CONJ worth-and entitlement-regarding equal-GNOM.IND<br />
| translation = All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [ampin ziudiksisant ketiɾizast dapsolopɾitine kiklotɾodast ǀ afeɾon ɾuksinelol temazepam evikovemap tiuksetan]<br />
| morphemes = amp-in ziudix-imod cetiriz-ast dapso-lopri-t-ine ciclo-trodast, afer-one ruxi-nel-ol tem-azepam evico-tumab tiuxetan<br />
| gloss = human-NOM nature-ABL rationality-and self-control-NOMZ-ACC receive-GNOM.CONJ, each_other-DAT brother-love-GEN spirit-PL.INST act-GNOM.SUBJ must<br />
| translation = They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Featured banner===<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefluxedan esertib natalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [kefluksedan eseɾtip natalizol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-lukseda-n e-sert-ib nata-li-zole<br />
| gloss = this-language-NOM one-time-LOC display-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = This language was once featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fedostatium darusentanium epsostogatran, natalizumab procalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fedostatium daɾusentanium epsostogatɾan, natalizumap pɾoxalizol]<br />
| morphemes = fedo-stat-ium darusentan-ium epso-sto-gatɾan, nata-li-zumab proca-li-zole<br />
| gloss = fine-ABS-and realism-and use-INST-thanks_to, display-PASS-PAST.SBJV choose-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thanks to its quality, plausibility and usage features, it was voted to be featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Other resources==<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*]]<br />
[[Category:Clofabic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Tricin]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Clofabosin&diff=473973
Clofabosin
2025-10-19T08:07:01Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|image = Script_Clofabosin.png<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|nativename = ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ<br/>clofabosin<br />
|pronunciation= 'kl{{den}}ofabosin{{den}}<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin|Tricin]]<br />
|familycolor=isolate<br />
|ancestor=[[Clofabosin/Middle|Middle Clofabosin]]<br />
|scripts=* Clofabian alphabet<br />
|nation=Clofabolocin<br />Dodellia<br />Quelocin<br />
|agency=''Ativa-luxedanasnusulfan'' (ALA)<br />
|notice=IPA<br />
}}<br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|rebotaxin (Lexicon)]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Phrasebook|Phrasebook]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Names|Names]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Periodic table|Periodic table]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Clofabosin|cefspirine clofabosib conacin]]<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' or '''Clofabian''' (English /kloʊˈfæbəsɪn/ ''kloh-FAB-ə-sin''; {{PAGENAME}}: ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꞰⱵΔLꝨИ ''clo·fabo·serotin'' /klofaboˈseɾotin/ 'AUG-river-language', ''clofaboluxedan'' /klofaboˈluksedan/ or simply ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ ''clofabosin'' /'klofabosin/ [ˈkʰlōfábōsì(n)] 'Clofabian [thing]') is a conlang inspired by drug generic names (international nonproprietary names, such as ''sertraline'' for Zoloft). It seeks to answer the question "What if drug names were a language?"<br />
<br />
Clofabosin is an agglutinative, fusional-ish language with a consistently head-final grammar. It is the most prominent language in the Clofabic dialect continuum, which also includes the closely related Asvasiran language. Clofabosin is the official language of [[Verse:Tricin/Clofabolocin|Clofabolocin]] ('Clofabian land') and [[Verse:Tricin/Dodellia|Dodellia]] (Clofabosin: ''dodellocridan'') in [[Verse:Tricin/Etalocin|Etalocin]].<br />
<br />
==Todo==<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/stembook-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=32a51b3c_6&download=true 2018 stem book]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/addendum-stembook2018-202210.pdf?sfvrsn=842c90_3&download=true 2022 addendum]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/prestem_suffixes_202210.pdf?sfvrsn=dbe56fc8_3&download=true 2022 prestems]<br />
<br />
"Rondexan brolifin lominilin relavex zelextranum exequin zepara duropaz limedropan tulanurifin zepara relavex."<br />
<br />
Goal: Duolingo course<br />
* Siafl·in or Siacl·in (from Lushootseed siʔał or siʔaƛ̕) = Seattle<br />
* Dalatin, Ultarin, Flanitin, Ilarnecin, Minarin, Sarnatin, Celefavisin, Cadatin<br />
*platin, poetin<br />
*''clofabosine nibucin futivir'' or ''clofabosin nibustim futivir'' = clofabosin is easy to learn<br />
*classifier ''-fos''<br />
*''-pred'': the entire...<br />
*''-flapon, -filcon''<br />
*''-nefa-''<br />
*''-pamil'': 'full of'<br />
*''-tiazem'': place names<br />
*''-(x)antrone'' (''exantrin'')<br />
*more suffixes: ''-butan, -casan, -fiban, -fentanil, -etanide, -flurane, -ganan, -osuran, -tant, -zotan, -sonan, -xaban'' <-<br />
some of those affixes should be dialectal<br />
* Paliperidin (paliperidone) = a Clofabian religious text made up of poetry (palin = line, peridin = collection)<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
[[File:Clofabian_script.png|thumbnail|Clofabian script|750px]]<br />
<br />
Clofabosin uses a script known as ''ativasabatin'' in Clofabosin, a case-less LTR alphabet, but speakers write in a style of cursive handwriting. It was invented by the lexicographer and poet Ativan Tdap.<br />
<br />
The full letter name is used for declining, and the short form (omit the parenthesized part) is used for spelling out words. The alphabetical order is as follows:<br />
<br />
*X: D (''do'')<br />
*Ⱶ: R (''re'')<br />
*Ŧ: M (''mi'')<br />
*Ꙟ: F (''fa'')<br />
*ᖵ: S (''sol'')<br />
*Π: L (''la'')<br />
*L: T (''ti'')<br />
*Σ: G (''go'')<br />
*H: CH (''che'')<br />
*Ш: P (''pe'')<br />
*И: N (''nar'')<br />
*Ⳙ: V (''vi'')<br />
*Ꝟ: TH (''tha'')<br />
*Ỻ: B (''ba'')<br />
*Ǝ: C (''ce'')<br />
*Џ: Z (''zu'')<br />
*Ɥ: H (''ha'')<br />
*Ꝩ: I (''i'')<br />
*Ʞ: E (''e'')<br />
*Λ: A (''a'')<br />
*Δ: O (''o'')<br />
*Ξ: U (''u'')<br />
*ᒣ: Y (''y'')<br />
*Ɐ: X (''ces'') (a ligature of C and S)<br />
<br />
For sake of aesthetics, in the romanization only personal names are capitalized.<br />
===Alphabet Song (spidexostilin)===<br />
<poem><br />
''Do re mi fa sol la ti,''<br />
''go pe nar vi ba ce zu.''<br />
''I, e, a o u,''<br />
''spidexine nibuzole.''<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
Clofabosin uses a base-12 positional numeral system. The digits are as follows:<br />
<br />
ɔ ı ʎ ɺ ħ ʕ ʑ ɛ ɴ κ ə ʋ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E<br />
<br />
duodecimal point: :<br />
<br />
1728's separator (optional): ·<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
2017 = 1,201dd = ı·ʎɔı<br />
<br />
π = 3.184809493b918...dd = ɺ:ıɴħ·ɴɔк·ħкɺ·кʋı·ɴ...<br />
<br />
==Phonology== <br />
Clofabosin has a small phonemic inventory of 14 consonants and 5 vowels.<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
Stress is weak and word-initial. The pitch rises from the first syllable of a word to the second syllable, as in Tamil; the overall intonation of Standard Clofabosin is Tamil-like.<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 500px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} consonants'''<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! |Labial<br />
! |Dental/Alveolar<br />
! |Velar<br />
! |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/ <br />
|[ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t, th''' /t/<br />
| '''c, ch, k''' /k/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d/<br />
| '''g''' /g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f, ph''' /f/<br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| [x]<br />
| ('''h''' /h/)<br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
|rowspan="2"|'''v''' /v~ʋ~w/<br />
| '''z, (j)''' /z/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Approximant<br />
| '''l, ll''' /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Flap<br />
| <br />
| '''r''' /ɾ/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
*The letter '''x''' is used for the common sequence /ks/. <br />
*'''h''' /h/ occurs only in loanwords.<br />
*'''j''' occurs only in loans and is pronounced identically to '''z'''.<br />
*The spellings '''th, ch''' occur in proper names and loans.<br />
;Notes<br />
*Syllable-initial /p, t, k/ are lightly aspirated like in Japanese. However, they are unaspirated after /s/.<br />
*Word-final /b, d, g/ are devoiced to [p, t{{den}}, k]: ''ustekinumab'' [ustekinumap] 'welcome'.<br />
*/n, t, d, l/ are dental.<br />
*/ɾ/ is normally alveolar [ɾ] or retracted alveolar [ɾ̠], but may be reduced to [ɹ~ɻ] when word-final. It is pronounced as [ʀ~ʁ] in some dialects.<br />
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar in standard Clofabosin.<br />
**/z/ has more dialectal variance: [z ~ dz ~ ʒ ~ dʒ ~ ʐ ~ ɻ ~ j ~ ʝ ~ h].<br />
*[ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.<br />
*/v/ is a labiodental fricative [v] or approximant [ʋ].<br />
**[w] is an allophone of /v/ after velars /k, g/. It is transliterated '''qu, gu''' in this case.<br />
*/k/ is lenited to [x] after /e, o, a, u/ and [ç] after /i/.<br />
*In colloquial speech intervocalic /b/ is often deleted or lenited to [w]: ''clofabosin'' becomes [klofaosi] or [klofawosi]. The ending ''-mab'' is also often pronounced [ma].<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} vowels'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 60px; "|<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i, y''' /i/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /u/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /e/<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
;Notes<br />
*Word-initial syllables traditionally also had vowel length (marked with an underdot under the vowel in dictionaries), not distinguished by most younger speakers.<br />
*/u/ is often slightly fronted or compressed. However, in singing it is always fully back rounded [u].<br />
*/i, u/ are lowered to [ɪ, ʊ] before /ɾ/.<br />
*/e, o/ are mid [e̞, o̞].<br />
*/a/ is central [ä].<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
Clofabosin initial clusters are similar to Latin:<br />
<br />
*XR: pl pr bl br fl fr tr dr cl cr gl gr<br />
*sC: sp st spr (str is very rare)<br />
*Others: x (rare)<br />
<br />
Historically most instances of me- have changed to ma- or mo-.<br />
<br />
==Dialectology==<br />
===Streptomycin accent===<br />
*In the colloquial Streptomycin accent /ɾC/ sequences assimilate into geminates [Cː]: ''riconercept'' [ɾikonekkept] 'goodbye'. /n, t, d/ in this position become apical [ɳ, ʈ, ɖ].<br />
*/z/ may be pronounced [j].<br />
*Final /n/ is often dropped.<br />
===Dodellian accent===<br />
<br />
===Southern Dodellian accent===<br />
*v = [w]<br />
*f = [x]<br />
*z = [ɦ] or dropped entirely<br />
*e o = [ɛ ɔ]<br />
=== "Saigon" accent ==÷<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Clofabian nouns can take one of many case clitics, which are not true suffixes. Suffixes for "cases" other than the nominative and the accusative are attached to the combining form of the noun. Plurals are marked with ''-(a)zin'', ''-(a)z(o)-'' (e.g. ''amp·in'' person, ''ampazin'' 'people'; ''acti·n'' 'day', ''actizin'' 'days'); pluralization is usually reserved for animates, and are never used with numbers or quantifiers.<br />
====Consonant stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''efast·in'' - medicine'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''efast(o)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====i-stems====<br />
Note: Middle Clofabosin -u-in nouns merged with Middle Clofabosin -i-in nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''nepi·n'' - work'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepi(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====u-stems====<br />
-in, -ine, combining forms -in-(V-) and -u-(C-). Merges with i-stems in spoken Clofab.<!--<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''sarin, saru-'' - calamity'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''saru-, sarin-''<br />
|}<br />
--><br />
<br />
====e-stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''torcafen'' - poet'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafen''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafene''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafe(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====a-stems====<br />
Nouns from Asvasiran<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''atazan'' - story'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazan''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazane''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''ataza(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Some noun clitics====<br />
*''-fulven'' = 'until, up to'<br />
*''-setron'' = 'throughout'<br />
*''-cidib'' = 'like the X it is'<br />
*''es-'' = 'only an/the X'<br />
*''-pred'' = 'X and all, the likes of X'<br />
*''-ribin'' = 'a couple of', 'an X or two'<br />
*''-ol, -olol'' = genitive<br />
*''-abine'' = 'in front of, before'<br />
*''-acetam'' = 'behind, after'<br />
*''-anserin'' = 'around'<br />
*''-azepam'' = 'by means of'<br />
*''-ib'' = 'in', 'at'<br />
**Normatively, ''-ib'' is not used with weekdays or months - ''-in'' is used instead.<br />
*''-one'' = 'to'<br />
*''-isant'' = 'from'<br />
*''-ase'' = 'with'<br />
*''aril-'' = 'the only X'<br />
*''-arit'' = 'without', '-less'<br />
*''-adox, -ox'' = benefactive<br />
*''-stat'' = 'like'<br />
*''-ast, -ium'' = 'and'<br />
**Both ''-ase'' and ''-ast'' are commonly shortened to ''-as'' in the spoken language.<br />
*''-conast'' = 'than' (< see-CONJ, "after seeing")<br />
*''-imod'' = emphatic, 'X itself'<br />
*''-coxib'' = 'between'<br />
*''-cogin'' = 'inside, amidst'<br />
*''-imex'' = 'among'<br />
*''-protafib'' = 'about' (lit. "at the tree-trunk of")<br />
*''-nabant'' = 'about, regarding, with respect to'<br />
*''-dutant'' = 'above'<br />
*''-nertant'' = 'below'<br />
*''-pitant'' = 'because of'<br />
*''-lubant'' = 'despite'<br />
*''-tibant'' = 'through, via'<br />
*''-stinel'' = 'on behalf of'<br />
*''-antel'' = 'against'<br />
*''-ampanel/-ampator'' = 'including'<br />
*''-berel'' = 'except'<br />
*''-apsel'' = 'instead of, rather than'<br />
*''-grel, -grelor'' = 'following, according to"<br />
*''-ac'' = 'as'<br />
*''-ibat'' = 'each'<br />
*''-gatran'' = 'thanks to'<br />
*''-estrant'' = 'to the right of'<br />
*''-pafant'' = 'to the left of'<br />
*''-asvir'' = (bookish) 'by means of', used to mark agent in passive sentences<br />
*''-lisib'' = outside<br />
*''-pladib'' = inside<br />
*''-pladone'' = into<br />
*''alfa, -al'': 'X also'<br />
*''-stim'' = translative, becoming X<br />
*''-xantrone'' = near<br />
*''-fusp'' = as X as, used with the equative<br />
*''-ixafor'' = regardless of, no matter, even with<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
*''endin, valin'' = 1st, 2nd person singular.<br />
**It is common to shorten the nominative and accusative forms: ''endin, endine'' > ''en, ene'' and ''valin, valine'' > ''van, vane''.<br />
*''ezin, vazin'' = 1st, 2nd person plural<br />
*''dapsin, -dapsin'' = reflexive pronoun<br />
<br />
====Correlatives====<br />
*''cef-, cesin, cerin'' = this X, this (thing), this (person); colloquially shortened to ''cen'', which also means 'yes'<br />
*''flu-, flusin, flurin'' = that X, that (thing), that (person); colloquially shortened to ''flin''<br />
*''gli-, glisin, glirin'' = what X?, what? who? colloquially shortened to ''glin''<br />
*''cef(pa)stat, flu(pa)stat, gli(pa)stat'' = like this, like that, how<br />
*''cefstavir, flustavir, glistavir'' = is like this, is like that, how is.../what is it like<br />
*''pred-, presin, prerin'' = all X, everything, everyone<br />
*''nal-, nasin, narin'' = many<br />
*''som-, somosin, somorin'' = some<br />
*''vin-, visin, virin'' = few<br />
*''rifa-, rifasin, rifarin'' = another, more, other<br />
*''dex-, dexosin, dexorin'' = any<br />
*''glirtib, glisertib'' = when?<br />
*''certib, cefsertib'' = now<br />
*''flurtib, flusertib'' = then<br />
*''cefib, flufib, glifib'' = here, there, where?<br />
**predicative forms: ''cefivir, flufivir, glifivir''<br />
*''-sin'' and ''-rin'' are used to nominalize genitives and ordinal numbers as well: ''rivasin'' = second (thing), ''rivarin'' = second (person), ''amposin'' = of the person; even the name of the language ''clofabosin'' is derived from this construction<br />
*''cef-'', ''flu-'', and ''gli-'' can be used as object affixes on verbs: for example, ''fluconazole!'' means '(I) saw that!' or '(I) saw that person/thing!'<br />
**''cefpavir, flupavir, glipavir'' = say this, say that, say what<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
====Tense and mood====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} verbs are completely regular and inflect for tense and mood. Subjects may be omitted, as in Japanese and Korean. In tables below, affixes in parentheses denote non-standard or dialectal forms.<br />
<br />
Consonant-stem verbs have the following endings:<br />
*''-avir''<br />
*''-umab''<br />
*''-azole''<br />
For V + b, c, d, g, l, m, n, p, r, s, t + suffix beginning with t:<br />
*''-ptinib, -ctinib, -tinib, -ctinib-, -ltinib, -mtinib, -ntinib, -ptinib, -rtinib, -stinib, -tinib''<br />
*''-ptu-, -ctu-, -tu, -ctu-, -ltu-, -mtu-, -ntu-, -ptu-, -rtu-, -stu-, -tu-''<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! "If" !! "Only if" !! "When" !! "While" !! Conjunctive !! Adverbial !! Resultative !! Optative !! "Because" / Quotative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-(a)zole'' [-(a)zol] || ''-(a)zumab'' || ''-(a)zosartan'', ''-(a)zartan'' || ''-(a)zobactam'' || ''-(a)zosertib'', ''-(a)zertib'', ''-(a)zokalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-sermin'' || ''-(a)zolast'' <br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stat''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stim'', ''-mostim''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(a)mer'' || ''-pirdine'' [-piɾdin]<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-(a)vir'' || ''-(u)mab'', ''-mumab'', ''-momab'', ''-virumab'' || ''-sartan'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-bactam'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-sertib'', ''-kalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-fermin'' || ''-lukast''<br />
|| ''-(a)vudine'', ''-(a)virdine'', ''-fenadine''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tinib'' || ''-vetmab'' [vemab] or [veɾmab] || ''-tisartan'', ''-tartan'' || ''-termin'' ||''-trodast'' || ''-tadine'', ''-tidine'' [-tidin]<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cept'', ''-vircept'' || ''-ximab'', ''-viximab'' || ''-cisartan'', ''-xartan'' || ''-xermin'' || ''-lukast'' || ''-clidine'' [-klidin]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<sup>&dagger;</sup> somewhat high register; connotes "in view of the fact that..."<br />
<br />
The present tense may be optionally inflected for person as follows (though pronouns in the subject force the verb to be in the third person):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Present subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-virenz'' [-viɾens]<br />
|''-viroc''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-virsen''<br />
|''-virine''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-vir''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
(The present tense also has a mirative form, ''-virimat''.)<br />
<br />
Analogously the past tense may be inflected as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Past subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-(a)zolam, -(a)zam''<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|''-(a)zoline''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-(a)zole''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive is used like the infinitive and imperative in other languages (e.g. ''stilocamab!'' 'Sing!'). It can also be used to indicate uncertainty, like "may" or "might".<br />
<br />
Yes-no questions are formed by adding the question particle ''pegol'' to the subjunctive: ''zenazumab pegol?'' (Did he go?). In spoken Clofabosin ''-mab pegol'' is often shortened to ''-mapel'' or ''-pel''. ''Indirect'' yes-no questions use ''-mantine'' instead of ''-mab pegol'': ''endolpane valin spomantine epamab!'' "Tell me if you ate my apple!"<br />
<br />
Wh-questions are treated like declaratives:<br />
* ''cesin gliserotin(avir)?'' = What language is this?<br />
* ''cesin gliserotina(vir)dine rovavir'' = I know what language this is<br />
<br />
For realis forms (e.g. indicative, attributive, "when", "while", conjunctive), the negative marker is ''-fo-'': ''sabafovir'' 'he does not write'. For irrealis forms (e.g. subjunctive, conditional, optative, verbal noun), the negative marker is ''-tu(mo)-'': ''sabatumab!'', ''sabatumumab!'' or ''sabatumomab!'' means 'Don't write!'<br />
<br />
*'can' (ability) uses ''-tecan'' (inflected as if it were ''-tecavir''; the attributive is ''-taxel'')<br />
**For the related sense "can do X [noun]" or "know how to do X", use ''X atevir'' (dative-stative; cf. Japanese ''dekiru'').<br />
*'must' uses ''-mab tiuxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-matixan''); the subject is put into the dative.<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mab tiuxetanupel?'' or ''-matixapel?''<br />
**''-tumab tiuxetan'' means 'must not'.<br />
*'should' uses ''-mab cituxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-macituxan'' or ''-macixan'')<br />
*'may' (permission) uses ''-mab vedotin'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-mavertin'')<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mavertimpel?'' in spoken Clofabosin<br />
**''-tumab vedotin'' means 'doesn't have to'.<br />
*'is worth' uses ''-xaban''<br />
*'probably' uses ''-mab merpentan''<br />
*'right when' uses ''-fingol'' or ''-zofingol''<br />
*Emphasis or agreement uses ''-toxa-''/''-toxu-'': ''Ene nelcatoxaximab pegol?'' means 'Will he really love me?'<br />
*There is an archaic imperative ''-kinra''.<br />
*"regardless of" uses ''-mab elucaine''.<br />
<br />
The verbal noun uses the suffix ''-cin''/''-kin''/''-kiren''. For negating verbal nouns, ''-tucin'' is used: ''Gositucin guancumavir'' 'Not giving is worse'.<br />
<br />
The desiderative uses the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-prazole'', (-''prozole'', ''-prole'') || ''-prazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-profen'', ''-previr'', (''-provir'') || ''-promab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-protinib'' || ''-provetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-procept'' || ''-proximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''raxin plocaprofen.'' = 'I want to drink water.'<br />
<br />
For "I want [noun]", the verb used depends on the context: for example, "I want a car" is translated as ''fusnan ibuprofen'' ("I want to have a car"), and "I want an apple" is rendered ''olpan spoprofen'' ("I want to eat an apple").<br />
<br />
The desiderative can also be used for ''dative-stative'' (the "logical subject" is in the dative) verbs with 1st person logical subjects: <br />
<br />
*''endone clofabosinatecaprofen.'' = 'I want to be able to speak Clofabosin.'<br />
<br />
Predicate nouns can fill in for both ''cytavir'' (copula) and ''keravir'' (to exist). The predicative is formed by replacing the final -n in the nominative case of a noun with the following suffixes (which can be omitted):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ '''Predicative suffixes'''<br />
|-<br />
! !! Affirmative indicative !! Negative indicative !! Affirmative subjunctive !! Negative subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-nazole'' || ''-fozole'' || ''-nazumab'' || ''-tuzumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-navir'' || ''-fovir'' || ''-numab'' || ''-tumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-natinib'' || ''-fotinib'' || ''-navetmab'' || ''-tuvetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-nercept'', ''-navircept'' || ''-focept'' || ''-naximab'' || ''-tuximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The copular verb ''cytavir'' (often shortened to ''tavir'' in colloquial Clofabosin) may also be used. For example: ''endin voprafenavir'' and ''endin voprafen cytavir'' both mean "I am a teacher". Using ''cytavir'' is necessary when using an oblique case NP as a predicate: ''endin funanetamib cytavir.'' 'I am in my bedroom.' <br />
<br />
The predicative and desiderative suffixes may be fused as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-noprazole'' || ''-noprazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-noprofen'' || ''-nopromab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-noprotinib'' || ''-noprovetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-noprocept'' || ''-noproximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example: ''endin voprafenoprofen'' means "I want to be a teacher".<br />
<br />
====Attributive verbs====<br />
Attributive verbs are used to form relative clauses. They may be formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil'' (''-pidil'') || ''-prozil''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil'' || ''-pril''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril, -til'' || ''-protil''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil'' || ''-pracil''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''clorodil taxin'' means 'a big book'; ''endin drepazil taxin'' means 'the book that I've read'.<br />
<br />
Nominalized attributives have the following forms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil·in'' || ''-prozil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil·in'' || ''-pril·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril·in'' || ''-protil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil·in'' || ''-pracil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Tenseless <br />
| ''-(a)n·in'' || ''-pran·in''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derivational suffixes====<br />
The suffix ''-tin, -t(o)-'' is used as a patientive: ''spovir'' 'eat' → ''spotin'' 'food', ''inosivir'' 'dwell, inhabit' → ''inositin'' 'apartment'<br />
<br />
The suffix ''-(o)cavir'' 'do' may be used to "verb" nouns or borrowed words: for example, ''spuisocavir'' means 'He plays the ''sbwiþ'' (a Talmic plucked instrument with sympathetic strings)'.<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
The suffixes ''-li'' and ''-ca'' are used to form the passive resp. causative forms. (e.g. ''spovir'' 'eat' > ''spolivir'' 'is eaten').<br />
<br />
There is also a less productive causative affix ''-si'', which causes umlaut. (e.g. ''spesivir'' 'to feed' from ''spovir'')<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
*''bol-'' = 'too much'<br />
*''clo-'' = 'very'<br />
*''luta-'' = equative ("as X as"); also a suffective ("sufficiently X")<br />
**"X like Y" uses ''Y-ac (luta-)X''<br />
**"as X as Y" uses ''Y-filcon (luta-)X''<br />
**"X enough for Y" uses ''Y-one luta-X''<br />
*''guan-'' = comparative (optional when there is a comparandum, which is marked with ''-conast'')<br />
*''peg-'' = superlative<br />
<br />
''gadovir'' 'good' has an irregular comparative and superlative: ''adip.avir'' and ''dip.avir''.<br />
<br />
For example, ''Clofabosin tricib pegnibulidil serotinavir.'' means 'Clofabosin is the world's most studied language.'<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
*''-bendavir'' 'to inadvertently X, to end up X-ing, to finish X-ing' (< 'to fall')<br />
*''-conavir'' 'to try X-ing' (< 'to see')<br />
*''-ciclovir'' 'to receive someone's X-ing; to benefit from someone's X-ing' (< 'to receive')<br />
*''-floxavir'' 'to refuse to X'<br />
*''-gosivir'' 'to X for someone' (< 'to give')<br />
*''-nidavir'' 'to X in advance' (< 'to place')<br />
*''-spovir'' 'to X for one's own benefit' (< 'to eat')<br />
*''-codavir'' 'to out-X' (< 'to surpass')<br />
<br />
====Other affixes====<br />
*''-campator'' 'instead of (verb)-ing'<br />
*''-cillin'': 'let alone'<br />
*''-cog'': cohortative<br />
**''Ilocog!'' 'Let's play!'<br />
**''En alfa spocog!'' 'Let me eat it too!'<br />
*''ri-'': 'again, re-'<br />
*''-trexed'': 'the more...'<br />
*''-nesib'': 'by X-ing'<br />
*''-parin'': like -vudine eparin<br />
*''-ro-'' = perfect tense, ''-xi-'' = future in the present/...<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses a base-10 numeral system. For attributive numerals the ''-in'' is replaced with the classifier suffix ''-fos'': for example, ''esin'' becomes ''esofos''. The ''-avir'' suffix is used to build ordinals; -il is also an ordinal suffix but is used in compounds.<br />
<br />
The counting numbers:<br />
*0: ''viuzan''<br />
*1: ''esin'' (inanimate), ''erin'' (animate)<br />
**"first" is ''sulcavir'', ''sulcil''<br />
*2: ''ribin''<br />
*3: ''salin''<br />
*4: ''lopin''<br />
*5: ''orfin''<br />
*6: ''quibin''/''quin''<br />
*7: ''zolin''<br />
*8: ''tixin''<br />
*9: ''vadin''<br />
*10: ''clutin''<br />
*11: ''clutesin''<br />
*12: ''cluribin''<br />
*13: ''clusalin''<br />
*14: ''clulopin''<br />
*15: ''clutorfin''<br />
*16: ''cluquibin''/''cluquin''<br />
*17: ''cluzolin''<br />
*18: ''clutixin''<br />
*19: ''cluvadin''<br />
*20: ''resvin''<br />
*30: ''tebin''<br />
*40: ''prolin''<br />
*50: ''aruzin''<br />
*60: ''quidin''<br />
*70: ''zoledin''<br />
*80: ''tixedin''<br />
*90: ''varedin''<br />
*100: ''sanin''<br />
*1000: ''ictin''<br />
<br />
Short attributive forms: efos, rifos, salfos, lofos, orfos, quifos, zofos, tifos, vafos, clufos<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} is almost completely head-final, and has SOV as the unmarked word order.<br />
<br />
:'''''endol maximaxine nelcavir.'''''<br />
:''I love my grandmother.''<br />
<br />
Conjunctions:<br />
*''beta'' = but<br />
===Existence clauses===<br />
For expressing existence the verb ''kera-'' "to exist" is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''etamib suxitin keravir.'''''<br />
:''There is a picture on the wall.''<br />
===Liking and wanting===<br />
Clofabosin expresses "I like Y" by the construction ''Y dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''olpan dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like apples.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga suki da.'')<br />
<br />
"I like to do Y" can similarly be expressed with ''Y-cin dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''faldicin dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like swimming.''<br />
<br />
For "X likes Y" the construction ''X-NOM Y-ACC dasabuvir'' is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpane dasabuvir.'''''<br />
:''Lunesta likes apples.''<br />
<br />
Similarly for desideratives:<br />
:'''''olpan spoprofen.'''''<br />
:''I want an apple.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga tabetai.'')<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpan spoprobuvir.''<br />
:''Lunesta wants an apple.''<br />
<br />
===Cause clauses===<br />
Cause clauses are formed with the quotative.<br />
===Complement clauses===<br />
Complement clauses ("''that'' + [statement]" in English) are formed using the quotative. The bare quotative is enough when using it with a "quoting" verb such as ''epavir'' 'say' or ''atrivir'' 'believe'. To use the complement clause as a noun ''eparin'', the verbal noun of ''epavir'', is often used: ''Felavudine eparin vocivir.'' 'I don't like the fact that it's cold'.<br />
<br />
===Purpose clauses===<br />
Purpose clauses can be formed with -DESID + -QUOT (''-provudine'' in the present tense and ''-propirdine'' in the past tense). Colloquially -RES (''-stim''/''-mostim'') can be used.<br />
<br />
:'''''drepatine clofabosinaprovudine fumazole.'''''<br />
:''drepa-t-ine clofab-osi-na-pro-vudine fuma-zole''<br />
:read-PAT-ACC Clofabian-ATT.INAN-PRED-DES-PRES.QUOT buy-PAST.IND<br />
:''He bought the book in order to be able to speak Clofabosin.'' (lit. ''... saying "I want to be able to speak Clofabosin"'')<br />
<br />
In the first person -DESID + -CONJ can be used (''-prolukast'' in the present tense and ''-prazolast'' in the past tense).<br />
<br />
===Tense agreement===<br />
Tense agreement states that dependent clauses must have the same tense as the main clause.<br />
<br />
:'''''endozopin obinutu{{blue|zu}}mab, predsertib dirali{{blue|zole}}.'''''<br />
:''So that my body might not be dirty, I always got washed.''<br />
<br />
==Derivational morphology==<br />
*''-bendan'': '-ization'<br />
*''-cavir'': verbs nouns, like Japanese ''suru''<br />
*''bol-, -bol-'': too much<br />
*''-ici·n'': diminutive<br />
*''clo-'': augmentative<br />
*''des-'': apart, dis-<br />
*''-entan'': -liness, -ability<br />
*''-myci·n'': -ability<br />
*''-stat·in'': abstract noun<br />
**''rovastat·in'' 'knowledge' < ''rovavir'' 'be known'<br />
*''-t·in'': patient noun<br />
*''-ax·in'': instrument<br />
*''-st·in'': instrument<br />
*''-fen'': agentive<br />
*''-siban'': agentive<br />
*''-dan'': nominalizer<br />
*''-prazan'': place noun<br />
*''-sulfan'': institutions<br />
*''-fluran'': agentive<br />
*''gado-'': eu-, well<br />
*''mito-'': dys-, mis-<br />
*''-ex·in'': collective<br />
*''-fax·in'': collective (< ''afaxin'' 'forest')<br />
*''iod-/io-'': ur-<br />
*''-triptan'': -ness (degree)<br />
*''-pivir'': adjectivizer<br />
*''-amivir'': full of, frequentative<br />
*''-fravir'': tending to do/be X<br />
*''-luvir'': made of X<br />
*''-vaptan'': method<br />
*''-lesovir'': X-less<br />
*''ar-'': un-<br />
===Compounds===<br />
Compound nouns can be of the form noun+noun or verb+noun.<br />
===Foreign words===<br />
Loaned nouns and names are declined as follows:<br />
*nom: ''Aleve'', ''Lipitor''<br />
*acc: ''Aleve''':ne''''', ''Lipitor''':ine''''' (colloquially ''Lipitor''':e''')<br />
*gen: ''Aleve''':nol''''', ''Lipitor''':ol'''<br />
*"except": ''Aleve''':berel''''', ''Lipitor''':oberel'''''<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Saturday Night Live skit===<br />
...<br />
<br />
''2004-procib rufiporfib cefsulfan "Seasonique" 'dine efastine ceprazole. Flufabine 1997-procib endin cibine ibuzole. Seasonique:one abacamab dapivirenz!''<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
''cefoxitin Tylenol:ine savtuprazanib irinostim minzatinercept!''<br />
<br />
===''cefditoren'' (national anthem of Clofabolocin)===<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''cefditoren'''<br />
<br />
''cefditoren rupalimab,''<br />
''ziruvenin conalimab, ''<br />
''apizanol vactolepin, ''<br />
''boracenol seprabuctan, ''<br />
''soxaplatril pelonosvan, ''<br />
''clorofabol camporaxin, ''<br />
''Picumenol empalocib ''<br />
''predampafib butilimab.''<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''May This ''Ditoren'''''<br />
<br />
May this ''ditoren'' (an instrument) be heard,<br />
The beautiful ''enin'' (a bird) be seen,<br />
The sweetness of the ''apizan'' (a fruit), <br />
The fragrant ''buctan'' (a flower) of the rainforest,<br />
The gentle breezes of the north,<br />
The cooling waters of the Clofabin (the river),<br />
Be felt by every soul in the homeland of Picumen (a historical figure).<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
===Hippocratic Oath===<br />
<br />
''Novartis efafenium GlaxoSmithKline:ium Astrazeneca:nium Amgen:ium pretropazone adrovirenz. fluvolazine conasibastim calukast, atecium bixocogrelor cefadrotium cefsapacium trimavirenz.''<br />
<br />
''endorosnifene cefblisib zocrafestat conalukast; moctib pristinalukast; minzatin tenosartan flurase tazelukast; flurupline dapsoruxizac conalukast uplone cefblisine nibuprosartan minzatine levo sapacine medofolukast nibucalukast; aril-dapsoblosazonium rosnifenol blosazonium cefadrotine demazil derotranazone, enilarbene alfa rebasium predrifastat rosnicine gosivirenz; beta dexrifarazone cefcafovirenz.''<br />
<br />
===Tower of Babel===<br />
<br />
#''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
#''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
#''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
#''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
#''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
#''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
#''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
#''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
#''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
<br />
:''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
:sertib pre-tric-ib amp-az-one esofos luxedan-ium esofos sero-t-ina-zole<br />
:time-LOC all-world-LOC person-PL-DAT one language-and one speak-NOMZ-COP-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
:amp-az-in docel-one distu-sermin, Sinar-ib elca-loc-ine pide-zolast fluf-ib let-azole<br />
:person-PL-NOM east-DAT move-PST.while Shinar-LOC flat-land-ACC find-PST.CONJ there-LOC settle-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
:amp-az-in afer-one epa-zil-in: capl-ine gale-lukast gado-tovaca-cog. fluz-in capl-ine uld-ac epso-zolast cisp-ine braxist-ac epso-zole<br />
:person-PL-NOM each_other-DAT say-PST.ATTR-NOM brick-ACC make-PRES.CONJ well-fire-COHORT that.PL-NOM brick-ACC stone-as use-PST.CONJ tar-ACC cement-CONJ use-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
:cefast epa=zil-in: benz-ine fexo-lukast ceso-pladib vexa-fulven mixi-cil pirol-ine fexo-cog ez-astili-ne rupa-ca-lukast pre-trico-setron amiti-li-tu-cog<br />
:then say-PST.ATTR-NOM city-ACC build-PRES.CONJ that.SG.INAN-inside sky-until rise-FUT.ATTR tower-ACC build-COHORT 1PL-name-ACC hear-CAUS-FUT.CONJ whole-world-throughout scatter-PASS-NEG.IRR-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
:beta trop-in amp-az-in fexo-zil benz-ium pirol-ine carsa-pro-pirdine bini-zole<br />
:but god-NOM person-PL-NOM build-PST.ATTR city-and tower-ACC observe-DES-PST.QUOT descend-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
:trop-in epa-zil-in eso-fos met-in eso-fos luxeda-ne sero-lukast cef-ca-stim draxo-ro-vir cef-kalant fluz-in gli-ca-promab elucaine octa-teca-for-cept<br />
:god-NOM say-PST.ATTR-NOM one-CLF tribe-NOM one-CLF language-ACC speak-PRES.CONJ this-do-RES start-PERF-PRES.IND this-in_view_of that.PL-NOM what-do-DES.PRES.SUBJ regardless_of that.PL-ACC prevent-can-NEG-FUT<br />
<br />
:''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
:bini-lukast flu-luxeda-ne niva-lukast fluz-in afer-ine mavri-tu-mab cacog<br />
:descend-PRES.CONJ their-language-ACC confuse-PRES.CONJ that.PL-NOM each_other-ACC understand-NEG.IRR-SUBJ do-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
:cefast trop-in fluf-isant fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zolast fluz-in benz-ine fexo-cine ido-zole<br />
:then god-NOM there-from that.PL-ACC whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.CONJ that.PL-NOM city-ACC build-VN-ACC stop-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
:cefase flu-benz-one B. epa-tinib cala-n trop-in fluf-ib pre-tric-ol luxeda-ne niva-ro-tidine epar-in fluf-isant trop-in fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zole<br />
:hence that-city-DAT B. say-GNOM.IND reason-NOM god-NOM there-LOC whole-world-GEN language-ACC confuse-PERF-GNOM.QUOT saying-NOM there-from god-NOM whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.IND<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
''tibazolam, conazolam, urazolam.''<br />
<br />
===Qui bibit, sanctus est===<br />
<poem><br />
''plocatrilin certolitinib.''<br />
''certolutrilin surnacafotinib.''<br />
''surnacafotrilin profitinib.''<br />
''cefase plocatrilin profitinib.''<br />
<br />
Qui bibit, dormit;<br />
Qui dormit, non peccat;<br />
Qui non peccat, sanctus est;<br />
Ergo qui bibit, sanctus est.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Hamlet soliloquy===<br />
:'''''moxicin levo moxifloxacin, flusimod frunecin.'''''<br />
:''To be or not to be (lit. to live or to refuse to live), that is the question.''<br />
<br />
===The North Wind and the Sun===<br />
'''''peloclevinast grian'''''<br />
<br />
''peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine cecroxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole. cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole. flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.''<br />
<br />
====Gloss====<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloklevinast gɾian]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM<br />
| translation = The North Wind and the Sun<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine croxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevinast grian afeɾin dapsimot gwanoɾlitidine kɾoksazoseɾtip daxizil pevuksazepam fidozil ilpefen laxufizol]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n afer-in daps-imod guan-orli-tidine croxa-zosertib, daci-zil pevu-st-azepam fido-zil ilpe-fe-n lacufi-zole<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM each_other-NOM self-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT have_an_argument-PST.when warm-PAST.ATTR cover-INSTRUMENT-INST wear-PST.ATTR travel-AGT-NOM run_into-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind and the sun were arguing, each claiming to be the stronger one, when a traveler wearing a warm cloak happened upon the scene.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluɾibin ilpefenol pevuksine sulkip nilpaxazil fluɾin gwanoɾlitidine lepsolizumap sumaxazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-ribin ilpefen-ol pevux-ine sulcib nilpa-ca-zil flur-in guan-orli-tidine lepso-li-zumab sumaca-zole. <br />
| gloss = that-two-NOM traveler-GEN cloak-ACC first take_off-CAUS-PST.ATTR that-NOM COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT consider-PASS-PST.SBJV unite-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The two agreed that the one who first made the traveler take off his cloak should be considered stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevin pɾetkoxsine gɾebimostim olmezol beta olmezaɾtan olmetɾekset ilpefen zopinanseɾin pevuksine gwanfamizol]<br />
| morphemes = Pelo-clevi-n pred-cox-ine grebi-mostim olme-zole beta olm-azartan olme-trexed ilpefe-n zopin-anserin pevux-ine guan-fami-zole.<br />
| gloss = north-wind-NOM all-strength-ACC put_in-RES blow-PST.IND but blow-PST.COND blow-the_more traveler-NOM body-around cloak-ACC more-wrap-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind blew with all his strength, but the more he blew the more did the traveler wrapped his cloak around his body.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole.<br />
|pinyin =<br />
|IPA = [kefoxsitin peloxlevin tiabendazol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-oxit-in pelo-clevi-n tia-benda-zole<br />
| gloss = this-end-NOM north-wind-NOM let_go-end_up-PAST<br />
| translation = In the end, the north wind gave up.<br />
| index =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluseɾtip grian daxizil vaɾine moxazofingol ilpefen pevuksine nilpazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-sertib gria-n daci-zil vari-ne moca-zofingol ilpefe-n pevux-ine nilpa-zole<br />
| gloss = that-when sun-NOM warm-PST.ATTR light-ACC radiate-PST.moment traveler-NOM cloak-ACC take_off-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Then, right when the sun shone out warm light, the traveler took off his cloak.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [flukalant peloxlevin grianimot gwanoɾlitidine stiunizumap kwinulizol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-kalant pelo-clevi-n grian-imod guan-orli-tidine stiuni-zumab quinu-li-zole<br />
| gloss = that-in_view_of north-wind-NOM sun-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT confess-PST.SBJV constrain-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thus the north wind was forced to acknowledge that it was the sun who is stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
''predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib. ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.''<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [pɾedampin zokɾalitril seɾtisant koplitɾodast tulkast pitanabant inflitinip]<br />
| morphemes = pred-amp-in zocra-li-tril sert-imod copli-trodast tulc-ast pita-nabant infli-tinib<br />
| gloss = all-human-NOM give_birth-PASS-GNOM.ATT time-ABL free-GNOM.CONJ worth-and entitlement-regarding equal-GNOM.IND<br />
| translation = All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [ampin ziudiksisant ketiɾizast dapsolopɾitine kiklotɾodast ǀ afeɾon ɾuksinelol temazepam evikovemap tiuksetan]<br />
| morphemes = amp-in ziudix-imod cetiriz-ast dapso-lopri-t-ine ciclo-trodast, afer-one ruxi-nel-ol tem-azepam evico-tumab tiuxetan<br />
| gloss = human-NOM nature-ABL rationality-and self-control-NOMZ-ACC receive-GNOM.CONJ, each_other-DAT brother-love-GEN spirit-PL.INST act-GNOM.SUBJ must<br />
| translation = They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Featured banner===<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefluxedan esertib natalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [kefluksedan eseɾtip natalizol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-lukseda-n e-sert-ib nata-li-zole<br />
| gloss = this-language-NOM one-time-LOC display-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = This language was once featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fedostatium darusentanium epsostogatran, natalizumab procalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fedostatium daɾusentanium epsostogatɾan, natalizumap pɾoxalizol]<br />
| morphemes = fedo-stat-ium darusentan-ium epso-sto-gatɾan, nata-li-zumab proca-li-zole<br />
| gloss = fine-ABS-and realism-and use-INST-thanks_to, display-PASS-PAST.SBJV choose-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thanks to its quality, plausibility and usage features, it was voted to be featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Other resources==<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*]]<br />
[[Category:Clofabic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Tricin]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]</div>
IlL
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Clofabosin&diff=473972
Clofabosin
2025-10-19T08:02:43Z
<p>IlL: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|image = Script_Clofabosin.png<br />
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]<br />
|name = {{PAGENAME}}<br />
|nativename = ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ<br/>clofabosin<br />
|pronunciation= 'kl{{den}}ofabosin{{den}}<br />
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin|Tricin]]<br />
|familycolor=isolate<br />
|ancestor=[[Clofabosin/Middle|Middle Clofabosin]]<br />
|scripts=* Clofabian alphabet<br />
|nation=Clofabolocin<br />Dodellia<br />Quelocin<br />
|agency=''Ativa-luxedanasnusulfan'' (ALA)<br />
|notice=IPA<br />
}}<br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|rebotaxin (Lexicon)]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]] <br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Phrasebook|Phrasebook]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Names|Names]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Periodic table|Periodic table]]<br/><br />
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Clofabosin|cefspirine clofabosib conacin]]<br />
<br />
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' or '''Clofabian''' (English /kloʊˈfæbəsɪn/ ''kloh-FAB-ə-sin''; {{PAGENAME}}: ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꞰⱵΔLꝨИ ''clo·fabo·serotin'' /klofaboˈseɾotin/ 'AUG-river-language', ''clofaboluxedan'' /klofaboˈluksedan/ or simply ƎΠΔꙞΛỺΔᖵꝨИ ''clofabosin'' /'klofabosin/ [ˈkʰlōfábōsì(n)] 'Clofabian [thing]') is a conlang inspired by drug generic names (international nonproprietary names, such as ''sertraline'' for Zoloft). It seeks to answer the question "What if drug names were a language?"<br />
<br />
Clofabosin is an agglutinative, fusional-ish language with a consistently head-final grammar. It is the most prominent language in the Clofabic dialect continuum, which also includes the closely related Asvasiran language. Clofabosin is the official language of [[Verse:Tricin/Clofabolocin|Clofabolocin]] ('Clofabian land') and [[Verse:Tricin/Dodellia|Dodellia]] (Clofabosin: ''dodellocridan'') in [[Verse:Tricin/Etalocin|Etalocin]].<br />
<br />
==Todo==<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/stembook-2018.pdf?sfvrsn=32a51b3c_6&download=true 2018 stem book]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/addendum-stembook2018-202210.pdf?sfvrsn=842c90_3&download=true 2022 addendum]<br />
<br />
[https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/international-nonproprietary-names-(inn)/prestem_suffixes_202210.pdf?sfvrsn=dbe56fc8_3&download=true 2022 prestems]<br />
<br />
"Rondexan brolifin lominilin relavex zelextranum exequin zepara duropaz limedropan tulanurifin zepara relavex."<br />
<br />
Goal: Duolingo course<br />
* Siafl·in or Siacl·in (from Lushootseed siʔał or siʔaƛ̕) = Seattle<br />
* Dalatin, Ultarin, Flanitin, Ilarnecin, Minarin, Sarnatin, Celefavisin, Cadatin<br />
*platin, poetin<br />
*''clofabosine nibucin futivir'' or ''clofabosin nibustim futivir'' = clofabosin is easy to learn<br />
*classifier ''-fos''<br />
*''-pred'': the entire...<br />
*''-flapon, -filcon''<br />
*''-nefa-''<br />
*''-pamil'': 'full of'<br />
*''-tiazem'': place names<br />
*''-(x)antrone'' (''exantrin'')<br />
*more suffixes: ''-butan, -casan, -fiban, -fentanil, -etanide, -flurane, -ganan, -osuran, -tant, -zotan, -sonan, -xaban'' <-<br />
some of those affixes should be dialectal<br />
* Paliperidin (paliperidone) = a Clofabian religious text made up of poetry (palin = line, peridin = collection)<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
[[File:Clofabian_script.png|thumbnail|Clofabian script|750px]]<br />
<br />
Clofabosin uses a script known as ''ativasabatin'' in Clofabosin, a case-less LTR alphabet, but speakers write in a style of cursive handwriting. It was invented by the lexicographer and poet Ativan Tdap.<br />
<br />
The full letter name is used for declining, and the short form (omit the parenthesized part) is used for spelling out words. The alphabetical order is as follows:<br />
<br />
*X: D (''do'')<br />
*Ⱶ: R (''re'')<br />
*Ŧ: M (''mi'')<br />
*Ꙟ: F (''fa'')<br />
*ᖵ: S (''sol'')<br />
*Π: L (''la'')<br />
*L: T (''ti'')<br />
*Σ: G (''go'')<br />
*H: CH (''che'')<br />
*Ш: P (''pe'')<br />
*И: N (''nar'')<br />
*Ⳙ: V (''vi'')<br />
*Ꝟ: TH (''tha'')<br />
*Ỻ: B (''ba'')<br />
*Ǝ: C (''ce'')<br />
*Џ: Z (''zu'')<br />
*Ɥ: H (''ha'')<br />
*Ꝩ: I (''i'')<br />
*Ʞ: E (''e'')<br />
*Λ: A (''a'')<br />
*Δ: O (''o'')<br />
*Ξ: U (''u'')<br />
*ᒣ: Y (''y'')<br />
*Ɐ: X (''ces'') (a ligature of C and S)<br />
<br />
For sake of aesthetics, in the romanization only personal names are capitalized.<br />
===Alphabet Song (spidexostilin)===<br />
<poem><br />
''Do re mi fa sol la ti,''<br />
''go pe nar vi ba ce zu.''<br />
''I, e, a o u,''<br />
''spidexine nibuzole.''<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
Clofabosin uses a base-12 positional numeral system. The digits are as follows:<br />
<br />
ɔ ı ʎ ɺ ħ ʕ ʑ ɛ ɴ κ ə ʋ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E<br />
<br />
duodecimal point: :<br />
<br />
1728's separator (optional): ·<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
<br />
2017 = 1,201dd = ı·ʎɔı<br />
<br />
π = 3.184809493b918...dd = ɺ:ıɴħ·ɴɔк·ħкɺ·кʋı·ɴ...<br />
<br />
==Phonology== <br />
Clofabosin has a small phonemic inventory of 14 consonants and 5 vowels.<br />
=== Suprasegmentals ===<br />
Stress is weak and word-initial. The pitch rises from the first syllable of a word to the second syllable, as in Tamil; the overall intonation of Standard Clofabosin is Tamil-like.<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 500px; text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} consonants'''<br />
! colspan="2" |<br />
! |Labial<br />
! |Dental/Alveolar<br />
! |Velar<br />
! |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/ <br />
|[ŋ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''p''' /p/<br />
| '''t, th''' /t/<br />
| '''c, ch, k''' /k/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
| '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''d''' /d/<br />
| '''g''' /g/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br />
! |<small>voiceless</small><br />
| '''f, ph''' /f/<br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| [x]<br />
| ('''h''' /h/)<br />
|-<br />
! |<small>voiced</small><br />
|rowspan="2"|'''v''' /v~ʋ~w/<br />
| '''z, (j)''' /z/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Approximant<br />
| '''l, ll''' /l/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Flap<br />
| <br />
| '''r''' /ɾ/<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
*The letter '''x''' is used for the common sequence /ks/. <br />
*'''h''' /h/ occurs only in loanwords.<br />
*'''j''' occurs only in loans and is pronounced identically to '''z'''.<br />
*The spellings '''th, ch''' occur in proper names and loans.<br />
;Notes<br />
*Syllable-initial /p, t, k/ are lightly aspirated like in Japanese. However, they are unaspirated after /s/.<br />
*Word-final /b, d, g/ are devoiced to [p, t{{den}}, k]: ''ustekinumab'' [ustekinumap] 'welcome'.<br />
*/n, t, d, l/ are dental.<br />
*/ɾ/ is normally alveolar [ɾ] or retracted alveolar [ɾ̠], but may be reduced to [ɹ~ɻ] when word-final. It is pronounced as [ʀ~ʁ] in some dialects.<br />
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar in standard Clofabosin.<br />
**/z/ has more dialectal variance: [z ~ dz ~ ʒ ~ dʒ ~ ʐ ~ ɻ ~ j ~ ʝ ~ h].<br />
*[ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.<br />
*/v/ is a labiodental fricative [v] or approximant [ʋ].<br />
**[w] is an allophone of /v/ after velars /k, g/. It is transliterated '''qu, gu''' in this case.<br />
*/k/ is lenited to [x] after /e, o, a, u/ and [ç] after /i/.<br />
*In colloquial speech intervocalic /b/ is often deleted or lenited to [w]: ''clofabosin'' becomes [klofaosi] or [klofawosi]. The ending ''-mab'' is also often pronounced [ma].<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} vowels'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 60px; "|<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 60px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i, y''' /i/<br />
|<br />
| '''u''' /u/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| '''e''' /e/<br />
| <br />
| '''o''' /o/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
;Notes<br />
*Word-initial syllables traditionally also had vowel length (marked with an underdot under the vowel in dictionaries), not distinguished by most younger speakers.<br />
*/u/ is often slightly fronted or compressed. However, in singing it is always fully back rounded [u].<br />
*/i, u/ are lowered to [ɪ, ʊ] before /ɾ/.<br />
*/e, o/ are mid [e̞, o̞].<br />
*/a/ is central [ä].<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
Clofabosin initial clusters are similar to Latin:<br />
<br />
*XR: pl pr bl br fl fr tr dr cl cr gl gr<br />
*sC: sp st spr (str is very rare)<br />
*Others: x (rare)<br />
<br />
Historically most instances of me- have changed to ma- or mo-.<br />
<br />
==Dialectology==<br />
===Streptomycin accent===<br />
*In the colloquial Streptomycin accent /ɾC/ sequences assimilate into geminates [Cː]: ''riconercept'' [ɾikonekkept] 'goodbye'. /n, t, d/ in this position become apical [ɳ, ʈ, ɖ].<br />
*/z/ may be pronounced [j].<br />
*Final /n/ is often dropped.<br />
===Dodellian accent===<br />
<br />
===Southern Dodellian accent===<br />
*v = [w]<br />
*f = [x]<br />
*z = [ɦ] or dropped entirely<br />
*e o = [ɛ ɔ]<br />
=== "Saigon" accent ==÷<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Clofabian nouns can take one of many case clitics, which are not true suffixes. Suffixes for "cases" other than the nominative and the accusative are attached to the combining form of the noun. Plurals are marked with ''-(a)zin'', ''-(a)z(o)-'' (e.g. ''amp·in'' person, ''ampazin'' 'people'; ''acti·n'' 'day', ''actizin'' 'days'); pluralization is usually reserved for animates, and are never used with numbers or quantifiers.<br />
====Consonant stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''efast·in'' - medicine'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''efastine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''efast(o)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====i-stems====<br />
Note: Middle Clofabosin -u-in nouns merged with Middle Clofabosin -i-in nouns.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''nepi·n'' - work'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''nepi(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====u-stems====<br />
-in, -ine, combining forms -in-(V-) and -u-(C-). Merges with i-stems in spoken Clofab.<!--<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''sarin, saru-'' - calamity'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarin''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''sarine''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''saru-, sarin-''<br />
|}<br />
--><br />
<br />
====e-stems====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''torcafen'' - poet'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafen''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafene''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''torcafe(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====a-stems====<br />
Nouns from Asvasiran<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 220px; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3"| '''''atazan'' - story'''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Nominative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazan''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Accusative<br />
|colspan="2"|''atazane''<br />
|-<br />
!scope="row"|Combining form<br />
|colspan="2"|''ataza(n)-''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Some noun clitics====<br />
*''-fulven'' = 'until, up to'<br />
*''-setron'' = 'throughout'<br />
*''-cidib'' = 'like the X it is'<br />
*''es-'' = 'only an/the X'<br />
*''-pred'' = 'X and all, the likes of X'<br />
*''-ribin'' = 'a couple of', 'an X or two'<br />
*''-ol, -olol'' = genitive<br />
*''-abine'' = 'in front of, before'<br />
*''-acetam'' = 'behind, after'<br />
*''-anserin'' = 'around'<br />
*''-azepam'' = 'by means of'<br />
*''-ib'' = 'in', 'at'<br />
**Normatively, ''-ib'' is not used with weekdays or months - ''-in'' is used instead.<br />
*''-one'' = 'to'<br />
*''-isant'' = 'from'<br />
*''-ase'' = 'with'<br />
*''aril-'' = 'the only X'<br />
*''-arit'' = 'without', '-less'<br />
*''-adox, -ox'' = benefactive<br />
*''-stat'' = 'like'<br />
*''-ast, -ium'' = 'and'<br />
**Both ''-ase'' and ''-ast'' are commonly shortened to ''-as'' in the spoken language.<br />
*''-conast'' = 'than' (< see-CONJ, "after seeing")<br />
*''-imod'' = emphatic, 'X itself'<br />
*''-coxib'' = 'between'<br />
*''-cogin'' = 'inside, amidst'<br />
*''-imex'' = 'among'<br />
*''-protafib'' = 'about' (lit. "at the tree-trunk of")<br />
*''-nabant'' = 'about, regarding, with respect to'<br />
*''-dutant'' = 'above'<br />
*''-nertant'' = 'below'<br />
*''-pitant'' = 'because of'<br />
*''-lubant'' = 'despite'<br />
*''-tibant'' = 'through, via'<br />
*''-stinel'' = 'on behalf of'<br />
*''-antel'' = 'against'<br />
*''-ampanel/-ampator'' = 'including'<br />
*''-berel'' = 'except'<br />
*''-apsel'' = 'instead of, rather than'<br />
*''-grel, -grelor'' = 'following, according to"<br />
*''-ac'' = 'as'<br />
*''-ibat'' = 'each'<br />
*''-gatran'' = 'thanks to'<br />
*''-estrant'' = 'to the right of'<br />
*''-pafant'' = 'to the left of'<br />
*''-asvir'' = (bookish) 'by means of', used to mark agent in passive sentences<br />
*''-lisib'' = outside<br />
*''-pladib'' = inside<br />
*''-pladone'' = into<br />
*''alfa, -al'': 'X also'<br />
*''-stim'' = translative, becoming X<br />
*''-xantrone'' = near<br />
*''-fusp'' = as X as, used with the equative<br />
*''-ixafor'' = regardless of, no matter, even with<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal pronouns====<br />
*''endin, valin'' = 1st, 2nd person singular.<br />
**It is common to shorten the nominative and accusative forms: ''endin, endine'' > ''en, ene'' and ''valin, valine'' > ''van, vane''.<br />
*''ezin, vazin'' = 1st, 2nd person plural<br />
*''dapsin, -dapsin'' = reflexive pronoun<br />
<br />
====Correlatives====<br />
*''cef-, cesin, cerin'' = this X, this (thing), this (person); colloquially shortened to ''cen'', which also means 'yes'<br />
*''flu-, flusin, flurin'' = that X, that (thing), that (person); colloquially shortened to ''flin''<br />
*''gli-, glisin, glirin'' = what X?, what? who? colloquially shortened to ''glin''<br />
*''cef(pa)stat, flu(pa)stat, gli(pa)stat'' = like this, like that, how<br />
*''cefstavir, flustavir, glistavir'' = is like this, is like that, how is.../what is it like<br />
*''pred-, presin, prerin'' = all X, everything, everyone<br />
*''nal-, nasin, narin'' = many<br />
*''som-, somosin, somorin'' = some<br />
*''vin-, visin, virin'' = few<br />
*''rifa-, rifasin, rifarin'' = another, more, other<br />
*''dex-, dexosin, dexorin'' = any<br />
*''glirtib, glisertib'' = when?<br />
*''certib, cefsertib'' = now<br />
*''flurtib, flusertib'' = then<br />
*''cefib, flufib, glifib'' = here, there, where?<br />
**predicative forms: ''cefivir, flufivir, glifivir''<br />
*''-sin'' and ''-rin'' are used to nominalize genitives and ordinal numbers as well: ''rivasin'' = second (thing), ''rivarin'' = second (person), ''amposin'' = of the person; even the name of the language ''clofabosin'' is derived from this construction<br />
*''cef-'', ''flu-'', and ''gli-'' can be used as object affixes on verbs: for example, ''fluconazole!'' means '(I) saw that!' or '(I) saw that person/thing!'<br />
**''cefpavir, flupavir, glipavir'' = say this, say that, say what<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
====Tense and mood====<br />
{{PAGENAME}} verbs are completely regular and inflect for tense and mood. Subjects may be omitted, as in Japanese and Korean. In tables below, affixes in parentheses denote non-standard or dialectal forms.<br />
<br />
Consonant-stem verbs have the following endings:<br />
*''-avir''<br />
*''-umab''<br />
*''-azole''<br />
For V + b, c, d, g, l, m, n, p, r, s, t + suffix beginning with t:<br />
*''-ptinib, -ctinib, -tinib, -ctinib-, -ltinib, -mtinib, -ntinib, -ptinib, -rtinib, -stinib, -tinib''<br />
*''-ptu-, -ctu-, -tu, -ctu-, -ltu-, -mtu-, -ntu-, -ptu-, -rtu-, -stu-, -tu-''<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! "If" !! "Only if" !! "When" !! "While" !! Conjunctive !! Adverbial !! Resultative !! Optative !! "Because" / Quotative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-(a)zole'' [-(a)zol] || ''-(a)zumab'' || ''-(a)zosartan'', ''-(a)zartan'' || ''-(a)zobactam'' || ''-(a)zosertib'', ''-(a)zertib'', ''-(a)zokalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-sermin'' || ''-(a)zolast'' <br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stat''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(o)stim'', ''-mostim''<br />
|rowspan="4"| ''-(a)mer'' || ''-pirdine'' [-piɾdin]<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-(a)vir'' || ''-(u)mab'', ''-mumab'', ''-momab'', ''-virumab'' || ''-sartan'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-bactam'' <br />
|rowspan="3"| ''-sertib'', ''-kalant''<sup>&dagger;</sup> || ''-fermin'' || ''-lukast''<br />
|| ''-(a)vudine'', ''-(a)virdine'', ''-fenadine''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tinib'' || ''-vetmab'' [vemab] or [veɾmab] || ''-tisartan'', ''-tartan'' || ''-termin'' ||''-trodast'' || ''-tadine'', ''-tidine'' [-tidin]<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cept'', ''-vircept'' || ''-ximab'', ''-viximab'' || ''-cisartan'', ''-xartan'' || ''-xermin'' || ''-lukast'' || ''-clidine'' [-klidin]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<sup>&dagger;</sup> somewhat high register; connotes "in view of the fact that..."<br />
<br />
The present tense may be optionally inflected for person as follows (though pronouns in the subject force the verb to be in the third person):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Present subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-virenz'' [-viɾens]<br />
|''-viroc''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-virsen''<br />
|''-virine''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-vir''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
(The present tense also has a mirative form, ''-virimat''.)<br />
<br />
Analogously the past tense may be inflected as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="3" | Past subject affixes<br />
|-<br />
!|<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular<br />
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!|1<br />
|''-(a)zolam, -(a)zam''<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|-<br />
!|2<br />
|''-(a)zole''<br />
|''-(a)zoline''<br />
|-<br />
!|3<br />
|colspan="2"|''-(a)zole''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The subjunctive is used like the infinitive and imperative in other languages (e.g. ''stilocamab!'' 'Sing!'). It can also be used to indicate uncertainty, like "may" or "might".<br />
<br />
Yes-no questions are formed by adding the question particle ''pegol'' to the subjunctive: ''zenazumab pegol?'' (Did he go?). In spoken Clofabosin ''-mab pegol'' is often shortened to ''-mapel'' or ''-pel''. ''Indirect'' yes-no questions use ''-mantine'' instead of ''-mab pegol'': ''valin endolpane spomantine epamab!'' "Tell me if you ate my apple!"<br />
<br />
Wh-questions are treated like declaratives:<br />
* ''cesin gliserotin(avir)?'' = What language is this?<br />
* ''cesin gliserotina(vir)dine rovavir'' = I know what language this is<br />
<br />
For realis forms (e.g. indicative, attributive, "when", "while", conjunctive), the negative marker is ''-fo-'': ''sabafovir'' 'he does not write'. For irrealis forms (e.g. subjunctive, conditional, optative, verbal noun), the negative marker is ''-tu(mo)-'': ''sabatumab!'', ''sabatumumab!'' or ''sabatumomab!'' means 'Don't write!'<br />
<br />
*'can' (ability) uses ''-tecan'' (inflected as if it were ''-tecavir''; the attributive is ''-taxel'')<br />
**For the related sense "can do X [noun]" or "know how to do X", use ''X atevir'' (dative-stative; cf. Japanese ''dekiru'').<br />
*'must' uses ''-mab tiuxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-matixan''); the subject is put into the dative.<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mab tiuxetanupel?'' or ''-matixapel?''<br />
**''-tumab tiuxetan'' means 'must not'.<br />
*'should' uses ''-mab cituxetan'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-macituxan'' or ''-macixan'')<br />
*'may' (permission) uses ''-mab vedotin'' (spoken Clofabosin: ''-mavertin'')<br />
**Interrogative: usually ''-mavertimpel?'' in spoken Clofabosin<br />
**''-tumab vedotin'' means 'doesn't have to'.<br />
*'is worth' uses ''-xaban''<br />
*'probably' uses ''-mab merpentan''<br />
*'right when' uses ''-fingol'' or ''-zofingol''<br />
*Emphasis or agreement uses ''-toxa-''/''-toxu-'': ''Ene nelcatoxaximab pegol?'' means 'Will he really love me?'<br />
*There is an archaic imperative ''-kinra''.<br />
*"regardless of" uses ''-mab elucaine''.<br />
<br />
The verbal noun uses the suffix ''-cin''/''-kin''/''-kiren''. For negating verbal nouns, ''-tucin'' is used: ''Gositucin guancumavir'' 'Not giving is worse'.<br />
<br />
The desiderative uses the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-prazole'', (-''prozole'', ''-prole'') || ''-prazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-profen'', ''-previr'', (''-provir'') || ''-promab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-protinib'' || ''-provetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-procept'' || ''-proximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''raxin plocaprofen.'' = 'I want to drink water.'<br />
<br />
For "I want [noun]", the verb used depends on the context: for example, "I want a car" is translated as ''fusnan ibuprofen'' ("I want to have a car"), and "I want an apple" is rendered ''olpan spoprofen'' ("I want to eat an apple").<br />
<br />
The desiderative can also be used for ''dative-stative'' (the "logical subject" is in the dative) verbs with 1st person logical subjects: <br />
<br />
*''endone clofabosinatecaprofen.'' = 'I want to be able to speak Clofabosin.'<br />
<br />
Predicate nouns can fill in for both ''cytavir'' (copula) and ''keravir'' (to exist). The predicative is formed by replacing the final -n in the nominative case of a noun with the following suffixes (which can be omitted):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ '''Predicative suffixes'''<br />
|-<br />
! !! Affirmative indicative !! Negative indicative !! Affirmative subjunctive !! Negative subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-nazole'' || ''-fozole'' || ''-nazumab'' || ''-tuzumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-navir'' || ''-fovir'' || ''-numab'' || ''-tumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-natinib'' || ''-fotinib'' || ''-navetmab'' || ''-tuvetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-nercept'', ''-navircept'' || ''-focept'' || ''-naximab'' || ''-tuximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The copular verb ''cytavir'' (often shortened to ''tavir'' in colloquial Clofabosin) may also be used. For example: ''endin voprafenavir'' and ''endin voprafen cytavir'' both mean "I am a teacher". Using ''cytavir'' is necessary when using an oblique case NP as a predicate: ''endin funanetamib cytavir.'' 'I am in my bedroom.' <br />
<br />
The predicative and desiderative suffixes may be fused as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Subjunctive<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-noprazole'' || ''-noprazumab''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-noprofen'' || ''-nopromab''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-noprotinib'' || ''-noprovetmab''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-noprocept'' || ''-noproximab''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example: ''endin voprafenoprofen'' means "I want to be a teacher".<br />
<br />
====Attributive verbs====<br />
Attributive verbs are used to form relative clauses. They may be formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil'' (''-pidil'') || ''-prozil''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil'' || ''-pril''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril, -til'' || ''-protil''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil'' || ''-pracil''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For example, ''clorodil taxin'' means 'a big book'; ''endin drepazil taxin'' means 'the book that I've read'.<br />
<br />
Nominalized attributives have the following forms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Indicative !! Desiderative<br />
|-<br />
! Past <br />
| ''-zil·in'' || ''-prozil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Present <br />
| ''-dil·in'' || ''-pril·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Timeless <br />
| ''-tril·in'' || ''-protil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Future <br />
| ''-cil·in'' || ''-pracil·in''<br />
|-<br />
! Tenseless <br />
| ''-(a)n·in'' || ''-pran·in''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Derivational suffixes====<br />
The suffix ''-tin, -t(o)-'' is used as a patientive: ''spovir'' 'eat' → ''spotin'' 'food', ''inosivir'' 'dwell, inhabit' → ''inositin'' 'apartment'<br />
<br />
The suffix ''-(o)cavir'' 'do' may be used to "verb" nouns or borrowed words: for example, ''spuisocavir'' means 'He plays the ''sbwiþ'' (a Talmic plucked instrument with sympathetic strings)'.<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
The suffixes ''-li'' and ''-ca'' are used to form the passive resp. causative forms. (e.g. ''spovir'' 'eat' > ''spolivir'' 'is eaten').<br />
<br />
There is also a less productive causative affix ''-si'', which causes umlaut. (e.g. ''spesivir'' 'to feed' from ''spovir'')<br />
<br />
====Degree====<br />
*''bol-'' = 'too much'<br />
*''clo-'' = 'very'<br />
*''luta-'' = equative ("as X as"); also a suffective ("sufficiently X")<br />
**"X like Y" uses ''Y-ac (luta-)X''<br />
**"as X as Y" uses ''Y-filcon (luta-)X''<br />
**"X enough for Y" uses ''Y-one luta-X''<br />
*''guan-'' = comparative (optional when there is a comparandum, which is marked with ''-conast'')<br />
*''peg-'' = superlative<br />
<br />
''gadovir'' 'good' has an irregular comparative and superlative: ''adip.avir'' and ''dip.avir''.<br />
<br />
For example, ''Clofabosin tricib pegnibulidil serotinavir.'' means 'Clofabosin is the world's most studied language.'<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
*''-bendavir'' 'to inadvertently X, to end up X-ing, to finish X-ing' (< 'to fall')<br />
*''-conavir'' 'to try X-ing' (< 'to see')<br />
*''-ciclovir'' 'to receive someone's X-ing; to benefit from someone's X-ing' (< 'to receive')<br />
*''-floxavir'' 'to refuse to X'<br />
*''-gosivir'' 'to X for someone' (< 'to give')<br />
*''-nidavir'' 'to X in advance' (< 'to place')<br />
*''-spovir'' 'to X for one's own benefit' (< 'to eat')<br />
*''-codavir'' 'to out-X' (< 'to surpass')<br />
<br />
====Other affixes====<br />
*''-campator'' 'instead of (verb)-ing'<br />
*''-cillin'': 'let alone'<br />
*''-cog'': cohortative<br />
**''Ilocog!'' 'Let's play!'<br />
**''En alfa spocog!'' 'Let me eat it too!'<br />
*''ri-'': 'again, re-'<br />
*''-trexed'': 'the more...'<br />
*''-nesib'': 'by X-ing'<br />
*''-parin'': like -vudine eparin<br />
*''-ro-'' = perfect tense, ''-xi-'' = future in the present/...<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{{PAGENAME}} uses a base-10 numeral system. For attributive numerals the ''-in'' is replaced with the classifier suffix ''-fos'': for example, ''esin'' becomes ''esofos''. The ''-avir'' suffix is used to build ordinals; -il is also an ordinal suffix but is used in compounds.<br />
<br />
The counting numbers:<br />
*0: ''viuzan''<br />
*1: ''esin'' (inanimate), ''erin'' (animate)<br />
**"first" is ''sulcavir'', ''sulcil''<br />
*2: ''ribin''<br />
*3: ''salin''<br />
*4: ''lopin''<br />
*5: ''orfin''<br />
*6: ''quibin''/''quin''<br />
*7: ''zolin''<br />
*8: ''tixin''<br />
*9: ''vadin''<br />
*10: ''clutin''<br />
*11: ''clutesin''<br />
*12: ''cluribin''<br />
*13: ''clusalin''<br />
*14: ''clulopin''<br />
*15: ''clutorfin''<br />
*16: ''cluquibin''/''cluquin''<br />
*17: ''cluzolin''<br />
*18: ''clutixin''<br />
*19: ''cluvadin''<br />
*20: ''resvin''<br />
*30: ''tebin''<br />
*40: ''prolin''<br />
*50: ''aruzin''<br />
*60: ''quidin''<br />
*70: ''zoledin''<br />
*80: ''tixedin''<br />
*90: ''varedin''<br />
*100: ''sanin''<br />
*1000: ''ictin''<br />
<br />
Short attributive forms: efos, rifos, salfos, lofos, orfos, quifos, zofos, tifos, vafos, clufos<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
{{PAGENAME}} is almost completely head-final, and has SOV as the unmarked word order.<br />
<br />
:'''''endol maximaxine nelcavir.'''''<br />
:''I love my grandmother.''<br />
<br />
Conjunctions:<br />
*''beta'' = but<br />
===Existence clauses===<br />
For expressing existence the verb ''kera-'' "to exist" is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''etamib suxitin keravir.'''''<br />
:''There is a picture on the wall.''<br />
===Liking and wanting===<br />
Clofabosin expresses "I like Y" by the construction ''Y dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''olpan dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like apples.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga suki da.'')<br />
<br />
"I like to do Y" can similarly be expressed with ''Y-cin dasavir''.<br />
<br />
:'''''faldicin dasavir.'''''<br />
:''I like swimming.''<br />
<br />
For "X likes Y" the construction ''X-NOM Y-ACC dasabuvir'' is used.<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpane dasabuvir.'''''<br />
:''Lunesta likes apples.''<br />
<br />
Similarly for desideratives:<br />
:'''''olpan spoprofen.'''''<br />
:''I want an apple.'' (cf. Japanese ''Ringo ga tabetai.'')<br />
<br />
:'''''Lunesta olpan spoprobuvir.''<br />
:''Lunesta wants an apple.''<br />
<br />
===Cause clauses===<br />
Cause clauses are formed with the quotative.<br />
===Complement clauses===<br />
Complement clauses ("''that'' + [statement]" in English) are formed using the quotative. The bare quotative is enough when using it with a "quoting" verb such as ''epavir'' 'say' or ''atrivir'' 'believe'. To use the complement clause as a noun ''eparin'', the verbal noun of ''epavir'', is often used: ''Felavudine eparin vocivir.'' 'I don't like the fact that it's cold'.<br />
<br />
===Purpose clauses===<br />
Purpose clauses can be formed with -DESID + -QUOT (''-provudine'' in the present tense and ''-propirdine'' in the past tense). Colloquially -RES (''-stim''/''-mostim'') can be used.<br />
<br />
:'''''drepatine clofabosinaprovudine fumazole.'''''<br />
:''drepa-t-ine clofab-osi-na-pro-vudine fuma-zole''<br />
:read-PAT-ACC Clofabian-ATT.INAN-PRED-DES-PRES.QUOT buy-PAST.IND<br />
:''He bought the book in order to be able to speak Clofabosin.'' (lit. ''... saying "I want to be able to speak Clofabosin"'')<br />
<br />
In the first person -DESID + -CONJ can be used (''-prolukast'' in the present tense and ''-prazolast'' in the past tense).<br />
<br />
===Tense agreement===<br />
Tense agreement states that dependent clauses must have the same tense as the main clause.<br />
<br />
:'''''endozopin obinutu{{blue|zu}}mab, predsertib dirali{{blue|zole}}.'''''<br />
:''So that my body might not be dirty, I always got washed.''<br />
<br />
==Derivational morphology==<br />
*''-bendan'': '-ization'<br />
*''-cavir'': verbs nouns, like Japanese ''suru''<br />
*''bol-, -bol-'': too much<br />
*''-ici·n'': diminutive<br />
*''clo-'': augmentative<br />
*''des-'': apart, dis-<br />
*''-entan'': -liness, -ability<br />
*''-myci·n'': -ability<br />
*''-stat·in'': abstract noun<br />
**''rovastat·in'' 'knowledge' < ''rovavir'' 'be known'<br />
*''-t·in'': patient noun<br />
*''-ax·in'': instrument<br />
*''-st·in'': instrument<br />
*''-fen'': agentive<br />
*''-siban'': agentive<br />
*''-dan'': nominalizer<br />
*''-prazan'': place noun<br />
*''-sulfan'': institutions<br />
*''-fluran'': agentive<br />
*''gado-'': eu-, well<br />
*''mito-'': dys-, mis-<br />
*''-ex·in'': collective<br />
*''-fax·in'': collective (< ''afaxin'' 'forest')<br />
*''iod-/io-'': ur-<br />
*''-triptan'': -ness (degree)<br />
*''-pivir'': adjectivizer<br />
*''-amivir'': full of, frequentative<br />
*''-fravir'': tending to do/be X<br />
*''-luvir'': made of X<br />
*''-vaptan'': method<br />
*''-lesovir'': X-less<br />
*''ar-'': un-<br />
===Compounds===<br />
Compound nouns can be of the form noun+noun or verb+noun.<br />
===Foreign words===<br />
Loaned nouns and names are declined as follows:<br />
*nom: ''Aleve'', ''Lipitor''<br />
*acc: ''Aleve''':ne''''', ''Lipitor''':ine''''' (colloquially ''Lipitor''':e''')<br />
*gen: ''Aleve''':nol''''', ''Lipitor''':ol'''<br />
*"except": ''Aleve''':berel''''', ''Lipitor''':oberel'''''<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===Saturday Night Live skit===<br />
...<br />
<br />
''2004-procib rufiporfib cefsulfan "Seasonique" 'dine efastine ceprazole. Flufabine 1997-procib endin cibine ibuzole. Seasonique:one abacamab dapivirenz!''<br />
<br />
...<br />
<br />
''cefoxitin Tylenol:ine savtuprazanib irinostim minzatinercept!''<br />
<br />
===''cefditoren'' (national anthem of Clofabolocin)===<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''cefditoren'''<br />
<br />
''cefditoren rupalimab,''<br />
''ziruvenin conalimab, ''<br />
''apizanol vactolepin, ''<br />
''boracenol seprabuctan, ''<br />
''soxaplatril pelonosvan, ''<br />
''clorofabol camporaxin, ''<br />
''Picumenol empalocib ''<br />
''predampafib butilimab.''<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-break}}<br />
<poem><br />
'''May This ''Ditoren'''''<br />
<br />
May this ''ditoren'' (an instrument) be heard,<br />
The beautiful ''enin'' (a bird) be seen,<br />
The sweetness of the ''apizan'' (a fruit), <br />
The fragrant ''buctan'' (a flower) of the rainforest,<br />
The gentle breezes of the north,<br />
The cooling waters of the Clofabin (the river),<br />
Be felt by every soul in the homeland of Picumen (a historical figure).<br />
</poem><br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
===Hippocratic Oath===<br />
<br />
''Novartis efafenium GlaxoSmithKline:ium Astrazeneca:nium Amgen:ium pretropazone adrovirenz. fluvolazine conasibastim calukast, atecium bixocogrelor cefadrotium cefsapacium trimavirenz.''<br />
<br />
''endorosnifene cefblisib zocrafestat conalukast; moctib pristinalukast; minzatin tenosartan flurase tazelukast; flurupline dapsoruxizac conalukast uplone cefblisine nibuprosartan minzatine levo sapacine medofolukast nibucalukast; aril-dapsoblosazonium rosnifenol blosazonium cefadrotine demazil derotranazone, enilarbene alfa rebasium predrifastat rosnicine gosivirenz; beta dexrifarazone cefcafovirenz.''<br />
<br />
===Tower of Babel===<br />
<br />
#''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
#''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
#''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
#''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
#''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
#''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
#''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
#''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
#''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
<br />
:''sertib pretricib ampazone esofos luxedanium esofos serotinazole.''<br />
:sertib pre-tric-ib amp-az-one esofos luxedan-ium esofos sero-t-ina-zole<br />
:time-LOC all-world-LOC person-PL-DAT one language-and one speak-NOMZ-COP-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin docelone distusermin, Sinar:ib elcalocine pidezolast flufib letazole.''<br />
:amp-az-in docel-one distu-sermin, Sinar-ib elca-loc-ine pide-zolast fluf-ib let-azole<br />
:person-PL-NOM east-DAT move-PST.while Shinar-LOC flat-land-ACC find-PST.CONJ there-LOC settle-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''ampazin aferone epazilin: "capline galelukast gadotovacacog." fluzin capline uldac epsozolast cispine braxistac epsozole.''<br />
:amp-az-in afer-one epa-zil-in: capl-ine gale-lukast gado-tovaca-cog. fluz-in capl-ine uld-ac epso-zolast cisp-ine braxist-ac epso-zole<br />
:person-PL-NOM each_other-DAT say-PST.ATTR-NOM brick-ACC make-PRES.CONJ well-fire-COHORT that.PL-NOM brick-ACC stone-as use-PST.CONJ tar-ACC cement-CONJ use-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefast epazilin: "benzine fexolukast cesopladib vexafulven mixicil piroline fexocog. ezastiline rupacalukast pretricosetron amitilitucog."''<br />
:cefast epa=zil-in: benz-ine fexo-lukast ceso-pladib vexa-fulven mixi-cil pirol-ine fexo-cog ez-astili-ne rupa-ca-lukast pre-trico-setron amiti-li-tu-cog<br />
:then say-PST.ATTR-NOM city-ACC build-PRES.CONJ that.SG.INAN-inside sky-until rise-FUT.ATTR tower-ACC build-COHORT 1PL-name-ACC hear-CAUS-FUT.CONJ whole-world-throughout scatter-PASS-NEG.IRR-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''beta tropin ampazin fexozil benzium piroline carsapropirdine binizole.''<br />
:beta trop-in amp-az-in fexo-zil benz-ium pirol-ine carsa-pro-pirdine bini-zole<br />
:but god-NOM person-PL-NOM build-PST.ATTR city-and tower-ACC observe-DES-PST.QUOT descend-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''tropin epazilin: "esofos metin esofos luxedane serolukast cefcastim draxorovir. cefkalant fluzin glicapromab elucaine octatecaforcept."''<br />
:trop-in epa-zil-in eso-fos met-in eso-fos luxeda-ne sero-lukast cef-ca-stim draxo-ro-vir cef-kalant fluz-in gli-ca-promab elucaine octa-teca-for-cept<br />
:god-NOM say-PST.ATTR-NOM one-CLF tribe-NOM one-CLF language-ACC speak-PRES.CONJ this-do-RES start-PERF-PRES.IND this-in_view_of that.PL-NOM what-do-DES.PRES.SUBJ regardless_of that.PL-ACC prevent-can-NEG-FUT<br />
<br />
:''binilukast fluluxedane nivalukast, fluzin aferine mavritumab cacog."''<br />
:bini-lukast flu-luxeda-ne niva-lukast fluz-in afer-ine mavri-tu-mab cacog<br />
:descend-PRES.CONJ their-language-ACC confuse-PRES.CONJ that.PL-NOM each_other-ACC understand-NEG.IRR-SUBJ do-COHORT<br />
<br />
:''cefast tropin flufisant fluzine pretricosetron amitizolast, fluzin benzine fexocine idozole.''<br />
:cefast trop-in fluf-isant fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zolast fluz-in benz-ine fexo-cine ido-zole<br />
:then god-NOM there-from that.PL-ACC whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.CONJ that.PL-NOM city-ACC build-VN-ACC stop-PST.IND<br />
<br />
:''cefase flubenzone "Bavel" epatinib. calan tropin flufib pretricol luxedane nivarotidine eparin. flufisant tropin fluzine pretricosetron amitizole.''<br />
:cefase flu-benz-one B. epa-tinib cala-n trop-in fluf-ib pre-tric-ol luxeda-ne niva-ro-tidine epar-in fluf-isant trop-in fluz-ine pre-trico-setron amiti-zole<br />
:hence that-city-DAT B. say-GNOM.IND reason-NOM god-NOM there-LOC whole-world-GEN language-ACC confuse-PERF-GNOM.QUOT saying-NOM there-from god-NOM whole-world-throughout scatter-PST.IND<br />
<br />
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===<br />
''tibazolam, conazolam, urazolam.''<br />
<br />
===Qui bibit, sanctus est===<br />
<poem><br />
''plocatrilin certolitinib.''<br />
''certolutrilin surnacafotinib.''<br />
''surnacafotrilin profitinib.''<br />
''cefase plocatrilin profitinib.''<br />
<br />
Qui bibit, dormit;<br />
Qui dormit, non peccat;<br />
Qui non peccat, sanctus est;<br />
Ergo qui bibit, sanctus est.<br />
</poem><br />
<br />
===Hamlet soliloquy===<br />
:'''''moxicin levo moxifloxacin, flusimod frunecin.'''''<br />
:''To be or not to be (lit. to live or to refuse to live), that is the question.''<br />
<br />
===The North Wind and the Sun===<br />
'''''peloclevinast grian'''''<br />
<br />
''peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine cecroxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole. cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole. flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.''<br />
<br />
====Gloss====<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloklevinast gɾian]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM<br />
| translation = The North Wind and the Sun<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevinast grian aferin dapsimod guanorlitidine croxazosertib dacizil pevuxazepam fidozil ilpefen lacufizole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevinast grian afeɾin dapsimot gwanoɾlitidine kɾoksazoseɾtip daxizil pevuksazepam fidozil ilpefen laxufizol]<br />
| morphemes = pelo-clevin-ast gria-n afer-in daps-imod guan-orli-tidine croxa-zosertib, daci-zil pevu-st-azepam fido-zil ilpe-fe-n lacufi-zole<br />
| gloss = north-wind-and sun-NOM each_other-NOM self-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT have_an_argument-PST.when warm-PAST.ATTR cover-INSTRUMENT-INST wear-PST.ATTR travel-AGT-NOM run_into-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind and the sun were arguing, each claiming to be the stronger one, when a traveler wearing a warm cloak happened upon the scene.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fluribin ilpefenol pevuxine sulcib nilpacazil flurin guanorlitidine lepsolizumab sumacazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluɾibin ilpefenol pevuksine sulkip nilpaxazil fluɾin gwanoɾlitidine lepsolizumap sumaxazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-ribin ilpefen-ol pevux-ine sulcib nilpa-ca-zil flur-in guan-orli-tidine lepso-li-zumab sumaca-zole. <br />
| gloss = that-two-NOM traveler-GEN cloak-ACC first take_off-CAUS-PST.ATTR that-NOM COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT consider-PASS-PST.SBJV unite-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The two agreed that the one who first made the traveler take off his cloak should be considered stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = peloclevin predcoxine grebimostim olmezole beta olmezartan olmetrexed ilpefen zopinanserin pevuxine guanfamizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [peloxlevin pɾetkoxsine gɾebimostim olmezol beta olmezaɾtan olmetɾekset ilpefen zopinanseɾin pevuksine gwanfamizol]<br />
| morphemes = Pelo-clevi-n pred-cox-ine grebi-mostim olme-zole beta olm-azartan olme-trexed ilpefe-n zopin-anserin pevux-ine guan-fami-zole.<br />
| gloss = north-wind-NOM all-strength-ACC put_in-RES blow-PST.IND but blow-PST.COND blow-the_more traveler-NOM body-around cloak-ACC more-wrap-PST.IND<br />
| translation = The north wind blew with all his strength, but the more he blew the more did the traveler wrapped his cloak around his body.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefoxitin peloclevin tiabendazole.<br />
|pinyin =<br />
|IPA = [kefoxsitin peloxlevin tiabendazol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-oxit-in pelo-clevi-n tia-benda-zole<br />
| gloss = this-end-NOM north-wind-NOM let_go-end_up-PAST<br />
| translation = In the end, the north wind gave up.<br />
| index =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flusertib grian dacizil varine mocazofingol ilpefen pevuxine nilpazole. <br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fluseɾtip grian daxizil vaɾine moxazofingol ilpefen pevuksine nilpazol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-sertib gria-n daci-zil vari-ne moca-zofingol ilpefe-n pevux-ine nilpa-zole<br />
| gloss = that-when sun-NOM warm-PST.ATTR light-ACC radiate-PST.moment traveler-NOM cloak-ACC take_off-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Then, right when the sun shone out warm light, the traveler took off his cloak.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = flukalant peloclevin grianimod guanorlitidine stiunizumab quinulizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [flukalant peloxlevin grianimot gwanoɾlitidine stiunizumap kwinulizol]<br />
| morphemes = flu-kalant pelo-clevi-n grian-imod guan-orli-tidine stiuni-zumab quinu-li-zole<br />
| gloss = that-in_view_of north-wind-NOM sun-EMPH COMP-strong-GNOM.QUOT confess-PST.SBJV constrain-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thus the north wind was forced to acknowledge that it was the sun who is stronger.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===UDHR, Article 1===<br />
''predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib. ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.''<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = predampin zocralitril sertisant coplitrodast tulcast pitanabant inflitinib.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [pɾedampin zokɾalitril seɾtisant koplitɾodast tulkast pitanabant inflitinip]<br />
| morphemes = pred-amp-in zocra-li-tril sert-imod copli-trodast tulc-ast pita-nabant infli-tinib<br />
| gloss = all-human-NOM give_birth-PASS-GNOM.ATT time-ABL free-GNOM.CONJ worth-and entitlement-regarding equal-GNOM.IND<br />
| translation = All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = ampin ziudixisant cetirizast dapsolopritine ciclotrodast, aferone ruxinelol temazepam evicovetmab tiuxetan.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [ampin ziudiksisant ketiɾizast dapsolopɾitine kiklotɾodast ǀ afeɾon ɾuksinelol temazepam evikovemap tiuksetan]<br />
| morphemes = amp-in ziudix-imod cetiriz-ast dapso-lopri-t-ine ciclo-trodast, afer-one ruxi-nel-ol tem-azepam evico-tumab tiuxetan<br />
| gloss = human-NOM nature-ABL rationality-and self-control-NOMZ-ACC receive-GNOM.CONJ, each_other-DAT brother-love-GEN spirit-PL.INST act-GNOM.SUBJ must<br />
| translation = They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Featured banner===<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = cefluxedan esertib natalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [kefluksedan eseɾtip natalizol]<br />
| morphemes = cef-lukseda-n e-sert-ib nata-li-zole<br />
| gloss = this-language-NOM one-time-LOC display-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = This language was once featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = fedostatium darusentanium epsostogatran, natalizumab procalizole.<br />
|pinyin = <br />
|IPA = [fedostatium daɾusentanium epsostogatɾan, natalizumap pɾoxalizol]<br />
| morphemes = fedo-stat-ium darusentan-ium epso-sto-gatɾan, nata-li-zumab proca-li-zole<br />
| gloss = fine-ABS-and realism-and use-INST-thanks_to, display-PASS-PAST.SBJV choose-PASS-PST.IND<br />
| translation = Thanks to its quality, plausibility and usage features, it was voted to be featured.<br />
| index = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Other resources==<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*]]<br />
[[Category:Clofabic languages]]<br />
[[Category:Tricin]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]</div>
IlL