Linguifex - User contributions [en]

Gur language

2016-08-26T19:10:02Z

Aamal Yaseen:

==Introduction==








==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 476px; text-align:center;"
|+'''Gur consonants'''
! style="width: 68px; "|
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal
|-
! style="" |Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
| ŋ
|
|-
! style="" |Plosive
| p b
| t d
|
|
| k g
|
|-
! style="" |Fricative
|
| s z
| ʃ
|
| x
| h
|-
! style="" |Trill
|
| r
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Lateral approximant
|
| l
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Approximant
|
|
|
| j
| w
|
|}
'''Note:'''
* The consonants /j/ and /w/ are analyzed as non-vocalic vowels /i̯/ and /u̯/.
* N is pronounced /ŋ/ before velar consonants.
===Vowels===
Gur has a simple system of five vowels, which can be either short or long.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 450px; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 120px; " |Front
! colspan="2" style="width: 120px; " |Central
! colspan="2" style="width: 120px; " |Back
|-
! style="width: 60px; " | short
! style="width: 60px; " | long
! style="width: 60px; " | short
! style="width: 60px; " | long
! style="width: 60px; " | short
! style="width: 60px; " | long
|-
! style="" |Close
| i
| iː
| colspan="2" |
| u
| uː
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
| ɛ
| ɛː
| colspan="2" |
| ɔ
| ɔː
|-
! style="" |Open
| colspan="2" |
| a
| aː
| colspan="2" |
|}
===Stress===
Words are stressed on the antepenultimate syllable. The stress falls on the penultimate syllable if the last syllable has a long vowel or the penult is heavy. A syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or in a vowel and a consonant.
==Grammar==
===Nouns===
====First declension====
=====Masculine nouns=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''First declension: ''aχkas,'' m. (boy)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| aχk-as || aχk-in || aχk-ai
|-
! Genitive
| aχk-ȗ || aχk-an || aχk-ain
|-
! Dative
| aχk-ȋ || aχk-ȃni || aχk-ȃsi
|-
! Accusative
| aχk-i || aχk-ȇni || aχk-un
|-
! Ablative
| aχk-ak || aχk-am || aχk-ais
|-
! Locative
| aχk-ȋ || aχk-an || aχk-ain
|}
The '''vocative case''' (used to address someone in direct speech) is identical to the nominative form, except in the masculine singular of the first declension (''-as'' → ''-e'').
=====Feminine nouns in -a=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''First declension: ''miwa,'' f. (tongue, language)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| miw-a || miw-in || miw-ai
|-
! Genitive
| miw-ȗ || miw-an || miw-ain
|-
! Dative
| miw-ȋ || miw-ȃni || miw-ȃsi
|-
! Accusative
| miw-u || miw-ȇs || miw-es
|-
! Ablative
| miw-ak || miw-am || miw-ais
|-
! Locative
| miw-ȋ || miw-an || miw-ain
|}
=====Feminine nouns in -ȋa=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''First declension: ''mantȋa,'' f. (blackberry)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| mant-ȋa || mant-ȋn || mant-ȋes
|-
! Genitive
| mant-iȗ || mant-ȋan || mant-ȋain
|-
! Dative
| mant-ȋ || mant-iȃni || mant-ȋsi
|-
! Accusative
| mant-ȋu || mant-ȋs || mant-ȋes
|-
! Ablative
| mant-ȋak || mant-ȋam || mant-ȋais
|-
! Locative
| mant-ȋ || mant-ȋan || mant-ȋain
|}
=====Neuter nouns=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''First declension: ''luri,'' n. (evening)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| lur-i || lur-in || lur-ia
|-
! Genitive
| lur-ȗ || lur-an || lur-ain
|-
! Dative
| lur-ȋ || lur-ȃni || lur-ȃsi
|-
! Accusative
| lur-i || lur-in || lur-ia
|-
! Ablative
| lur-ak || lur-am || lur-ais
|-
! Locative
| lur-ȋ || lur-an || lur-ain
|}
====Second declension====
=====Masculine and feminine nouns=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''Second declension: ''kar,'' m. (fish)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| kar || kar-in || kar-un
|-
! Genitive
| kar-as || kar-an || kar-ain
|-
! Dative
| kar-ȋ || kar-ȃni || kar-si
|-
! Accusative
| kar-u || kar-in || kar-un
|-
! Ablative
| kar-ak || kar-am || kar-ais
|-
! Locative
| kar-ȋ || kar-an || kar-ain
|}
If the stem does not end in vowel + ''l, n, r, χ'', the dative plural ending is '''-ȇsi'''.
=====Neuter nouns=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''Second declension: ''śendil,'' n. (wing)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| śendil || śendil-in || śendil-un
|-
! Genitive
| śendil-as || śendil-an || śendil-ain
|-
! Dative
| śendil-ȋ || śendil-ȃni || śendil-si
|-
! Accusative
| śendil || śendil-in || śendil-un
|-
! Ablative
| śendil-ak || śendil-am || śendil-ais
|-
! Locative
| śendil-ȋ || śendil-an || śendil-ain
|}
====Third declension (masculine and feminine nouns)====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''Third declension: ''drenis,'' m., f. (deer)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| dren-is || dren-in || dren-un
|-
! Genitive
| dren-as || dren-an || dren-ain
|-
! Dative
| dren-ȋ || dren-ȃni || dren-si
|-
! Accusative
| dren-u || dren-in || dren-un
|-
! Ablative
| dren-ak || dren-am || dren-ais
|-
! Locative
| dren-ȋ || dren-an || dren-ain
|}
===Adjectives===
====Types====
First-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the masculine, feminine, and neuter forms; for example, ''olmas, olma, olmi'' “holy, sacred”.

Second-declension adjectives are declined like second-declension nouns. They have one form for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular (such as ''raś'' “green”).
====Comparative and superlative forms====
Comparison of adjectives is formed by suffixing. Adjectives have three degrees: positive (the normal form of the adjectives), comparative, and superlative.

The suffixes are:
* comparative: '''-ial''' / '''-al''' ''(olmial, raśal)''
* superlative: '''-ȇmas, -ȇma, -ȇmi''' ''(olmȇmas, raśȇmas)''

The suffix '''-eg-''' corresponds to “too”; for example, ''olmegas'' “too holy”.
===Adverbs===
====Types====
A first-declension adjective is made into an adverb by adding '''-ȃ''' onto its base ''(olmȃ)''. A second-declension adjective is made into an adverb by adding '''-en''' onto its base ''(raśen)''.
====Comparative and superlative forms====
The comparative is made in the same way in which the comparison of the adjective is formed ''(olmial)''. However, adverbs from second-declension adjectives form the comparative by using an additional infix ''(raśawal)''.

Both types of adverbs have regular superlative forms ''(olmȇmȃ, raśȇmȃ)''.
===Verbs===
The infinitive of the verb ends in '''-ȃn'''.
====Indicative====
=====Active voice=====
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual/Plural
|-
! 1st
| -a-m
| -ȃ-mi
|-
! 2nd
| -a-s
| -ȃ-si
|-
! 3rd
| -a-t
| -ȃ-ti
|-
|}
=====Passive voice=====
In the passive voice, the grammatical subject of the verb is the recipient (not the doer) of the action denoted by the verb.

The passive voice is made up of the passive participle of the main verb and a form of the auxiliary verb ''ejȃn'' “to be”, such as ''miś śarbamȇnas jam'' “I am beloved”.
=====Middle voice=====
The middle voice is in the middle between the active and the passive voices because the subject cannot be categorized as either agent or patient but may have elements of both; for example, ''nȗbȃn'' “to sweat”.
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! Person
! Singular
! Dual/Plural
|-
! 1st
| -ȃ-ma
| -ȃ-mai
|-
! 2nd
| -ȃ-sa
| -ȃ-sai
|-
! 3rd
| -ȃ-ta
| -ȃ-tai
|-
|}
====Subjunctive====
The subjunctive is used for statements contrary to fact. It can be formed from the indicative mood by replacing the vowel ''-a- (-ȃ-)'' with ''-e- (-ȇ-)''; for example, ''miś zalem'' “I would sing”.
====Tenses====
The verbs are conjugated in six main tenses (present, past, and future imperfect and perfect, respectively). The perfect tenses are formed by adding the imperfect tenses of the verb ''ejȃn'' onto the main verb.
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! Tense
! Imperfect
! Perfect
|-
! Present
| -a-m
| -a-jam
|-
! Past
| -ȇs-a-m
| -a-siam
|-
! Future
| -ȇr-a-m
| -a-χam
|-
|}
===Derivational morphology===

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
Word order is subject–object–verb.
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==
==Other resources==




[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Gur language

2016-08-25T21:35:01Z

Aamal Yaseen:

==Introduction==








==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 476px; text-align:center;"
|+'''Gur consonants'''
! style="width: 68px; "|
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal
|-
! style="" |Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
| ŋ
|
|-
! style="" |Plosive
| p b
| t d
|
|
| k g
|
|-
! style="" |Fricative
|
| s z
| ʃ
|
| x
| h
|-
! style="" |Trill
|
| r
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Lateral approximant
|
| l
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Approximant
|
|
|
| j
| w
|
|}
'''Note:'''
* The consonants /j/ and /w/ are analyzed as non-vocalic vowels /i̯/ and /u̯/.
* N is pronounced /ŋ/ before velar consonants.
===Vowels===
Gur has a simple system of five vowels, which can be either short or long.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 450px; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 120px; " |Front
! colspan="2" style="width: 120px; " |Central
! colspan="2" style="width: 120px; " |Back
|-
! style="width: 60px; " | short
! style="width: 60px; " | long
! style="width: 60px; " | short
! style="width: 60px; " | long
! style="width: 60px; " | short
! style="width: 60px; " | long
|-
! style="" |Close
| i
| iː
| colspan="2" |
| u
| uː
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
| ɛ
| ɛː
| colspan="2" |
| ɔ
| ɔː
|-
! style="" |Open
| colspan="2" |
| a
| aː
| colspan="2" |
|}
===Stress===
Words are stressed on the antepenultimate syllable. The stress falls on the penultimate syllable if the last syllable has a long vowel or the penult is heavy. A syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or in a vowel and a consonant.
==Grammar==
===Nouns===
====First declension====
=====Masculine nouns=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''First declension: ''aχkas,'' m. (boy)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| aχk-as || aχk-in || aχk-ai
|-
! Genitive
| aχk-ȗ || aχk-an || aχk-ain
|-
! Dative
| aχk-ȋ || aχk-ȃni || aχk-ȃsi
|-
! Accusative
| aχk-i || aχk-ȇni || aχk-un
|-
! Ablative
| aχk-ak || aχk-am || aχk-ais
|-
! Locative
| aχk-ȋ || aχk-an || aχk-ain
|}
The '''vocative case''' (used to address someone in direct speech) is identical to the nominative form, except in the masculine singular of the first declension (''-as'' → ''-e'').
=====Feminine nouns in -a=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''First declension: ''miwa,'' f. (tongue, language)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| miw-a || miw-in || miw-ai
|-
! Genitive
| miw-ȗ || miw-an || miw-ain
|-
! Dative
| miw-ȋ || miw-ȃni || miw-ȃsi
|-
! Accusative
| miw-u || miw-ȇs || miw-es
|-
! Ablative
| miw-ak || miw-am || miw-ais
|-
! Locative
| miw-ȋ || miw-an || miw-ain
|}
=====Feminine nouns in -ȋa=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''First declension: ''mantȋa,'' f. (blackberry)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| mant-ȋa || mant-ȋn || mant-ȋes
|-
! Genitive
| mant-iȗ || mant-ȋan || mant-ȋain
|-
! Dative
| mant-ȋ || mant-iȃni || mant-ȋsi
|-
! Accusative
| mant-ȋu || mant-ȋs || mant-ȋes
|-
! Ablative
| mant-ȋak || mant-ȋam || mant-ȋais
|-
! Locative
| mant-ȋ || mant-ȋan || mant-ȋain
|}
=====Neuter nouns=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''First declension: ''luri,'' n. (evening)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| lur-i || lur-in || lur-ia
|-
! Genitive
| lur-ȗ || lur-an || lur-ain
|-
! Dative
| lur-ȋ || lur-ȃni || lur-ȃsi
|-
! Accusative
| lur-i || lur-in || lur-ia
|-
! Ablative
| lur-ak || lur-am || lur-ais
|-
! Locative
| lur-ȋ || lur-an || lur-ain
|}
====Second declension====
=====Masculine and feminine nouns=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''Second declension: ''kar,'' m. (fish)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| kar || kar-in || kar-un
|-
! Genitive
| kar-as || kar-an || kar-ain
|-
! Dative
| kar-ȋ || kar-ȃni || kar-si
|-
! Accusative
| kar-u || kar-in || kar-un
|-
! Ablative
| kar-ak || kar-am || kar-ais
|-
! Locative
| kar-ȋ || kar-an || kar-ain
|}
If the stem does not end in vowel + ''l, n, r, χ'', the dative plural ending is '''-ȇsi'''.
=====Neuter nouns=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''Second declension: ''śendil,'' n. (wing)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| śendil || śendil-in || śendil-un
|-
! Genitive
| śendil-as || śendil-an || śendil-ain
|-
! Dative
| śendil-ȋ || śendil-ȃni || śendil-si
|-
! Accusative
| śendil || śendil-in || śendil-un
|-
! Ablative
| śendil-ak || śendil-am || śendil-ais
|-
! Locative
| śendil-ȋ || śendil-an || śendil-ain
|}
====Third declension (masculine and feminine nouns)====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | '''Third declension: ''drenis,'' m., f. (deer)'''
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| dren-is || dren-in || dren-un
|-
! Genitive
| dren-as || dren-an || dren-ain
|-
! Dative
| dren-ȋ || dren-ȃni || dren-si
|-
! Accusative
| dren-u || dren-in || dren-un
|-
! Ablative
| dren-ak || dren-am || dren-ais
|-
! Locative
| dren-ȋ || dren-an || dren-ain
|}
===Adjectives===
====Types====
First-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the masculine, feminine, and neuter forms; for example, ''olmas, olma, olmi'' “holy, sacred”.

Second-declension adjectives are declined like second-declension nouns. They have one form for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular (such as ''raś'' “green”).
====Comparative and superlative forms====
Comparison of adjectives is formed by suffixing. Adjectives have three degrees: positive (the normal form of the adjectives), comparative, and superlative.

The suffixes are:
* comparative: '''-ial''' / '''-al''' ''(olmial, raśal)''
* superlative: '''-ȇmas, -ȇma, -ȇmi''' ''(olmȇmas, raśȇmas)''

The suffix '''-eg-''' corresponds to “too”; for example, ''olmegas'' “too holy”.
===Adverbs===
====Types====
A first-declension adjective is made into an adverb by adding '''-ȃ''' onto its base ''(olmȃ)''. A second-declension adjective is made into an adverb by adding '''-en''' onto its base ''(raśen)''.
====Comparative and superlative forms====
The comparative is made in the same way in which the comparison of the adjective is formed ''(olmial)''. However, adverbs from second-declension adjectives form the comparative by using an additional infix ''(raśawal)''.

Both types of adverbs have regular superlative forms ''(olmȇmȃ, raśȇmȃ)''.
===Verbs===
The infinitive of the verb ends in '''-ȃn'''.
===Derivational morphology===

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
Word order is subject–object–verb.
===Dependent clauses===


==Example texts==
==Other resources==




[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]

Gur language

2016-08-25T17:21:53Z

Aamal Yaseen: Created page with " <!-- This is a short reminder of the language format policy. I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration..."