Linguifex - User contributions [en]

Folksprak/Orthography

2025-08-29T02:35:59Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

All the countries in the region presently use the Latin alphabet. However, to maintain a culturally distinct identity, it is necessary to transition to an alphabet indigenous to the area. Runes were created to be carved, either on bark or stone and were once common in Northern Europe. They often bear some similarity to their Latin counterparts.

== Fonts ==
Fonts that show these glyphs include Code2000, Geneva, Quivira, Unifont, and Apple Symbols.

== Mapping ==
=== Consonants ===
English [th] and [z] are rather late additions to the alphabet, and not part of Folksprak today. There are, in fact, many such letters which would be needed for place names around Europe. {{Rune|ᛊ}}/'''Z''', {{Rune|ᛢ}}/'''Q''', {{Rune|ᛝ}}/'''Ŋ''', and {{Rune|ᚦ}}/'''Þ''' are not productive and part of "historic" name spellings only. Swedish /ɧ/ may be written {{Rune|ᚺ}}. (Other "old" letters include {{Rune|ᛠ}}/'''Ä''', {{Rune|ᚫ}}/'''Æ''', {{Rune|ᛡ}}/'''Ï''', {{Rune|ᛥ}}/'''ST''', {{Rune|ᚸ}}/'''Ȝ''', and {{Rune|ᛤ}}/'''KK'''.)

{| class="wikitable"
! !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Post. !! Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Nasal
| /m/ {{Rune|ᛗ}} || /n/ {{Rune|ᚾ}} || || *ŋ *{{Rune|ᛝ}} ||
|-
! Voiced Stop
| /b/ {{Rune|ᛒ}} || /d/ {{Rune|ᛞ}} || || /g/ {{Rune|ᚷ}} ||
|-
! Unvoiced Stop
| /p/ {{Rune|ᛈ}} || /t/ {{Rune|ᛏ}} || */θ~ð/ *{{Rune|ᚦ}} || /k/ {{Rune|ᛣ}} ||
|-
! Voiced Fricative
| /v/ {{Rune|ᚹ}} || */z/ *{{Rune|ᛊ}} || || ||
|-
! Unvoiced Fricative
| /f/ {{Rune|ᚠ}} || /s/ {{Rune|ᛋ}} || /ʃ/ {{Rune|ᚳ}} || /x/ {{Rune|ᛉ}} || /h/ {{Rune|ᚻ}}
|-
! Approximant
| || <tt>/r/</tt> {{Rune|ᚱ}} || /j/ {{Rune|ᛄ}} || ||
|-
! Lateral
| || /l/ {{Rune|ᛚ}} || || ||
|}

There are set digraphs for non-Germanic sounds:
* {{Rune|ᛊᛄ}}'''zj''' for zh
* {{Rune|ᚳᛄ}}'''cj''' for ch

=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="width:auto;"
! !! Round !! Front !! Middle !! Back
|-
! High
| <tt>/ʏ/ /yː/</tt> {{Rune|ᚣ}}
| <tt>/ɪ/ /iː/</tt> {{Rune|ᛁ}}
|
| <tt>/ʊ/ /uː/</tt> {{Rune|ᚢ}}
|-
! Mid.
| <tt>/œ/ /øː/</tt> {{Rune|ᛟ}}
| <tt>/ɛ/ /eː/</tt> {{Rune|ᛖ}}
| /ə/ *
| <tt>/ɔ/ /oː/</tt> {{Rune|ᚩ}}
|-
! Low
|
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| <tt>/a/ /äː/</tt> {{Rune|ᚪ}}
|
|}

Diphthongs are {{Rune|ᚩᛁ,ᚩᚢ,ᚪᛁ,ᛖᛁ}}/'''oi, ou, ai, ei'''. {{Rune|ᚪᚢ}}/'''au''' is the same as {{Rune|ᚩᚢ}}/'''ou'''. {{Rune|ᛖᚢ}}/'''eu''' is just long {{Rune|ᚢ}}/'''u'''.

== Keyboards ==
[http://www.languagegeek.com/european/layoutsEuropean.html]

== Unicode ==
Runes are a clearly established part of the Unicode tables, in the range of 16A0-16FF.

{{Aquatiki}}
[[Category:Folksprak]]
[[Category:Scripts]]

User:ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ

2025-08-29T02:31:25Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: created page

I head a team working on a system for writing today's English in Anglo-Saxon runes which is both phonemic and functional across accents while remaining historically justifiable.

 To learn more, visit our [https://runerevival.online website] or watch [https://youtube.com/@learnrunes Rune Revival].

Category:Scripts

2025-08-29T02:23:05Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: clarity

{{header
| file= FrontWord.png
| filesize= 100
| title1 = Scripts
| title2 = This is the project page for all scripts on the wiki.
}}
This Category page lists the scripts (writing systems) and their subpages on this wiki along with any languages for which a unique native script exists. Discussion regarding any of the aforementioned should be kept on this page's discussion page.

Please add this category at the end of pages relevant to this category, including templates and subpages, to see them appear below.

Category:Scripts

2025-08-29T02:21:19Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: picture

{{header
| file= FrontWord.png
| filesize= 100
| title1 = Scripts
| title2 = This is the project page for all scripts on the wiki.
}}
This Category page lists the scripts (writing systems) and their subpages on this wiki along with any languages which have their own unique script. Discussion regarding any of the aforementioned should be kept on this page's discussion page.

Please add this category at the end of pages relevant to this category, including templates and subpages, to see them appear below.

File:Lethusian syllabary.png

2025-08-29T02:19:15Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ:

Info chart of Lethusian writing (and number) systems: http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/art/Lethusian-Syllabary-532841087

[[Category:Scripts]]

File:Hundékrítsa knašta krýlíka.JPG

2025-08-29T02:16:45Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

A list of all Knašta Cyrillic letters in handwritten form, with their Knašta Latin equivalents below them.

[[Category:Scripts]]

File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG

2025-08-29T02:16:35Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

Tsrnet cursive script of Sceptrian

[[Category:Scripts]]

File:Nrtranyarunes.png

2025-08-29T02:16:00Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

A simplified, standardized version of the Nṛtrāṇya "runic" writing system. Each symbol had many variants, not shown here.

[[Category:Scripts]]

File:Middle ru vowels.png

2025-08-29T02:11:07Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

== Summary ==
Vowels in the Middle Ru script as used in Middle Ru (modified forms of this script are also used for other languages).

[[Category:Scripts]]

File:Middle ru consonants.png

2025-08-29T02:10:45Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

== Summary ==
Consonants in the Middle Ru script as used in Middle Ru (modified forms of this script are also used for other languages).

[[Category:Scripts]]

Popoma

2025-08-29T02:08:22Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

{{Infobox language
|name = Popoma
|nativename = Popoma
|pronunciation = {{IPA|[po.po.ma]}} (Standard) {{IPA|[pɔ.pɔ.mɐ̝]}} (West) {{IPA|[po.po.mɐ̝]}} (South)
|states (state) = Magical Girls Republic
|region = Saint Helena Tristan da Cunha Ascencion Fakland Islands Jeju Socotora Iki Oki Tsukishima Islands
|ethnicity = Magical Girls
|speakers = {{formatnum:3500000}}
|date = 2020
|familycolor = #FFC0CB
|fam2 = [[Magical Girls' Languages]]
|fam3 = [[Afro-European MGLs]]
|fam4 = [[European MGLs]]
|creator = [[User:Madoka mapper|Madoka]]
|created = Mar 2020
|setting = Alt-Earth
|script = Popoma Alphabet Latin Alphabet
|nation = Magical Girls Republic
|agency = Headquarters of Magical Linguistics
|image = Popoma.png
|imagealt = Flag of the Magical Girls Republic
|notice=IPA
}}

'''Popoma''' was created on the XIII Century by an italian magical girl during the Great Magic War between magical girls and witches. The first purpose of the language was to hide the attack plans of the magical girls from the witches. After the end of the war, the language was considered the official language of magical girls, overthrowing the reign of the Latin language, the acceptance of the new language grew quickly, in some years, all of the magical girls living in the Italian Peninsula knew Popoma. By the end of the XIII century, from the North of Africa, to the British Isles, from the Iberian Peninsula to Asia Minor, Popoma was a well spread language around the tongues of magical girls

== History ==
=== External History ===
Popoma is my first "semi-serious" attempt in creating a conlang. I tried to take elements from the Romance Languages and the Japanese language for this one, for the writing system, imagination was the chief at the time, and with that I tried to make some parts of the script better. This language will always add anything new, specially in lexicon and phonology, if I'm not liking some sounds. I always thought about Magical Societies and Orders and if the people who were in it spoke another language. This is what I came up with, Popoma.

=== Internal History ===
====Origins of Popoma (1225-1290)====
During the Great Magic War (1220 - 1225), a magical girl whose name was '''Giovanna''' (1212-1229), she come up with a script and some new sounds to create a language that could confuse with witches and hide the true attack plans of the magical girls. The language was a sucess and the War was easily won some months after the language creation. The language was a sucess, and was quickly adopted as the Italian Magical Girl's official language. By 1290, the language was well spread around the European continent, including the North of Africa and Asia Minor.
====Golden Age of Classical Popoma (1300 - 1667)====
The language evolved as well the society of Magical Girls, in 1312, in Genoa, place of birth of Giovanna, was built the first headquarters of the Magical Girl's Order, where they taught Popoma and Magical Arts. During the Golden Age, the Order was powerfull and was an ally of the Humans. Which in 1437, the Pope Eugene IV and the then Headmistress of the Magical Girl's Order signed a treaty of friendship between the Magical Girls and the Catholic Church. The Magical Girls were also present at the Discoveries, staying in some settlements, where they looked for native magical girls in order to teach them Popoma. More headquarters were built in Europe.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! City
|-
| 1312 || Genoa
|-
| 1365 || Rome
|-
| 1389 || Paris
|-
| 1415 || Coimbra
|-
| 1431 || Napoli
|-
| 1453 || Oxford
|-
| 1521 || Brest
|-
| 1530 || Lisbon
|-
| 1562 || Madrid
|-
| 1579 || Wien
|}

In fact, the presence of the Magica Girl's Order was more predominant in South Europe, ranging from Portugal to Sicily.

==== Decline (1667 - 1770) ====
During the 2nd Great Magic War (1662 - 1668), the witches were facing the magical girls again for the control of the HRE and Scandinavia. Of course, the Magical Girls society wasn’t that united, and at the beginning of 1667, a small group of them betrayed the Headmistress and taught the language to the witches of the North (most of them lived in places like atual Germany, Denmark and Poland). The chaos put into practice, due to the mistrust between Kings, Princes, Pope and magical girls, a lot of them were expelled from Europe, other suffered mass persecutions, since the monarchs didn’t know if someone speaking Popoma was a magical girl or a witch. Those years were known as the decline of classical Popoma. By 1668, few places still accepted the magical girls in Europe, this included Portugal, Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus and England (Oxford area). But the Headmistress decided to call every living Magical Girl Order member to promolgue a migration act to Africa (1672 - 1773), and then later America (1696 - today) and Asia (1676 - today)

==== Popoma in Africa ====
The Magical Girl's Order, plus Popoma presence was already there before the migration, but unfortunally, the natives weren't very found of the language they used, since they already were using their own languages. Also, there was this new problem, the Europeans that said Magical Girls weren't welcomed in their territories, including oversea ones. So, Magical Girls needed to act illegally in Africa, unless they found some islands. Which they did, they claimed for theirselves the islands of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. The influence areas in continental Africa were abandoned by 1773.

==== Popoma in North America ====
America was a huge discovery, the girls started to migrate to Modern USA around 1696, and to Canada around 1705, sadly like in Africa, the Magical Girls were on illegal disguises to not show their magic to humans. But everything changed after the American Independence, the Magical Girls were happily accepted by the newborn state, even helping on the independence war. Most of Canadian Magical Girls fled to the United States, which is one of the biggest sectors of the Order.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! City
|-
| 1831 || Boston
|-
| 1887 || New York
|-
| 1906 || San Francisco
|-
| 1911 || Dallas
|}

==== Popoma in Asia ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! City
|-
| 1812 || Shangai
|-
| 1815 || Seul
|-
| 1823 || Tokyo
|-
| 1824 || Kyoto
|-
| 1826 || Aomori
|-
| 1831 || Sapporo
|-
| 1858 || Sendai
|-
| 1864 || Saga
|-
| 1909 || Hong Kong
|}
===== Arabia and India =====
After Africa, the Magical Girls departed from Cyprus to go to India, but first they stopped at the Red Sea and the Socotra Islands where they faced with the Ottomans and the muslim Magical Girls, they clamed Socotra for the order and stay there for a few years until all Magical Girl Order members were expelled by the Ottomans, some stayed in Socotra, others sailed to India bringing Popoma with them. India presence was like african presence, the europeans were already there and their law was still in practice until 1908. The illegal settelments in India and Sri Lhanka were put in practice between 1715 untill 1779, but the influence there was huge. Popoma is the most spoken Magical Girl's Language in India.
===== China and Korea =====
Magical Girls reached China (Hainan) in 1782, Formosa in 1785 and Korea in 1788. They were easily accepted after knowing through translations that the Europeans were expelling their order from the continent. Here Popoma suffered alterations, the classical Popoma disappeared completly. They claimed the Jeju Island.
===== Japan =====
The Magical Girls reached Japan in 1792, with similar reactions like in China and Korea. Popoma changed too, and the three points of the Asian continent were connected by the Magical Girls and their language. Influence of Japanese in Popoma is really obvious, specially in new terms and words that appeared after 1800. The MGO claimed the Tsushima Island, the Iki Island and the Oki Islands.
==== Convention of 1800 and Modernity (1800 - today)====
After the MGO was sucessfully established in Asia and in the claimed territories, a convention was held in Kyoto. This convention briefily resumed to three main points:
# Popoma is the official language of the Magical Girl's Order with a choosen vocabulary by the Ministry of Language
# The claimed territories of the Magical Girl's Order will become the Magical Girl's Order country which capital will be in Tsushima Island.
# Magical Girls must keep their powers in secret, unless it's necessary to use magic (this rule was deleted from manuals after 1909).

After centuries being neglected by the Europeans, a change of heart happened in some nations, this case United Kingdom, Italy and Russian Empire, and accepted magical girls again. New headquarters were built to replace the older ones that were abandoned and vandalized.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! City
|-
| 1911 || Oxford
|-
| 1912 || Genoa
|-
| 1925 || Paris
|-
| 1928 || Coimbra
|}

== Geographic distribution ==
=== Official Status ===
Popoma is the official language of [[Verse:Magical Girl's Republic|Magical Girl's Republic]] (previously known as Matriarchy of the Magical Girls) which has a population of 892,313 people (2015). It is also an official language of the Community of Ex-Territories of the MGR ([[Verse:Community of Ex-Territories of the MGR|CETMGR]]) which has a population of 56,242 people (2015). It is also the main language used by the Conventions of the Magical Girl's Order, and in the headquarters/schools of the MGO worldwide.

===Dialects===
Standard Popoma is the most spoken language by the Magical Girls, but there's two variations on the Popoma language which are very noticeable.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Standard !! Western !! South
|-
| Regular verbs end in vowel+h || Regular verbs end in h || Regular verbs end in vowel+h
|-
| {{IPA|d}} written as d || {{IPA|ð}} replaces {{IPA|d}}, written as th || {{IPA|d}} written as ť
|-
| ah, ih, oh, uh exist || there's no ah, ih, oh or uh || ah, ih, oh, uh exist
|-
| x || x || when a word ends with a vowel, the sound is either {{IPA|ɐ̝}}, {{IPA|ɔ}}, {{IPA|y}} or{{IPA|ʉ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʁ}} written as rr || {{IPA|ʁ}} written as ř || {{IPA|ʁ}} written as rr
|-
| {{IPA|tʃ}} written as c || {{IPA|tʃ}} written as c || {{IPA|tʃ}} written as ts
|-
| {{IPA|ɲ}} written as nh || {{IPA|ɲ}} written as nn || {{IPA|ɲ}} written as nh
|-
| {{IPA|kx}} written as ǩ || {{IPA|kx}} written as ǩ || {{IPA|kx}} written as kr
|-
|}

== Writing System ==
The writing system of the Popoma language was firstly the Popoma script, an alphabet created by Giovanna herself, which could make it more harder the decifration of the language by the witches.
Later, in 1800, with the Convention it was approved that to complement the Popoma script, the Latin alphabet would be used. It was easier for young magical girls to learn Popoma.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Order !! Popoma Script !! IPA !! Latin Alphabet
|-
| 1 || [[File:Popoma - a.png]] || {{IPA|a}} || a
|-
| 2 || [[File:Popoma - d.png]] || {{IPA|d}} || d
|-
| 3 || [[File:Popoma - h.png]] || {{IPA|h}} || h
|-
| 4 || [[File:Popoma - i.png]] || {{IPA|i}} || i
|-
| 5 || [[File:Popoma - k.png]] || {{IPA|k}} || k
|-
| 6 || [[File:Popoma - l.png]] || {{IPA|l}} || l
|-
| 7 || [[File:Popoma - m.png]] || {{IPA|m}} || m
|-
| 8 || [[File:Popoma - n.png]] || {{IPA|n}} || n
|-
| 9 || [[File:Popoma - o.png]] || {{IPA|o}} || o
|-
| 10 || [[File:Popoma - p.png]] || {{IPA|p}} || p
|-
| 11 || [[File:Popoma - q.png]] || {{IPA|kʷ}} || q
|-
| 12 || [[File:Popoma - r.png]] || {{IPA|ɾ}} {{IPA|ʁ}} || r rr
|-
| 13 || [[File:Popoma - s.png]] || {{IPA|s}} || s
|-
| 14 || [[File:Popoma - t.png]] || {{IPA|t}} || t
|-
| 15 || [[File:Popoma - u.png]] || {{IPA|u}} || u
|-
| 16 || [[File:Popoma - z.png]] || {{IPA|z}} || z
|-
| 17 || [[File:Popoma - zk.png]] || {{IPA|kx}} || k̇
|-
| 18 || [[File:Popoma - zp.png]] || {{IPA|b}} || ṗ
|-
| 19 || [[File:Popoma - zq.png]] || {{IPA|g}} || q̇
|-
| 20 || [[File:Popoma - zu.png]] || {{IPA|ɜ}} || u̇
|-
| 21 || [[File:Popoma - zz.png]] || {{IPA|ʒ}} || ż
|}

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! Labial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Alveolopalatal !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || || '''n''' {{IPA|n}} || || '''nh''' {{IPA|ɲ}} || || ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | Plosives !! Voiceless
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || || '''t''' {{IPA|t}} || || || '''k''' {{IPA|k}} '''q''' {{IPA|kʷ}} || ||
|-
! Voiced
| '''ṗ''' {{IPA|b}} || || '''d''' {{IPA|d}} || || || '''q̇''' {{IPA|ɡ}} || ||
|-
! colspan=2 | Affricates
| || || || '''c''' {{IPA|tʃ}} || ||'''k̇ ''' {{IPA|kx}} || ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricatives !! Voiceless
| || '''ph''' {{IPA|f}} || '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sh''' {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || '''h''' {{IPA|h}}
|-
! Voiced
| || || '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}} || || || '''rr''' {{IPA|ʁ}} ||
|-
! colspan=2 | Tap or flap
| || || '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || || || || ||
|-
! colspan=2 | Lateral Approximants
| || || '''l''' {{IPA|l}} || || '''lh''' {{IPA|ʎ}} || || ||
|}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! High
| '''i ih''' {{IPA|i y}} ||'''uh''' {{IPA|ʉ}} || '''u''' {{IPA|u}}
|-
! Mid
| || '''u̇''' {{IPA|ɜ}} || '''o oh''' {{IPA|o ɔ}}
|-
! Low
| '''a''' {{IPA|a}} ||'''ah''' {{IPA|ɐ̝}} ||
|}

===Phonotactics===
There's a lot of vowels and consonants clusters in Popoma, some becoming part of the language as part of the alphabet, others to be exclusive to certain dialects, others that happen because of the way people speak.
==== The "h" Combinations ====
In the vowels/consonants tables there were some sounds which are written on the latin alphabet as C/V + h, which changes the sound. This are the following:
* '''a''' {{IPA|a}} --> '''ah''' {{IPA|ɐ̝}}
* '''i''' {{IPA|i}} --> '''ih''' {{IPA|y}}
* '''o''' {{IPA|o}} --> '''oh''' {{IPA|ɔ}}
* '''u''' {{IPA|u}} --> '''uh''' {{IPA|ʉ}}
* '''l''' {{IPA|l}} --> '''lh''' {{IPA|ʎ}}
* '''n''' {{IPA|n}} --> '''nh''' {{IPA|ɲ}}
* '''p''' {{IPA|p}} --> '''ph''' {{IPA|f}}
* '''s''' {{IPA|s}} --> '''sh''' {{IPA|ʃ}}

In the West Dialect, there's no h combinations with vowels, plus there's an unique consonant h combination.
'''t''' {{IPA|t}} --> '''th''' {{IPA|ð}}
This sound replaced the '''d'''{{IPA|d}} sound on the standard and south forms.

==== Other Consonant Clusters ====
This clusters are mostly noticed on spoken part of Popoma, this means that they were formed during the speeching process. This clusters are:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! !! Written !! Classic Popoma Pronuciation !! Modern Popoma Pronuciation
|-
! 1
| nq̇ || {{IPA|ng}} || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
! 2
| dz || {{IPA|dz}} || {{IPA|d͡z}}
|-
! 3
| dż || {{IPA|dʒ}} || {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}

|}

==Morphology==
=== Nouns ===
Nouns in Popoma inflect in number and degree. There's no gender inflection in Popoma, a non-gendered language. In the 1800 Convention was decided that the object of a magic spell, either human, animal or inanimate doesn't ask for a gender, which still is confirmed by Magical Linguists. This also works for adjectives and adverbs.

The variations in number are simple:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Singular !! Plural
|-
| mano ''"hand"'' || mano'''s'''
|-
| kadzoh ''"liver"'' || kadzoh'''as'''
|-
| ananahs ''"pineapple"'' || ananahs'''us'''
|-
| tu̇taraz ''"grouse"'' || tu̇taraz'''as'''
|}

Variation in Degree:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Normal Singular !! Diminutive Singular !! Augmentative Singular
|-
| mano ''"hand"'' || mano'''ni''' || mano'''rron'''
|-
| kapora ''"goat"'' || kapora'''ni''' || kapora'''rron'''
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Normal Plural !! Diminutive Plural !! Augmentative Plural
|-
| manos ''"hands"'' || mano'''nis''' || mano'''rrons'''
|-
| kaporas ''"goats"'' || kapora'''nis''' || kapora'''rrons'''
|}

Nouns can be also be divided in 4 subdivisions, which are going to be explained later.

==== Nouns Classification by Number Inflection ====
A noun can be divided in '''countable''' or '''uncountable''':
* '''Countable''' nouns have a plural form and usually include all common nouns, excluding abstract common nouns. We can set a numeric order with them.
* '''Uncountable''' nouns doesn't have plural form, this include the: abstract common nouns, collective nouns (this nouns already indicate a group of objects/animals/people), proper nouns and personal nouns. We can't set a numeric order with them.

==== Nouns Classification by Degree Inflection ====
A noun can be divided in '''inflectable''' and '''uninflectable'''
* '''Inflectable''' nouns have a diminutive and an augmentative form. This include all common nouns and all collective nouns.
* '''Uninflectable''' nouns doesn't have a diminutive and an augmentative form. This includes all proper nouns and all personal nouns.

==== Nouns Classification by Purpose ====
This is the main classification, usually the 4 used here are considerated as the 4 subdivisions.
* '''Common''' nouns are used to mainly name animals and things like utensils/instruments, food, abstract concepts, etc. They are inflectable but they can be either countable or uncountable.
* '''Collective''' nouns are used to name a group of animals, people, things, plants, etc, so they are uncountable, but inflectable.
* '''Proper''' nouns. Unlike in other languages, the proper names here are only used to name rivers, countries, cities, street names, geographic places, spell names, mountains, gods, saints, etc. They are uncountable and uninflectable.
* '''Personal''' nouns, some Magical Linguists consider as a subclass of proper names, the personal names name people’s names and familiars (Pets). They are uncountable and uninflectable.

'''Collective Nouns Formattion'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Common Noun !! collective Noun
|-
| ronṗu ''"paper"'' || ronṗu'''dżi''' ''"ream"''
|-
| pishi ''"fish"'' || pishi'''dżi''' ''"shoal"''
|-
| lhuqo ''"wolf"'' || lhuqo'''dżi''' ''"wolfpack"''
|-
| ushi ''"cow"'' || ushi'''dżi''' ''"cowherd"''
|}

=== Verbs ===
In Popoma, verbs are divided into two classes: regular and irregular. All verbs that end with -h are '''regular''', while the ones that doesn't have -h are '''irregular'''. There are only two irregular verbs, which are '''ka (to be)''' and '''ko (to do)'''.
The conjuction of the verbs is simple, there are only 8 tenses in Popoma.
==== The Verbal Tenses ====
'''Present''' tense is the one that leads the rest of the time in Popoma and it is the most simple to learn. The Present tense indicates an action that is happening right now or today.

'''Past''' tense indicates actions that happen in the Past, it is divided in three tenses: '''Proximal, Distant and Undefined''', all of them feature the past particle '''(qa)''', a word that literally means "in the past", this word can be conjugated by person. Proximal Past indicates the action that happened in a recent past, while the Distant Past indicates the ancient past/much older past. Undefined Past indicates an action which we don't know the time of it.

Same thing works with the '''Future''' tense, Proximal, Distant and Undefined. The only thing that changes is the particle, the future particle '''(pho)''', means literally "in the future".
Mostly, Magical Girls use the Undefined Past and Future in their sentences. Since in order to write a verb on the Distant or Proximal subtenses, an adverb of time is required.

Lasty, we have the '''Time Void''' tense or '''Undefined''' tense, that has a gnomic tense which means it doesn't limits action to certain period of time, Magical Girls use this tense when they're fighting while someone casts a time stop spell, or they are in the time void, a place where time doesn't exist.

=== Adjectives ===
The adjectives give qualities or defects to the subject (an animal, a person or an object). It deflects in number, degree and politness. There are three types of adjectives in Popoma:
==== Qualifying Adjectives ====
The only subclass of adjectives that varies on degree and politness, they can appear before or after the noun. This is also the only subclass that antonym-synonym relations. Some examples:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Adjective
! IPA
|-
| q̇orra ''"fat"''
| /{{IPA|go.ʁa}}/
|-
| tolici ''"sweet"''
| /{{IPA|to.li.tʃi}}/
|-
| kalhai ''"cute"''
| /{{IPA|ka.ʎai}}/
|-
|}

==== Numeral Adjectives ====
Gives the numeral part of a subject. It’s the numeral quantifier + -shia suffix
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit !! Cardinal !! Adjective
|-
! 1
| unho || unhoshia
|-
!2
| duo || duoshia
|-
! 3
| tri || trishia
|-
! 4
| qatoro || qatoroshia
|-
! 5
| k̇inoh || k̇inoshia
|-
! 6
| siza || sizashia
|-
! 7
| sita || sitashia
|-
! 8
| ohita || ohitashia
|-
! 9
| nu̇pho || nu̇phoshia
|-
! 10
| daż || dażishia
|}

==== Relative Adjectives ====
Gives the origin, property, goal relations of a subject. There’s no a specific rule for change the subject into an adjective. They appear after the noun.

=== Pronouns & Determinants ===
==== Personal Pronouns ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Person !! Romanization !! IPA
|-
! 1st Sing
| o || {{IPA|o}}
|-
! 2nd Sing
| ohpo || {{IPA|ɔpo}}
|-
! 3rd Sing
| ama || {{IPA|ama}}
|-
! 1st Plu
| oma || {{IPA|oma}}
|-
! 2nd Plu
| opoma || {{IPA|opoma}}
|-
! 3rd Plu
| amamah || {{IPA|amamɐ̝}}

|}

==== Articles ====

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=2 | !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! colspan=2 | Definite
| a || as
|-
! colspan=2 | Indefinite
| aho || ahos
|-
|}

=== Adverbs ===
=== Quantifiers ===
The quantifiers express a quantity of a certain subject. They are divided in four subclasses.
==== Numeral Quantifiers ====
Popoma numerals are mostly inherited from Italian and Portuguese. Bigger numbers are normally adapted from Japanese or with the previous Popoma numerals. This subclass of quantifiers also includes the fractional (+kakhu) and multiplicative (+zan) expressions.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Digit !! Cardinal !! Pronunciation !! Fractional !! Multiplicative
|-
! 0
| zu̇oh || [zɜɔ] || ''(doesn't exist)'' || zu̇ozan
|-
! 1
| unho || [uɲo] || unhokakhu || unhozan
|-
! 2
| duo || [duo] || duokakhu || duozan
|-
! 3
| tri || [tɾi] || trikakhu || trizan
|-
! 4
| qatoro || [kʷatoɾo] || qatorokakhu || qatorozan
|-
! 5
| k̇inoh || [kxinɔ] || k̇inokakhu || k̇inozan
|-
! 6
| siza || [siza] || sizakakhu || sizazan
|-
! 7
| sita || [sita] || sitakakhu || sitazan
|-
! 8
| ohita || [ɔita] || ohitakakhu || ohitazan
|-
! 9
| nu̇pho || [nɜfo] || nu̇phokakhu || nu̇phozan
|-
! 10
| daż || [daʒ] || dahkakhu || dażan
|-
! 11
| dażunho || [daʒuɲo] || dażunhokakhu || dażunhozan
|-
! 20
| duo-daż || [duo daʒ] || duo-dahkakhu || duo-dażan
|-
! 100
| dażih || [daʒy] || dażikakhu || dażizan
|-
! 200
| duo-dażih || [duo daʒy] || duo-dażikakhu || duo-dażizan
|-
! 1000
| dażoi || [daʒoi] || dażoikakhu || dażoiozan
|-
! 10,000
| daż-dażoi || [daʒ daʒoi] || daż-dażoikakhu || daż-dażoizan
|-
|}

==== Universal and Existencial Quantifiers ====
The '''Universal''' quantifiers quantify the whole.
The '''Existencial''' quantifiers quantify some part of the whole

'''Universal quantifiers table'''

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Singular !! Plural
|-
| tuti ''"all/every"'' || tutis ''"all/every"''
|-
| ninhunu̇ ''"none"'' || ninhunu̇s ''"none"''
|-
| ''(doesn't exist)'' || doshira ''"both"''
|-
| doru̇ka ''"any"'' || ''(doesn't exist)''
|-
| kada ''"each/every"'' || ''(doesn't exist)''
|}

'''Existencial quantifiers table'''

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Singular !! Plural
|-
| alkuni ''"some"'' || alkunis ''"some"''
|-
| poka ''"few"'' || pokas ''"few"''
|-
| molti ''"very/much/quite"'' || moltis ''"alot/very/many/quite"''
|-
| sonhani ''"much"'' || sonhanis ''"many"''
|-
| ''(doesn't exist)'' || paruci ''"various"''
|-
| kanari ''"quite/plenty"'' || kanaris ''"quite/plenty"''
|}

==== The Interrogative Quantifiers (How Much? / How Many?) ====
Taken from Portuguese, this quantifier introduces questions related to quantities. These types of questions are invariably answered using another quantifier.

Two interrogative quantifiers:
* '''Qati? / Qatis?''' - comes from Old Popoma, taken from Portuguese.
* '''Ikura? / Ikuras?''' - set as an alternative quantifier in the 1800 convention, taken from Japanese.

=== Prepositions ===
Prepositions are one of the easiest things that the language offer, location of something is normally given by the demonstrative (pronoun or determinant). Like the mentioned class of words, prepositions inflect in distance, number and formality.

Propositions also follow a different way of creation from other words.
There are the "prepositional prefixes" those are the beginning of each preposition.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Root Words !! Meaning
|-
| zo || area/place
|-
| ha || altitude
|-
| luro || related to a place
|-
| oi || abstract prepositions
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Prefixes !! Meaning
|-
| ma- || close/nearunderlow
|-
| na- || farhigh
|-
| a- || into
|-
| i- || outwithout
|-
|}

=== Conjunctions ===

==Syntax & Other Grammar==
===Constituent order===
Popoma is a SVO(C) language for the most part of the time, unless you are negating or interrogating. This means that the constituent order in Popoma isn't regular. The verb and the subject change positions when you want to negate or ask something. Making the SVO(C) into a VSO(C). At the end, there's a special case for this rule which will be explained further.
==== Magical Casting Sentences (MCS) ====
Like all European MGLs, Popoma has an unique way to cast their spells. It's always necessary the verb '''qopuh''' {{IPA|kʷopʉ}} (to cast, to throw). In Popoma's MCS, the subject is null, a trait taken from the Portuguese Syntax rules.

null subject '''qopuh''' (conjugated on present 1st person sing. or plu.) + object + adjective + adverb of time

'''Object''': the thing the magical girl will cast her spell to.
'''Adjective''': element to give the trait or action that will happen to the object, it also can be a infinitive form of a verb.
'''Adverb of Time''': gives the time of duration of the spell, magical girls use hours and minutes.

Unlike normal sentences, MGSs don't change orders in negation. (There's no interrogative spells). Negation of spells are often used as counter-attack against the affirmative spells, like balanced.

=== Formation of the Negative and Interrogative Sentences ===

== Vocabulary ==

== Sample Text ==
=== UDHR Article 1 ===
[[File:popoma234.png|800px|thumb|center|Article 1 of UDHR in Popoma script]]
'''ARTIKOLO UNHO''' 
'''''"Tutis as umanis natoranhos liṗu̇s i u̇qoahas in diq̇itah i in diriti. Amamah ataruranhos di sainoh i di koshiniża, amamah dolhu̇rażinhos koih ahos para koh as outoras in shipirito di phatiri."'''''



[[Category:Popoma]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Magical Girls' Languages]]
[[Category:European MGLs]]
[[Category:Scripts]]

File:Celabrian Alphabet.png

2025-08-29T02:05:48Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

The Celabrian alphabet

[[Category:Scripts]]

Modern Gothic

2025-08-29T02:03:12Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

{{construction}}

[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]
[[Category:A_posteriori]]
[[Category:Indo-European_languages]]
[[Category:Germanic_languages]]
[[Category:East_Germanic_languages]]
[[Category:Scripts]]

{{Infobox language
| name = ''Modern Gothic''
|-
| nativename = Γnσɑvþɑʒɔ, ''Gusanrazd'' Γnσɜvþɑþɔ, ''Gusenrard''
| pronunciation = /ˈgʊ.sən.ˌrɐst/ /ˈgu.sən.ˌrart/
|-
|creator=sjacik
|setting=''Unnamed Alternate Timeline''
|-
| state = Gothia
| familycolor = Lightblue
| fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
| fam2 = [[w:Germanic_languages|Germanic]]
| fam3 = [[w:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]]
| fam4 = [[w:Gothic_language|Biblical Gothic]]
|ancestor=[[w:Gothic_language|Biblical Gothic]]
|-
| nation = Gothia
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Modern Gothic''' is an East Germanic language descended from a language similar to Biblical Gothic. Words will be given in Standard Modern Gothic and Colloquial Modern Gothic, if they differ. 

Throughout this article I will be using a combination of Greek, Cyrillic, and Latin (both regular as well as some of the Insular forms that have Unicode representations) in order to write MG in a way that resembles its native script.

== Introduction ==
Modern Gothic is used in an alternate timeline where the Ostrogoths survived as a culture to the modern day.The point of divergence is that around the 1st century AD, magic became real. Roughly speaking, from then until the 10th c. is the same. The 10th to 16th c. are marked by differences caused by the survival or death of various powers. While the 16th c. onward has become radically different.

By the end of the 5th c. A.D., the Ostrogoths had made a kingdom in northern Italy. Unlike in our timeline, the Goths retained some strength, enough so that when the Byzantine empire tried to retake the West they were repelled, at first. In the 9th c. the Byzantines were able to conquer the Goths. From then until the 15th c. they were a subject of the Byzantines.

In the early 14th c., the Byzantine-Seljuk wars started. The two empires had a series of wars, until the 16th c. when the Eastern Roman Empire fell. The Seljuk empire followed suit in the 19th c. When the East fell, the Seljuks attempted to claim their territories, but were only able to exert control into the Balkans.

When the Ostrogoths gained independence, they did so alongside the Slovenians forming the Kingdom of Gothia-Slovenia. Relations between the groups decayed until 1933, when the nation fell into a civil war which ended in 1936 with the formal seperation of the kingdom into the Republic of Gothia and the Republic of Slovenia, the latter of which joined Yugoslavia in 1937. Gothia joined the European Confederation in 2007.

== Dialects ==
Modern Gothic is divided into 2 branches: Coastal and Eastern. Coastal is comprised of both the Standard form of the language, as well as the Colloquial form which is closer to how the language is spoken in the modern day. Eastern Gothic is the term for a group of dialects that have diverged heavily from the coastal varieties. 

From the late 19th century until 1977, there existed an artificially archaic form of the language that was used as the literary standard.

==Orthography==
Modern Gothic is written in a version of Wulfilas' Gothic alphabet, albeit with Greek influences. These include the use of sigma form of σɑnɥл ''saujl'', as well as the adoption of bicameralism with the Greek minuscules being used for the majuscules that resembled the Greek uppercase. There are also Romance influences, such as the way spirantized consonants are written with a following r ''h'' (called ɑqл ''awl''). However in the modern day it has become a diacritic above the letter that resembles an inverted breve, e.g. μıʒ̑vɑ̑ꞇ ''mizhnaht''.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
! colspan="4" | Gothic !! Name !! IPA !! colspan="2" | Latin
|-
| colspan="2" | Uppercase || colspan="2" | Lowercase || || || Uppercase || Lowercase
|-
| [[File:GothicA.png|30px]] || Ʌ || [[File:Gothic.a.png|30px]] || ɑ || ɑσp ''ask'' || a || A || a
|-
| [[File:GothicB.png|30px]] || B || [[File:Gothic.b.png|30px]] || η || ηεþp ''berk'' || b || B || b
|-
| [[File:GothicG.png|30px]] || Γ || [[File:Gothic.g.png|30px]] || c || cb ''gy'' || g || G || g
|-
| [[File:GothicD.png|30px]] || Δ || [[File:Gothic.d.png|30px]] || ɔ || ɔɑp̑ ''dach'' || d || D || d
|-
| [[File:GothicE.png|30px]] || Є || [[File:Gothic.e.png|30px]] || ε || bε ''ioe'' || e || E || e
|-
| [[File:GothicEU.png|30px]] || Ɵ || [[File:Gothic.eu.png|30px]] || ɵ || ɵþϕɑσσ ''eurthass'' || ɪ || Eu || eu
|-
| [[File:GothicÖ.png|30px]] || Ɛ || [[File:Gothic.ö.png|30px]] || e || eþϕ ''eorth'' || ø || Eo || eo
|-
| [[File:GothicSchwa.png|30px]] || Э || [[File:Gothic.schwa.png|30px]] || ɜ || σ̇ƚɑɑ ''shfaa'' || ə || A || a
|-
| [[File:GothicZ.png|30px]] || Z || [[File:Gothic.z.png|30px]] || ʒ || b ''io'' || z || Z || z
|-
| [[File:GothicH.png|30px]] || Һ || [[File:Gothic.h.png|30px]] || r || ɑqл ''awl'' || h || H || h
|-
| [[File:GothicÐ.png|30px]] || Ψ || [[File:Gothic.ð.png|30px]] || ϕ || ϕuϕ '' thiuth || θ || Th || th
|-
| [[File:GothicI.png|30px]] || I || [[File:Gothic.i.png|30px]] || ı || εıε ''eie'' || ɪ || I || i
|-
| [[File:GothicIU.png|30px]] || U || [[File:Gothic.iu.png|30px]] || u || μup̑ ''miuch'' || ɨ || Iu || iu
|-
| [[File:GothicY.png|30px]] || Ю || [[File:Gothic.y.png|30px]] || b || cebл ''geiol'' || ʏ || Io || io
|-
| [[File:GothicK.png|30px]] || P || [[File:Gothic.k.png|30px]] || p || pnσɑμ ''kusam'' || k || K || k
|-
| [[File:GothicL.png|30px]] || λ || [[File:Gothic.l.png|30px]] || л || лɑq ''law'' || l || L || l
|-
| [[File:GothicM.png|30px]] || M || [[File:Gothic.m.png|30px]] || μ || μɑvv ''mann'' || m || M || m
|-
| [[File:GothicN.png|30px]] || N || [[File:Gothic.n.png|30px]] || v || vɑnϕ ''nauth'' || n || N || n
|-
| [[File:GothicJ.png|30px]] || G || [[File:Gothic.j.png|30px]] || ɥ || ɥεεþ ''jeer'' || j || J || j
|-
| [[File:GothicU.png|30px]] || Ƞ || [[File:Gothic.u.png|30px]] || n || onþε ''oure'' || ʊ || U || u
|-
| [[File:GothicUI.png|30px]] || Ɱ || [[File:Gothic.ui.png|30px]] || m || ponı ''koui'' || ʊ || Ui || ui
|-
| [[File:GothicP.png|30px]] || Π || [[File:Gothic.p.png|30px]] || ϖ || ϖεþϕ ''perth'' || p || P || p
|-
| [[File:GothicR.png|30px]] || Ꙡ || [[File:Gothic.r.png|30px]] || þ || þɑıɔ̑ ''raidh'' || r || R || r
|-
| [[File:GothicS.png|30px]] || Σ || [[File:Gothic.s.png|30px]] || σ || σɑnɥл ''saujl'' || s || S || s
|-
| [[File:GothicT.png|30px]] || T || [[File:Gothic.t.png|30px]] || ꞇ || ꞇεın ''teiu'' || t || T || t
|-
| [[File:GothicW.png|30px]] || Ч || [[File:Gothic.w.png|30px]] || q || qıvɥ ''winj'' || w || W || w
|-
| [[File:GothicV.png|30px]] || Y || [[File:Gothic.v.png|30px]] || ɣ || ɣε ''ve'' || v || V || v
|-
| [[File:GothicF.png|30px]] || F || [[File:Gothic.f.png|30px]] || ƚ || ƚɑɑ ''faa'' || f || F || f
|-
| [[File:GothicO.png|30px]] || O || [[File:Gothic.o.png|30px]] || o || ooϕɑл ''oothal'' || o || O || o
|-
|}

== Phonology

== Development ==
=== Grammar Changes ===
The Dative merged with either the Genitive, or the Accusative in some cases. Which it does originally depended on the number and the declension class. However, for most words this was leveled out so that the Genitive became the norm.

* 'ɑσ ɑ̑þɥɑσ' in the singular, but 'ɑσ ɑ̑þɥɑv' with the Oblique in the plural.

In the dialects surrounding Trette (Trent), the Oblique and the Nominative merged, as well.

While the Genitive has become the case to use when using prepositions, a new Genitive has emerged used 'ɑƚ' with the Common case.

In the eastern dialects, the dual pronouns were kept. Their retention in Standard Modern Gothic is an artificial archaicism.

=== Sound changes from Biblical Gothic to Middle Gothic ===
==== General ====
/kʷ/ was re-analyzed as /kw/. 
* Gothic 𐌵𐌹𐌼𐌰𐌽 ''qiman'' → ''*kwiman'' → pbμɑʒ ''kiomaz'' / pıμɜσ ''kimes'' / pbμσ ''küms'', 'to come'. 
/mn/ assimilated to /mː/. 
* Gothic 𐌷𐌹𐌼𐌹𐌽𐍃 ''himins'' → ''*himms'' → εμμ ''emm'', 'heaven'.
/iV/ becomes /jV/.
* Gothic 𐌳𐌹𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌿𐌻𐌿𐍃 ''diabaulus'' → ''*djawala'' → ʒ̇ɑɣл ''zhawl'', 'demon'.

==== Metathesis ====
This primarily happened with liquids. if /l r/ are adjacent to /h/, they are switched so /h/ is either directly before or after a vowel. 
* Gothic 𐌼𐌰𐍂𐌷𐍃 ''marhs'' → ''*mahrs'' → μɑ̑ɑ̑þ ''mȃȃr'', 'horse'. 
* Gothic 𐌷𐌻𐌷𐌾𐌰𐌽 ''hlahjan'' → ''*lhahjn'' → лɑ̑ɑ̑ɥʒ / лɑ̑ɑ̑ɥσ ''lȃȃjz / lȃȃjs'', 'to laugh'.

==== Glottalization ====
Geminate stops are fortified to glottal stops.
* Gothic 𐍅𐌹𐌺𐌺𐍉𐌽 ''wikkon'' → ''*ioʔon'' → ɣbrɑ ''wioha'', 'witch'. N.b. ɣbrɑ is a learned form from Middle Gothic, the CMG and EMG forms are ''ı'' and ''ǿj'', respectively.

This is later dropped in most cases, and in the ones that don't it becomes /h/.

==== Elision ====
Unstressed, short vowels are elided when near stressed and/or long occurrences of the same vowel.
* Gothic 𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌼𐌰𐌽𐌽𐍃 ''alamanns'' → ''*almanns'' → ɑлμɑvv ''almann'', 'German'.

==== Vocalic Effects ====
===== H-Shift =====
V + ''h'' clusters, or ''h'' + V, caused the vowel to be lowered. If the /h/ was after the vowel, said vowel gets lengthened. 
* Gothic 𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌳𐌿𐍃 ''hardus'' → ɑ̑þɔ ''ȃrd'', 'hard'. 
* Gothic 𐍃𐌰𐌹𐌷𐍃 ''saihs'' → ''*saas'' → σɑɑ ''saa'', 'six'.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Caption H-shift
|-
! colspan="6" | 𐌷
|-
! Root Vowel !! Outcome 1 !! Outcome 2 !! Root Vowel !! Outcome 1 !! Outcome 2
|-
| a || ɑ || ɑː || ɛː || aː || aːː
|-
| ɛ || a || aː || eː || ɛː || ɛːː
|-
| i || e || eː || iː || eː || eːː
|-
| ɨ || ɘ || ɘː || uː || oː || oːː
|-
| u || o || oː || oː || ɔː || ɔːː
|-
| ɔ || ɑ || ɑː || ɔː || ɑː || ɑːː
|-
| aː || ɑː || ɑːː || || ||
|}

===== W-Shift =====
V + ''w'' clusters, or ''w'' + V, caused the vowel to be rounded. If the /w/ or /u̯/ was after the vowel, said vowel gets lengthened. Back vowels, /u ɔ uː oː ɔː/, became longer regardless if /w/ followed or preceded. 
* Gothic 𐍅𐌹𐌽𐍄𐍂𐌿𐍃 ''wintrus'' → ''*iontr'' → bꞇꞇþɑ ''iottra'' / ıꞇꞇɜþ ''itter'' / bꞇꞇþ NMG ''yttr'', 'winter'. 
* Gothic 𐍆𐌹𐌳𐍅𐍉𐍂 ''fidwor'' → ƚıɔoɑþ / ƚıɔoþ ''fidoar / fidor '', 'four'. 

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Caption W-shift
|-
! colspan="6" | 𐍅
|-
! Root Vowel !! Outcome 1 !! Outcome 2 !! Root Vowel !! Outcome 1 !! Outcome 2
|-
| a || ɔ || ɔː || ɛː || œː || œːː
|-
| ɛ || œ || œː || eː || øː || øːː
|-
| i || y || yː || iː || yː || yːː
|-
| ɨ || ʉ || ʉː || uː || uːː || uːː
|-
| u || uː || uːː || oː || oːː || oːː
|-
| ɔ || ɔː || ɔːː || ɔː || ɔːː || ɔːː
|-
| aː || ɔː || ɔːː || || ||
|}

===== Ƕ-Shift =====
Both of the previous shifts can be combined.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Caption Ƕ-shift
|-
! colspan="6" | 𐌷
|-
! Root Vowel !! Outcome 1 !! Outcome 2 !! Root Vowel !! Outcome 1 !! Outcome 2
|-
| a || ɔ || ɔː || ɛː || ɔː || ɔːː
|-
| ɛ || ɔ || ɔː || eː || œː || œːː
|-
| i || ø || øː || iː || yː || yːː
|-
| ɨ || ɵ || ɵː || uː || oːː || oːː
|-
| u || oː || oː || oː || ɔːː || ɔːː
|-
| ɔ || ɑ || ɔː || ɔː || ɑːː || ɔːː
|-
| aː || ɔ || ɔːː || || ||
|}

==== Nasal Lenition ====
At the end of words, /m/ and /n/ are softened to /ṽ z̃/.
* Gothic -𐌰𐌽 ''-an'' → ''-az̃'' → ''-ɑσ''

=== Middle Gothic to Western Gothic ===
==== /ɣ/ softening ====
Near front vowels /ɣ/ becomes /j~i̯/. Otherwise, it becomes /w~u̯/.
* Gothic 𐍆𐌿𐌲𐌻𐍃 ''fugls'' → ''*fuwl'' → ƚonл ''foul'', 'bird'

In the dialects around Titshin (Pavia), this interacts with the high vowels to create diphthongs.
* Gothic 𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌽 ''rign'' → ''*rejn'' → þεɥσ ''rejs'', 'rain'. Compare this to those in east Gothia, which served as the basis of CMG, þεıσ 'reis'.

==== Plosive Shift ====
Step one: the consonants /p t k/ lenite to /f s x/ between vowels and after a vowel at the end of a word. /x/ later becomes /ç/ when near front vowels.
* Gothic 𐌱𐌰𐍄𐌹𐌶𐌰 ''batiza'' → ''*basiz'' → SMG ηɑσɑσ CMG ηɑσɜþ ''basas baser'', 'better'.
* Gothic 𐌻𐌴𐌹𐌺 ''leik'' → ''*leikh'' → лεıp̑ ''leich'', 'body'.
* Gothic 𐍃𐌺𐌹𐍀 ''skip'' → ''*skif'' → σıƚ ''sif'', 'ship'.

Step two: the nasal-stop clusters coalesce into geminate stops
* Gothic ''asdf'' → ''*asdf'' → ''asdf'', 'asdf'. No words currently suitable for an example.
* Gothic 𐍃𐌹𐌽𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃 ''sinteins'' → ''*sittin'' → σıꞇꞇɑv ''sittan'', 'daily'.
* Gothic ''asdf'' → ''*asdf'' → ''asdf'', 'asdf'. No words currently suitable for an example.
* Gothic ''asdf'' → ''*asdf'' → ''asdf'', 'asdf'. No words currently suitable for an example.
* Gothic 𐌲𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌳𐌿𐍃 '' grundus'' → ''*grudda'' → cþovɔɔɑ ''grouda'', 'ground'.
* Gothic 𐍄𐌿𐌲𐌲𐍉 ''tuggo'' → ''*tugga'' → ꞇonccɑ ''touga'', 'tongue'. No words currently suitable for an example.

==== Palatalization ====
/Cj/ clusters are palatalized, except for those that start with a labial consonant.
* Gothic 𐍆𐍉𐍄𐌾𐌿𐍃 ''fotjus'' → ''*footja'' → ƚooσ̇ɑ ''foosja'', 'feet'.
* Gothic 𐍅𐌰𐍃𐌾𐌰𐌽 ''wasjan'' → ''*osjas'' → oσ̇ ''osj'', 'to wear'.
* Gothic 𐌼𐌹𐌳𐌾𐌹𐍃 ''midjis'' → ''*midja'' → μıʒ̇ɑ ''mizha'', 'middle'.
* Gothic 𐌺𐌰𐌿𐌶𐌾𐌰𐌽 ''kauzjan'' → ''*kauzjas'' → pɑnʒ̇ ''kauzj'', 'to taste'.
* Gothic 𐍃𐍀𐍂𐌴𐌺𐌾𐍉 ''sprekjo'' → ''*spreekjo'' → σϖþεεṗ ''spreekj'', 'language'.
* Gothic 𐍅𐌹𐌲𐌾𐌹 ''wigji'' → ''*iogj'' → ɣbċ ''wiogj'', 'mare'.
* Gothic 𐌲𐍂𐍉𐌽𐌾𐌹𐍃 ''gronjis'' → ''*groonj'' → cþoov̇ ''groonj'', 'green'.
* Gothic 𐍆𐌿𐌻𐌻𐌾𐌰𐌽 ''fulljan'' → ''*fuljan'' → ƚnл̇ɑσ ''fuljas'', 'to fill'.

In the eastern dialects this also applies to /rj/, yielding /j/ through intermediary /jː/.
* Gothic -𐌰𐍂𐌹𐌿𐍃 ''-arius'' → ''*-ajja'' → -ɑɥɑ ''-aja'', '-er, agentative'.

==Standard New Gothic ==
=== Phonology ===
==== Consonants ====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
! !! Labial !! Dental !! Coronal !! Dorsal !! Glottal
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nasal
| m || || n || (ŋ)1 ||
|-
! style=text-align:left | Stop
| p2 b || || t2 d || k2 g ||
|-
! style=text-align:left | Affricate
| || || tʃ dʒ || ||
|-
! style=text-align:left | Fricative
| f v3 || θ ð || t s ʃ ʒ || x || (h)4
|-
! style=text-align:left | Approximant
| || || || j ||
|-
! style=text-align:left | Trill
| || || r || ||
|}
1 /ŋ/ is found only before the velar stops 
2 The voiceless stops are unaspirated 
3 /v/ is realized as [w] intervocally 
4 /h/ is only found between vowels, and is used to break up vowel sequences
==== Vowels ====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Front !! rowspan="2" style=vertical-align:top | Central !! rowspan="2" style=vertical-align:top | Back
|-
! Unrounded !! Rounded
|-
! style=text-align:left | Close
| ɪ iː iə̯ || ʏ yː yə̯ || ɨ ɨː || u uː uə̯
|-
! style=text-align:left | Close-mid
| e eː eə̯ || ø øː øə̯ || || o oː oə̯
|-
! style=text-align:left | Open-mid
| ɛː ɛə̯ || œː œə̯ || ə || ɔː ɔə̯
|-
! style=text-align:left | Open
| a aː aə̯ || || || ɑ ɑː ɑə̯
|}
/ɑə̯/ is incredibly rare, as the environment it comes from was mostly found only in compounds. 
The centering diphthongs come from overlong vowels in Middle Gothic. No surviving dialect has kept them as overlong. They were either broken or shortened.

== Grammar ==
=== Articles ===
Modern Gothic has two articles, the Definite and the Indefinite. Regardless of dialect, they are invariable.
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Standard MG !! colspan="2" | Colloquial MG !! rowspan="2" style=vertical-align:top | Eastern MG
|-
! Masculine || Feminine || Masculine || Feminine
|-
! style=text-align:left | Definite
| σ- || ꞇɑ || σ- || ꞇε || tă
|-
! style=text-align:left | Indefinite
| colspan="2" | εv || colspan="2" | εv (ɜv) || en
|}

However, the underlying form of the definite may be invariable, but in the Coastal dialects they cause lenition of the following consonant.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| σPɑrɑσ || ƚɑ̑ɑ || εv || Monσ
|-
| ˈsxa.həs || ˈfɑə̯ || ɛn || ˈmuːs
|-
| σ-Pɑr-ɑσ || ∅-ƚɑ̑ɑ-∅ || εv || Monσ-∅
|-
| DEF-cat.M-NOM.SG || NPFV-catch-IND.PRS.3SG || INDEF || mouse.F-OBL.SG
|-
| The cat || is catching || a || mouse
|}

Compare this to the indefinite ɛn Pɑrɑσ ''en Kahas'' /ɛn ˈka.həs/. However, the indefinite is not used as often as in other Germanic languages. In Gothic, it frequently remains to mean 'one', with indefiniteness being secondary.

=== Determiners ===
Modern Gothic has both proximal and distal demonstratives, and these are declined to agree with a noun in: case, number, and gender.
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Proximal Demonstratives
! rowspan="3" | !! colspan="4" | SMG !! colspan="4" | CMG !! colspan="4" | EMG
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| σɑ || rowspan="2" | ϕoo || σɑı || rowspan="2" | ϕooσ || σɑ || rowspan="2" | ϕoo || σɑı || rowspan="2" | ϕooσ̇ || ta || rowspan="2" | tóv || tej || rowspan="2" | tos
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| σɑv || σɑv || σɑv || σɑv || tan || tan
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive-Locative
| σıσ || ϕıσɑσ || σıσɑ || ϕıσɑ || σıþ || colspan="3" | ϕıþɜ || tis || zos || žéj || zóv
|}

The proximal demonstratives are used to both deictically and anaphorically, to indicate that a noun (whether it be concrete or abstract) is somehow relevant. This relevance can be physical nearness or the topic of the clause.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| σɑ || Ꙡɛıv || ıσσ || nvσꞇonσ̇
|-
| sa || ˈrin || ɪsː || ˌʊn.ˈstuʃ
|-
| σɑ || Ꙡɛıv-∅ || ∅-ıσσ || nv-nσꞇonꞇ-ɥ
|-
| DEM.M.NOM.SG || rain.M-CMN.SG || NPFV-to_be.IND.PRS.3SG || un-end-M.CMN.SG
|-
| This || rain || is || unending
|}

The distal demonstratives are used much the same as the proximal. The difference is that the distal set indicates distance, either deictically or anaphorically.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Distal Demonstratives
! rowspan="3" | !! colspan="4" | SMG !! colspan="4" | CMG !! colspan="4" | EMG
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| σɑ̑ɑ̑ || rowspan="2" | ϕɑn || σɑı || rowspan="2" | ϕooσɑ || σɑ̑ɑ̑ || rowspan="2" | ϕɑn || σɑɑ || rowspan="2" | ϕooþ || tȃv || rowspan="2" | tov || taj || rowspan="2" | zo
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| σɑv || σɑvɑ || σɑvɜ || σɑvɜ || nȃv || tan
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive-Locative
| σıσɑ || ϕıσɛ || σıσɑ || ϕıσo || σıþ || colspan="3" | ϕıþɛ || zo || zóvz || žéjz || zov
|}

While the proximal demonstratives can be used to mark the topic, the distal cannot be used to likewise mark the comment.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| tov || rušk || gišt || rutnóv
|-
| tʷɔw || ˈrʷuʃk || gʲiʃt || ˈrʷut.nʷow
|-
| tov || rušk-∅ || g-išt || rut-n-óv
|-
| DEM.F.NOM.SG || pear.F-NOM.SG || PFV-to_be.IND.PRS.3SG || rot-PPRT-F.NOM.SG
|-
| That || pear || is || rotten
|}

=== Pronouns ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ 1st Person
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="3" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="3" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| Ip̑ || Юσ || Юɑ || Ip̑ || Eıσ̇ || ič || yc || yš
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| Mıp̑ || Ƞppɑσ || Ƞvσɑσ || Mıp̑ || Ƞvσɜ || mič || unčs || un
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| Mɛıv || Ƞppɑþ || Ƞvσɑþ || Mɛıv || Ƞvσɜþ || méjn || unkr || unsr
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ 2nd Person
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="3" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="3" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| Ψn || Gon || Gnσ̇ || Ψn || Gon || tu || jut || jut
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| Ψnp̑ || Ippbσ || Iσb || Ψnp̑ || Iþɜ || tuk || inčs || izüs
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| Ψɛıv || Ippɑþ || Iσoþ || Ψɛıv || Iþɜþ || téjn || inkr || izvr
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ 3rd Person
! rowspan="3" | !! colspan="4" | SMG !! colspan="4" | CMG !! colspan="4" | EMG
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| Eı || Σı || Iɑ || rowspan="2" | Eıσ || Eı || Σı || Iɛ || rowspan="2" | Eıσ || iš || si || iš || rowspan="2" | éj
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| Iv || Eı || Ivσ || Iv || Eı || Iv || iň || éj || iň
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| Eı || Iσɑσ || colspan="2" | Iσɑ || Eı || Iþɜ || colspan="2" | Iɜ || iš || zos || žéj || zóv
|}

==== Clitic pronouns ====
Colloquial Modern Gothic has a series of clitic pronouns for the Genitive, Accusative, and Dative cases. The accusative is pre-verbal, while the dative and genitive are post-verbal and pre-nominal, respectively.
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
! rowspan="3" | !! colspan="2" | 1st Person !! colspan="2" | 2nd Person !! colspan="4" | 3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="2" | Singular !! rowspan="2" | Plural !! rowspan="2" | Singular !! rowspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| μɜv || σɜþ || ϕɜv || þɜ || ɜ || colspan="3" | ɜþ
|-
! style=text-align:left | Accusative
| rowspan="2" | μɜ || σɜ || rowspan="2" | ϕɜ || þɜþ || ɜv || ɜ || ɜv || ɥɜ
|-
! style=text-align:left | Dative
| ɥɜ || ɜμ || ɜþ || colspan="2" | ɜƚ
|}

=== Possessive Adjectives ===
Modern Gothic possessive adjectives have simplified greatly since Wulfilas' time. At the same time, a third person paradigm has been innovated.
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Standard Modern Gothic
! rowspan="3" colspan="3" | !! colspan="4" | Possessee
|-
! colspan="2" | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! rowspan="6" | Possessor !! rowspan="2" | 1st !! Singular
| μɛıvɑv || μɛıvɑvσ || μɛıv || μɛıvɑσ
|-
! Plural
| nvσɑþɑv || nvσɑþɑvσ || nvσɑþ || nvσɑþɑσ
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd !! Singular
| ϕɛıvɑv || ϕɛıvɑvσ || ϕɛıv || ϕɛıvɑσ
|-
! Plural
| ıσoþɑv || ıσoþɑvσ || ıσoþ || ıσoþɑσ
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd
| ıσɑv || ıσɑvσ || ıσɑσ || ıσɑσɑσ
|-
! colspan="2" | Reflexive
| σɛıvɑv || σɛıvɑvσ || σɛıv || σɛıvɑσ
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Colloquial Modern Gothic
! rowspan="3" colspan="3" | !! colspan="3" | Possessee
|-
! rowspan="2" style=vertical-align:top | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine
|-
! Singular !! Plural
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="6" | Possessor !! rowspan="2" | 1st !! Singular
| μɛıvɜv || μɛıv || μɛıvɜ
|-
! Plural
| nvσɜþv || colspan="2" | nvσɜþ
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd !! Singular
| ϕɛıvɜv || ϕɛıv || ϕɛıvɜ
|-
! Plural
| ıþɜþv || ıσoþ || ıþɜ
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd
| ıþɜv || colspan="2" | ıþɜ
|-
! colspan="2" | Reflexive
| σɛıvɜv || σɛıv || σɛıvɜ
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Eastern Modern Gothic
! rowspan="3" colspan="3" | !! colspan="3" | Possessee
|-
! rowspan="2" style=vertical-align:top | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine
|-
! Singular !! Plural
|-
! rowspan="6" | Possessor !! rowspan="2" | 1st !! Singular
| méjnăn || méjn || méjnus
|-
! Plural
| unsrn || unsr || unsur
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd !! Singular
| téjnăn || téjn || téjnus
|-
! Plural
| zorăn || zor || zorus
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd
| zăn || colspan="2" | zus
|-
! colspan="2" | Reflexive
| séjnăn || séjn || séjnus
|}
=== Nouns ===
In all three dialects discussed here, nouns have two numbers: Singular and Plural. In Colloquial Gothic, they are declined for two cases: Common and the Genitive-Locative. In both Standard and Eastern Modern Gothic nouns are marked for three cases: Nominative, Oblique, and the Genitive(-Locative).
==== Strong Declensions ====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ A-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | -∅ || -ɑσ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɜ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || -vs
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɑv || -ăv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑσ || -ɑ || colspan="2" | -ɜ || -js || -e
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Ja-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| rowspan="3" | -ɥɑσ || -ɥɑσ || rowspan="2" | -∅, -ɥ || rowspan="2" | -ɥɜ || rowspan="2" | -j || -jvs
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɥɑv || -jăv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɥɑ || colspan="2" | -ɥɜ || -js || -je
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ O-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɑσ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɜ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || -vs
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -vv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑσ || -ɑ || colspan="2" | -ɜ || -vs || -u
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Jo-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural || Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɑσ || rowspan="2" | -∅, -ɥ || rowspan="2" | -ɥɜ || -∅ || rowspan="2" | -jvs
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -jai
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑσ || -ɑ || colspan="2" | -ɥɜ || -jvs || -ju
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ I-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | -∅ || -ɑσ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɜ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || -js
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɑv || -jv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑσ || -ɑ || colspan="2" | -ɜ || -js || -e
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ U-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| rowspan="3" | -ɑσ || -ɥɑσ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɥɜ || -∅ || -jvs
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɥɑv || -o || -vv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɥɑ || -ɜ || -ɜ || colspan="2" | -os
|}
==== Weak Declensions ====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ An-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɑv || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɜv || rowspan="2" | -∅ || -ăn
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɑʒ || -vn
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑv || -vɑ || | -ɜv || | -vɜ || colspan="2" | -ni
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ On-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -ɑ || rowspan="2" | -ɑv || rowspan="2" | -ɜ || rowspan="2" | -ɜv || -u || -vn
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɑʒ || -vz || -ov
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑv || -vɑ || | -ɜv || | -ɜvɜ || colspan="2" | -vn
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ In-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -ɑ || rowspan="2" | -ɑv || rowspan="2" | -ɜ || rowspan="2" | -ɜv || -i || -jn
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɑʒ || -jz || -iv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑv || -vɑ || | -ɜv || | -ɜvɜ || -jn || -inu
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ R-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | -ɑþ || -þɑσ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="3" | -þɜ || rowspan="3" | -r || -rs
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -þɑv || -rvv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑþσ || -þɑ || | -ɜþ || -ri
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Consonant stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | SMG !! colspan="2" | CMG !! colspan="2" | EMG
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -σɑ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || -s
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ăv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑσ || -ɑ || colspan="2" | -ɜ || -js || -i
|}

=== Adjectives ===
==== Strong Adjective ====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ A-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -∅ || rowspan="2" | -∅ || -ɑ || rowspan="2" | -ɑσ
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɑv || -ɑv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| colspan="4" | -ɑσ
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Ja-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -ɥɑσ || rowspan="2" | -ɥɑ || -ɥɑ || rowspan="2" | -ɥɑσ
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɥɑv || -ɥɑv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| colspan="4" | -ɥɑσ
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ I-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -∅ || -∅ || -ɥɑ || rowspan="2" | -ɥɑσ
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɥɑv || -ɥɑ || -ɥɑv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| colspan="4" | -ɥɑσ
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ U-stem
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -ɑσ || rowspan="2" | -ɑσ || rowspan="2" colspan="2" | -ɥɑ
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɥɑv
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑσ || colspan="3" | -ɥɑσ
|}

==== Weak Adjectives ====
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Weak stem
! rowspan="3" | !! colspan="4" | SMG !! colspan="4" | CMG !! colspan="4" | EMG
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -∅ || rowspan="3" colspan="3" | -ɥɑv || rowspan="2" | -∅, -ɥ || rowspan="2" | -ɥɜ || rowspan="2" colspan="2" | -ɥɜv || -∅ || -jouv || rowspan="3" | -jn || rowspan="2" | -jun
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɥɑʒ || -jz || rowspan="2" | -jun
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɥɑv || colspan="4" | -ɥɜv || -jn || -jouvn
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Weak A-stem
! rowspan="3" | !! colspan="4" | SMG !! colspan="4" | CMG !! colspan="4" | EMG
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine || Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine || Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine
|-
! style=text-align:left | Nominative
| -∅ || rowspan="3" colspan="3" | -ɑv || rowspan="2" | -∅ || rowspan="2" | -ɜ || rowspan="2" colspan="2" | -ɜv || -∅ || -ouv || rowspan="3" | -ăn || rowspan="2" | -un
|-
! style=text-align:left | Oblique
| -ɑʒ || -ăz || rowspan="2" | -un
|-
! style=text-align:left | Genitive
| -ɑv || colspan="4" | -ɜv || -jn || -ouvn
|}
=== Verbs ===
==== Strong ====
Apart from a few exceptions, the ablaut of the strong verbs has largely collapsed.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Standard Modern Gothic Strong Verbs
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" | !! colspan="3" | Indicative !! colspan="3" | Subjunctive !! rowspan="3" | Imperative
|-
! colspan="2" | Active !! rowspan="2" | Passive !! colspan="2" | Active !! rowspan="2" | Passive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast !! Imperfective !! Perfective
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -∅ || -ɑϕ || -ɑ || -ɥɑ || -ɑϕ || Invalid
|-
! 2nd
| -σ, -ꞇɑ || colspan="5" | -ɑσ || -∅
|-
! 3rd
| rowspan="2" | -∅ || colspan="2" | -ɑϕ || -ɑ || -∅ || colspan="2" | -ɑϕ
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="2" | Dual
! 1st
| -ɑσ || rowspan="2" | Invalid || -e || -b || colspan="2" | Invalid
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -ɑꞇ || colspan="4" | -ɑꞇ
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -ɑμ || rowspan="3" | -ɑɔɔ || colspan="2" | -ɑμ || rowspan="3" | -ɑɔɔ || -ɑμ
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -ɑϕ || colspan="2" | -ɑϕ || -ɑϕ
|-
! 3rd
| -ɑv || -ɑɔɔ || colspan="2" | -ɑv || -ɑɔɔ
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="7" | -ɑv
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Present Participle
| colspan="7" | -ɑɔɔ
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="7" | -ɑv
|}

{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Colloquial Modern Gothic Strong Verbs
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Indicative !! rowspan="2" | Imperative !! rowspan="2" | Subjunctive !! rowspan="2" | Passive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -∅ || Invalid || rowspan="3" | -∅ || rowspan="3" | -ϕ, -ɜϕ
|-
! 2nd
| -σ, -ɜꞇ || -σ, -ɜσ || -∅
|-
! 3rd
| -∅ || colspan="2" | -ϕ, -ɜϕ
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| colspan="3" | -ƚ, -ɜƚ || -ɜμ || rowspan="3" | -ꞇ, -ɜꞇ
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="4" | -ϕ, -ɜϕ
|-
! 3rd
| -σ, -ɜσ || colspan="2" | -ꞇ, -ɜꞇ || -ɜv
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="5" | -ɜσ
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" |Present Participle
| colspan="5" | -ɜꞇ
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="5" | -ɜv
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Eastern Modern Gothic Strong Verbs
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Indicative !! rowspan="2" | Imperative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast !! Perfective !! Imperfective
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -∅ || Invalid || -ü || -ó
|-
! 2nd
| -t || -js || -∅ || -is || -és
|-
! 3rd
| -∅ || -jt || -ó || -j || -é
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="2" | Dual !! 1st
| -v || -us || Invalid || -ü || -ő
|-
! 2nd
| -vt || colspan="2" | -ăt || -it || -ét
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| -vv || colspan="2" | -ăv || -im || -ém
|-
! 2nd
| -vt || colspan="2" | -jt || -it || -ét
|-
! 3rd
| -vz || -ăn || -tó || -in || -én
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="5" | -ăz
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Present Participle
| colspan="5" | -ăz, -ănd-
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="5" | -ăz, -ăn-
|}
There is also a Perfective prefix: cɑ- ''ga-'', cɜ- ''ge-'', gă-. This is particularly common in the past tense.

==== Weak ====
The Modern Gothic Weak I conjugation corresponds to the Biblical Gothic Weak III verbs.
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Standard Modern Gothic Weak I Verbs
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" | !! colspan="3" | Indicative !! colspan="3" | Subjunctive !! rowspan="3" | Imperative
|-
! colspan="2" | Active !! rowspan="2" | Passive !! colspan="2" | Active !! rowspan="2" | Passive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast !! Imperfective !! Perfective
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -ɑ || rowspan="3" | -ɑϕ || -ɑ || rowspan="8" | -ɑϕ || -ɑϕ || Invalid
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -ɑσ || -ɑσ || -ɑσ || -ɑ
|-
! 3rd
| -ɑ || -ɑϕ || -ɑ || colspan="2" | -ɑϕ
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="2" | Dual !! 1st
| rowspan="5" | -ɑϕ || -ɑσ || rowspan="2" | Invalid || -e || colspan="2" | Invalid
|-
! 2nd
| -ɑꞇ || -ɑꞇ || colspan="2" | -ɑꞇ
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| -ɑμ || rowspan="3" | -ɑɔɔ || -ɑμ || rowspan="3" | -ɑɔɔ || -ɑμ
|-
! 2nd
| -ɑϕ || -ɑϕ || -ɑϕ
|-
! 3rd
| -ɑɔɔ || -ɑv || -ɑɔɔ
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="7" | -ɑv
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2"|Present Participle
| colspan="7" | -ɑɔɔ
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="7" | -ɑv
|}

{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Colloquial Modern Gothic Weak I Verbs
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Indicative !! rowspan="2" | Imperative !! rowspan="2" | Subjunctive !! rowspan="2" | Passive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| rowspan="3" | -ɜ || -∅ || Invalid || rowspan="3" | -∅ || rowspan="3" | -ϕ, -ɜϕ
|-
! 2nd
| -σ, -ɜσ || -∅
|-
! 3rd
| colspan="2" | -ϕ, -ɜϕ
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| rowspan="3" | -ϕ, -ɜϕ || colspan="2" | -ƚ, -ɜƚ || -ɜμ || rowspan="3" | -ꞇ, -ɜꞇ
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -ϕ, -ɜϕ || -ɜϕ
|-
! 3rd
| colspan="2" | -ɜꞇ || -ɜv
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="5" | -ɜσ
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" |Present Participle
| colspan="5" | -ɜꞇ
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="5" | -ɜv
|}

The Coastal Gothic conjugations II, III, IV are the same as the first albeit with -j- (II), -w- (III), -n- (IV) between the root and the suffix.
In Eastern Gothic, they have the same origin but they have diverged.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Eastern Modern Gothic Weak I Verbs
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Indicative !! rowspan="2" | Imperative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast !! Perfective !! Imperfective
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| -é || -∅ || Invalid || -ü || -ó
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -és || -é || -is || -és
|-
! 3rd
| colspan="2" | -ét || -ó || -it || -é
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="2" | Dual !! 1st
| -ut || -us || Invalid || -ü || -ő
|-
! 2nd
| rowspan="4" | -it || colspan="2" | -ăt || -it || -ét
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -ăv || -im || -ém
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -ăt || -it || -ét
|-
! 3rd
| -nd || -ntó || -in || -én
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="5" | -n
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Present Participle
| colspan="5" | -n, -nd-
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="5" | -n
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Eastern Modern Gothic Weak II Verbs
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Indicative !! rowspan="2" | Imperative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast !! Perfective !! Imperfective
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -j || Invalid || -ü || -ó
|-
! 2nd
| -is || -js || -j || -is || -és
|-
! 3rd
| colspan="2" | -jt || -jó || -it || -é
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="2" | Dual !! 1st
| rowspan="5" | -it || -üs || Invalid || -ü || -ő
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -jt || -it || -ét
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -jv || -im || -ém
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -jt || -it || -ét
|-
! 3rd
| -jnd || -jtó || -in || -én
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="5" | -jn
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Present Participle
| colspan="5" | -jn, -jnd-
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="5" | -jn
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Eastern Modern Gothic Weak III Verbs
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Indicative !! rowspan="2" | Imperative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast !! Perfective !! Imperfective
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -v || Invalid || -ü || -u
|-
! 2nd
| -us || -vs || -v || -üs || -us
|-
! 3rd
| colspan="2" | -vt || -vó || -üt || rowspan="2" | -u
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="2" | Dual !! 1st
| rowspan="5" | -ut || -us || Invalid || -ü
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -vt || -üt || -ut
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -vv || -üm || -um
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -vt || -üt || -ut
|-
! 3rd
| -vnd || -vtó || -ün || -un
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="5" | -vn
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Present Participle
| colspan="5" | -vn, -vnd-
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="5" | -vn
|}

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Eastern Modern Gothic Weak IV Verbs
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Indicative !! rowspan="2" | Imperative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive
|-
! Past !! Nonpast !! Perfective !! Imperfective
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Singular !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -n || Invalid || -nvi || -nó
|-
! 2nd
| -nus || -njs || -n || -nvis || -nés
|-
! 3rd
| -nvt || -nvt || -ndó || -nvit || rowspan="2" | -né
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="2" | Dual !! 1st
| rowspan="5" | -nut || -nus || Invalid || -nvi
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -nvt || -nvit || -nét
|-
! style=text-align:left rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1st
| colspan="2" | -nvv || -nvim || -ném
|-
! 2nd
| colspan="2" | -nvt || -nvit || -nét
|-
! 3rd
| -nvnd || -nvtó || -nvin || -nén
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Infinitive
| colspan="5" | -nvn
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Present Participle
| colspan="5" | -nvn, -nvnd-
|-
! style=text-align:left colspan="2" | Past Participle
| colspan="5" | -nvn
|}

Tinnermockaar

2025-08-29T01:59:14Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

{{Infobox language
|name=''ttỳnaamokkəər''
|pronunciation=/ˈtʼɪˀ.naː.mo.kʼɝː/
|familycolor=Isolate
|fam1=Isolate
|script=Tinnermockaar
|created = 2024
|-
|notice=IPA
}}

'''Tinnermockaar''' (natively ''ttỳnaamokkəər'' /ˈtʼɪˀ.naː.mo.kʼɝː/, which translates as 'the language') is an ''a priori'' conlang with an agglutinative grammar where most words are formed either by adding vowel-initial prefixes to CVC root to form a verb or verb-like element or by adding vowel-final suffixes to a root to form a nominal (noun or noun-like element). As a result, most Tinnermockaar words either start with a vowel and end in a consonant or vice-versa.

The language features a somewhat challenging phonology, including ejective stops, a three-way contrast in voicing and glottalized vowels based on Danish stød.

In addition to the Latin script orthography that will be used throughout this article, Tinnermockaar might be written in its own alphabet. The native orthography is moderately phonemic but it includes some etymological contrasts that are no longer observed in the spoken language.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

The following table shows the consonant inventory for Tinnermockaar. Note that the rows and column in the table may indicate historical realizations that are no longer descriptive of the current realization of the respective consonant, as is the case for palatal 'stops' which have long shifted into affricates.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tinnermockaar consonants
|-
! !! Labial !! Dental !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar
|-
| '''Ejective stop''' || || '''''tt''''' //t̪ʼ/ || '''''cc''''' /tʼ/ || '''''tts''''' /tsʼ/ || '''''kk''''' /kʼ/
|-
| '''Plain stop''' || '''''p''''' /p/ || '''''t''''' /t̪/ || '''''c''''' /t/ || '''''ts''''' /ts/ || '''''k''''' /k/
|-
| '''Partially voiced stop''' || '''''b''''' /b̥/ || '''''d''''' /d̪̥/ || '''''đ''''' /d̥/ || || '''''g''''' /ɡ̊/
|-
| '''Voiced stop''' || '''''bb''''' /b/|| '''''dd''''' /d̼/ || '''''đđ''''' /d/ || ||
|-
| '''Fortis pre-nasalized stop''' || '''''mp''''' /mp/ || '''''nt''''' /nt̪/ || '''''nc''''' /nt/ || || '''''ńk''''' /ŋk/
|-
| '''Lenis pre-nasalized stop'''|| '''''mb''''' /mb/ || '''''nd''''' /nd̼/ || '''''nđ''''' /nd/ || '''''z''''' /d̥z̥/ || '''''ńg''''' /ŋɡ/
|-
| '''Nasal''' || '''''m''''' /m/ || || '''''n''''' /n/ || || '''''ń''''' /ŋ/
|-
| '''Fricative''' || || '''''s''''' /s̻/ || '''''ś''''' /s̺/ || '''''x''''' /ç/ || '''''h''''' /h/
|-
| '''Approximant''' || || || || '''''j''''' /j/ ||
|-
| '''Lateral''' || || || '''''l''''' /l/ || ||
|}

Notes:
* Alveolar consonants, as well as the affricates ''tts'' and ''ts'' tend to have an apical realization.
* Velar consonants are allophonically uvular when following /u/ or /ʊ/.
* There are no traces of the language ever having an ejective labial stop. It should be noted however that many languages with ejectives also lack /pʼ/ (less acoustically distinctive from its plain counterpart than other ejective plosives), so such a gap is not unexpected.
* Unvoiced stops are very mildly aspirated.
* There is some variation in the VOT (voice onset time) for pre-nasalized stops, ''fortis'' might range from moderate aspiration to ''tenuis'' while ''lenis'' might range from almost ''tenuis'' to fully voiced.
* Pre-nasalized stops in final position might result in the allophonic nasalization of the preceding vowel. For instance, '''''amb''''' /amb/ might be realized as something closer to [ãb̥].
* The phoneme '''''z''''' /d̥z̥/ is listed under the ''lenis'' prenasalized series since it comes from a historical /ɲɟ/, but its current realization is closer to that of a partially voiced counterpart to '''''ts'''''.
* A fully voiced /ɡ/ was dropped except before front vowels, where it turns into /j/ instead.
* An (intrafictionally) earlier form of the language had a palatal series that has mostly shifted to other points of articulation.
** First, its partially voiced and fully voiced stops (presumably /\''ɟ̊/ and /\''ɟ/ ) merged with the corresponding velars /ɡ̊/ and /ɡ/ (before the latter was lost to further sound changes). This change seems to have happened early enough that the distinction is not attested even in the earliest forms of Tinnermockaar writing.
** Then historical /cʼ/ and /c/ shifted into /tsʼ/ and /ts/.
** Historical pre-nasalized /ɲc/ and /ɲɟ/ first experiences a similar shift, turning briefly into /nts/ and /ndz/ before a second shift turned them into pure affricates, with /nts/ merging with /ts/ while /ndz/ became '''''z''''' /d̥z̥/.
** The palatal nasal /ɲ/ turned into /j/. A later change would drop it before front vowels.
* A single coronal nasal '''''n''''' /n/ seems to have developed from a merger between a historical dental /n̪/ and an alveolar /n/. Orthographic evidence (in the native Tinnermockaar script) suggests that the two sounds might have first adopted a complementary distribution before being outright merged in a generally alveolar [n].
* It is unclear whether the language ever had a labial fricative (/f/ or /ɸ/), if it did, it must have long dropped or merged with another consonant (likely '''''h''''').
* The 'dental' fricative '''''s''''' is a laminal /s̻/ while the 'alveolar' '''''ś''''' is an apical /s̺/, with speakers commonly pronounced it as a postalveolar [ʃ], especially in word-final position.
* The 'palatal' fricative '''''x''''' /ç/ often shifts to [x] before back vowels.
* The 'velar' fricative '''''h''''' is realized either as a glottal fricative /h/ or outright dropped (especially between non-high vowels).
* A glottal stop [ʔ] and a rhotic alveolar approximant [ɹ] might occur as allophonic pronunciations for glottalized and rhotacized vowels, respectively.

The native orthography in the Tinnermockaar script still makes some distinctions that are not preserved in the spoken language:
* Distinction between /ts/ from historical /c/ and historical /ɲc/ (transcribed as ''nts'').
* Distinction between /j/ (and null onsets from a historical dropped /j/) from historical /ɲ/ (transcribed as ''ñ'') and historical /ɡ/ (transcribed as ''gg'').
* Two characters that might have once corresponded to a historical dental /n̪/ (sometimes transcribed as ''n̈'') and a historical alveolar /n/ (transcribed as ''n'') now generally present a complementary distribution, with dental ''n̈'' usually being found before back vowels although multiple exceptions to this rule can be found.

===Vowels===

Tinnermockaar has the following vocalic inventory:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tinnermockaar vowels
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
| '''High''' || '''''i''''' /i/ || || '''''u''''' /u/
|-
| '''Upper''' || '''''y''''' /ɪ/ || || '''''v''''' /ʊ/
|-
| '''Mid''' || '''''e''''' /e/, [e̞] || || '''''o''''' /o/ [o̞]
|-
| '''Lower''' || || '''''ə''''' /ɜ/ ||
|-
| '''Low''' || || '''''a''''' /a/, [ä] ||
|}

Note that the vowels '''''y''''' and '''''v''''' are considered to be 'front' and 'back' (respectively) despite actually having a more centralized realization.

All vowels can be short or long (indicated by doubling the vowel).

Five diphthongs are allowed, all of them falling: '''''ae''''' /ae̯/, '''''av''''' /aʊ̯/, '''''ey''''' /eɪ̯/, '''''ov''''' /oʊ̯/ and '''''əi''''' /ɜi̯/. No length distinctions are observed on diphthongs.

All diphthongs and all non-high vowels (short or long) might be glotalized, with a realization similar to Danish stød. This is marked with a grave accent diacritic on the (last) letter as in '''''v̀''''' for /ʊˀ/, '''''aà''''' for /aːˀ/ and '''''əì''''' for /ɜi̯ˀ/.

The vowels '''''a''''', '''''e''''', '''''o''''' '''''v''''', '''''y''''' and '''''ə''''' (short or long) and the diphthongs '''''ae''''', '''''av''''' and '''''əi''''' might be rhotacized, marked with an \<r\> after the vowel: '''''ar''''' for /a˞ /, '''''yyr''''' for /ɪ˞ ː/, '''''avr''''' for /aʊ̯˞ /. Since the hook diacritic used in IPA to mark rhoticity is often hard to read if not completely absent in most fonts, these will be notated with a /ɹ̆/ as in /ʊːɹ̆/ for '''''vvr''''' rather than /ʊ˞ː/.

Only a short '''''ə''''' is allowed to be simultaneously rhotacized and glotalized: '''''ə̀r''''' for /ɜˀɹ̆/. Historically, '''''v̀r''''' /ʊˀɹ̆/ was also allowed, although it later merged with '''''ə̀r''''' (the distinction is preserved in the native orthography, though).

Some speakers (particularly those in the peripheries of the language, in contact with non-native speakers who might struggle with rhoticity and glottalization) might pronounce rhotacized vowels as plain vowels followed by a rhotic such as [ɹ] or [ɾ] and pronounce glotalized vowels as plain vowels followed by a glottal stop [ʔ].

===Phonotactics===

Tinnermockaar allows for (C)V(V)(C) syllables, which is to say, an optional onset composed of a single consonant, a mandatory nucleus composed of a vowel or diphthong (possibly bearing glottalization or rhoticity) and an optional coda consonant.

Notice that prenasalized stops and affricates are counted as single consonants and that rhoticity and glottalization are not regarded as adding codae, thus a syllable such as '''''ttsə̀rmp''''''' /tsʼɜˀɹ̆mp/ conforms to the allowed CVC pattern.

Codae are only allowed in word-final position. As a result, consonant clusters are not allowed to occur within a word. Vowel clusters (''ie'' sequences of onset-less syllables) are allowed freely, with a hyphen being used to separate syllables in these cases as in ''enav̀-aakvvr'' ('they heated it').

Ejectives are realized as plain stops in word-final position (such that ''att'' and ''at'' would both be pronounced /at/) while fully voiced stops are realized as partially-voiced ones (''abb'' and ''ab'' would both be pronounced /ab̥/). The original pronunciation surfaces when a suffix is added.

Although no phonotactical rule requires it, the fact that Tinnermockaar morphology often revolves around CVC roots which take ''either'' vowel initial prefixes or vowel final suffixes makes it so a vast majority of Tinnermockaar words either begin in a vowel and end in a consonant (V...C) or vice-versa (C...V). These two possibilities also relate to Tinnermockaar parts of speech, with verbals being overwhelmingly vowel-initial (and consonant-final) whereas nominals tend to be consonant-initial (and vowel-final).

===Suprasegmentals===

The language does not have phonemic tones nor stress. Word tend to be stressed on their first syllable.

==Morphology==

Tinnermockaar constructs most of its words out of roots, sequences which cannot be used as words on their own. A Tinnermockaar root typically has a CVC structure such as ''√ttỳn'' /tʼɪˀ.n/ for 'speaking', although a limited number of roots are composed of a single consonant C, some can only be analyzed as having a CVCVC structure and a considerable number omit one or more consonants, possibly due to the historical loss of certain consonants.

Roots often have verb-like main meanings (as seen previously with ''√ttỳn'', 'speaking') but they might also be mainly noun-like as with the root ''√havp'' 'copper'. Regardless of this, most roots have the potential to be used both in noun-like and verb-like derivations, as evidenced by ''ttỳnaamokkə'' (language, a noun derived from ''√ttỳn'') or ''eerbbihavp'' for 'they are made of copper' (a verb derived from ''√havp'').

It is also relatively common for roots to have different forms or have small 'families' of roots differing only in their vowel or some suprasegmental aspect thereof (such as root pairs differing only in vowel length or glottalization). These differences can mostly be attributed to irregular sound change and seldom show any consistent patterns.

These roots (which can be termed 'primary roots') are often extended into 'secondary roots' by adding a prefix, usually of the form CV-. These prefixes often relate to some vague form of locative meaning such as ''ma-'' roughly corresponding to 'around', transforming the core meaning of the root ''√ńvm'' related to movement to ''√mańvm'' for with meanings of 'roaming' or 'walking around'. It should be noted, however, that the semantic derivation resulting from these affixes can be fairly unpredictable. For instance, applying the same prefix to ''√ttỳn'' (speaking) yields ''√mattỳn'' with a rough meaning of 'fame' (presumably because people around the famous person would speak about them) while applying it to ''√nin'' (to breathe) results in ''√manin'' meaning 'to sneeze' in a rather unclear derivation. These derivational prefixes are remarkably similar to the 'preverbs' found in Indo-European languages (such as the 'for' in 'forgive'), although the resulting meanings of might differ.

Tinnermockaar words are derived through the addition of affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to these roots (be they primary or secondary roots). For the most part, these derivations follow one of two patterns corresponding to a main division in the language: verbals (mostly derived with vowel-initial prefixes) and nominals (exclusively derived with vowel-final suffixes).

'''Note:''' that the morphological classes I refer to as 'verbals' and 'nominals' in Tinnermockaar might not correspond to other usages of those words in linguistics (such as Chomsky's notion of 'nominals'), they are just meant as a convenient term for this conlang in particular.

===Verbals===

Tinnermockaar verbals mostly correspond to verbs describing a past, generic or habitual state; present and future-tense verbs are handled instead through a construction involving an auxiliary verbal a nominal instead. Since Tinnermockaar's equivalents to adjectives are verb-like, they are often handled as verbals as wells.

Verbals usually present the following structure:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tinnermockaar 'verbal' structure
|-
! Component !! Optional / Mandatory !! Default (if not explicit)
|-
| Mood marker || Optional || Realis
|-
| Subject/theme agreement || Mandatory || -
|-
| Aspect marker || Optional || Atelic
|-
| Secondary root prefix || Optional || -
|-
| Root || Mandatory || -
|-
| Voice marker || Optional || Active voice
|}

The fact that most (not all though!) mood and agreement markers begin in a vowel and that most roots and all voice markers end in a consonant makes it so that verbals are overwhelmingly vowel-initial and consonant-final. In fact, certain words of dubious classification are considered verbals in Tinnermockaar tradition solely on the basis that they have this phonetic structure, as in the genitive particle ''əl''.

====Mood====

Tinnermockaar verbs might carry a mood prefix for non-realis usages, this is to say, when describing a situation which is (or was) not an actual fact in the present or past. Non-realis moods include:
* '''Interrogative''' (INT, prefix ''kkaah-'') - required for polar questions.
* '''Potential''' (POT, prefix '''''ax-''''') - indicates a possibility (like English 'can' or 'may').
* '''Interrogative-potential''' (INT.POT, prefix '''''àkkaah-''''') - asks bout whether something ''might'' happen (or have happened).
* '''Optative''' (OPT, prefix '''''eyt-''''') - used for wishes, hopes.
* '''Jussive''' (JUS, prefix '''''əcaant-''''') - indicates a mandatory state (like English 'must' or some usages of 'shall').
* '''Irrealis''' (IRR, prefix '''''ind-''''') - other hypothetical situations, conditionals, etc.

For instance

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Mood examples
|-
! Mood !! Example !! Translation
|-
| Realis || ''Enav̀ccəń.''|| They hunted it
|-
| Interrogative || '''''Kkaah'''enav̀ccəń ?'' || Did they hunt it?
|-
| Potential || '''''Ax'''enav̀ccəń.'' || They might have hunted it
|-
| Interrogative-potential || '''''Àkkaah'''enav̀ccəń ?'' || Could they have hunted it?
|-
| Optative || '''''Eyt'''enav̀ccəń !'' || Let's hope they hunted it
|-
| Jussive || '''''Əcaant'''enav̀ccəń.'' || They must (are required to) have hunted it
|-
| Irrealis || '''''Ind'''enav̀ccəń ...'' || (If) they hunted it...
|}

The jussive mood is not to be confused with the imperative (commands issued to the listener), which are formed through a separate construction.

====Subject and theme agreement====

Tinnermockaar has what is known as polypersonal agreement, with transitive verbs (verbs featuring both a subject and an object) being mandatorily marked for both arguments, while intransitive verbs (thus with a single argument, also known as 'subject' in English but referred to as 'theme' in Tinnermockaar) taking a different set of prefixes to mark their one argument. Voice suffixes, as discussed later on, might be used to allow transitive verbs to behave as intransitive ones and vice versa.

Both forms of argument agreement indicate the grammatical person of the argument as well as some other distinctions such as animacy and number for third person referents. The following cases are contrasted:
* First person exclusive (1.EXCL) - usually refers to the speaker (I, me) but it might also be used to refer to 'exclusive we' (the speaker and others, not including the listener).
* First person inclusive (1.INCL) - 'inclusive we', the speaker, the listener and, possibly, others.
* Second person (2) - the listener or listeners (you) and possibly others.
* Animate third person singular (3s.ANIM) - a human (or a being that acts like a human, such as a personified god) other than the speaker and listener; corresponding to English 'he', 'she' or singular 'they'.
* Animate third person plural (3p.ANIM) - more than one person.
* Inanimate third person singular (3s.INAN) - one object/animal or a group of uncountable objects (such as 'the sand'); 'it'.
* Inanimate third person plural (3p.INAN) - more than one distinct objects or animals. Not distinguished from 3s.INAN for transitive subjects.

Further distinctions in number (such as contrasting 1.EXCL as used for singular 'I' or for plural 'we [me and others]') might be made by including an overt pronoun (as discussed within the section for nominals) but that is relatively uncommon.

Definiteness is contrasted for third person inanimate themes, contrasting sentences such as ''enav̀kàccəń'' ('they hunted it', where the animal that was hunted refers to a known individual) and ''eenəkàccəń'' ('they hunted one', where the animal that was some previously undefined individual).

In the following tables, prefixes for each combination are given with the subject being indicated by the column and the theme or direct object by the row. For suffixes whose Tinnermockaar script spelling is not predictable, the appropriate spelling is provided between brackets.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Agreement markers
|-
! Subject (columns): !! None (Intransitive) !! 1.EXCL !! 1.INCL !! 2 !! 3s.ANIM !! 3p.ANIM !! 3.INAN
|-
| '''1.EXCL''' || əńee- || - || - || tsəńỳ-|| ème- || aàmy- || àńav-
|-
| '''1.INCL''' || ańyỳ- || -|| - || -|| èmyỳ- || aàmyỳ- || ə̀rńyỳ-
|-
| '''2''' || iì- || ijee- (iñee-) || - || - || ənce- (aàntse-) || aàtse- (aàntse-) || ə̀rttsə-
|-
| '''3s.ANIM''' || i- || ayńè- || yyrńè- || ətsè- || əmba- || aàmba- || àśe-
|-
| '''3p.ANIM''' || əmà- || əńkà- || yyrnkà- || ətsà- (əntsà-) || əmpeè- || aàmpa- || əśaà- (vśaà-)
|-
| '''3s.INAN.DEF''' || oo- || avńga- || əənga- || ətsə- || ovr- || enav̀- || av̀-
|-
| '''3s.INAN.INDF''' || vr- || əńvr- || əərńvr- || vtsə- || ey- || eenə- || ə̀r- (v̀r-)
|-
| '''3p.INAN.DEF''' || eer- || əńeer- || yrńeer- || ətseer- || ə-eer (əggeer-) || aàńga- || eèr-
|-
| '''3p.INAN.INDF''' || eer- || əńyỳ- || yrńyỳ- || ətsyỳ- || əńka- || aàńka- || eèr-
|}

Bear in mind that the reflexive and reciprocal voices (explained in the ''Voices'' section below) are required for actions where the subject and theme coincide.

=====Citation forms for verbs=====

While in English the citation form of a verb (''ie'' the form usually listed in dictionaries and used to refer to the verb) is the infinitive, the preferred citation form for Tinnermockaar verbs is a verbal with no optional affixes presenting agreement prefixes for third person arguments. These prefixes depend on whether the verb is transitive or intransitive and on whether its expected arguments are more likely to be humans or inanimate objects.

Intransitive verbs which are more likely to have a human theme take the 3s.ANIM prefix '''''i-''''' as in ''iđđun'' (they slept) for 'to sleep'; if the theme is judged more likely to be non-human, the 3s.INAN prefix '''''oo-''''' is used instead as in ''oobbihavp'' (it is made of cooper) for 'to be made of cooper'. Cases where both a human or a non-human theme are possible vary, by they tend towards the former as in ''ideìkvvr'' (they are hot) for 'to be hot', although an inanimate citation form ''oodeìkvvr'' (it is hot) could occasionally be used should the context make it clear it is meant to apply to a non-human.

A similar situation occurs for transitive verbs, which take a prefix corresponding to third person singular arguments whose animacy was determined by their most likely referents although with a clear bias towards preferring animate subjects and inanimate topics. As a result, the citation form of most transitive verbs tends to bear the '''''ey-''''' prefix (animate subject, inanimate theme), even though '''''əmba-''''' (animate subject and theme), '''''ə̀r-''''' (inanimate subject and theme) and, rarely, '''''àśe-''''' (inanimate subject, animate theme) are also possible options:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Citation forms
|-
! !! Intransitive !! Animate subject !! Inanimate subject
|-
| '''Animate theme''' || ''i-'' || ''əmba-'' || ''àśe-''
|-
| '''Inanimate theme''' || ''oo-'' || ''ey-'' || ''ə̀r-''
|}

====Aspect====

Tinnermockaar contrasts three aspects, indicated though suffixes between the agreement marks and the main stem (root and secondary root prefixes).

By default, verbs take the unmarked '''atelic''' (ATEL) aspect which indicates an event without a specific endpoint. For instance, atelic ''iccəńàk'', 'he hunted', indicates that the action is conceptualized as being a prolonged state (as implied in 'they were out hunting') without a specific goal that would mark its endpoint.

On the other hand, the prefix ''kà'' marks a verb as '''telic''' (TEL), which indicates an action with a defined endpoint. For example, telic ''ikàccəńàk'', which we might also translate as 'he hunted', actually indicates that there was a goal that was accomplished and which marked an endpoint for the action (in the example, the hunter probably chased after one particular game).

There is a commonly used rule of thumb in linguistics for telling apart whether a phrase is telic or atelic: if the action can be given with a time frame (as in ''''''within''' an hour'''), it is telic (the endpoint is pinpointed as being achieved within the timeframe) while an atelic phrase will usually require a time-span instead such as ''''''for''' an hour'''.

Meanwhile the prefix ''zi-'' is used to indicate an '''inchoative''' (INCH) aspect, which marks the beginning of a state. Thus ''iziccəńàk'' corresponds to 'they started hunting'.

====Voice====

Verbals corresponding to transitive verbs might take a suffix to indicate a change in grammatical voice, which is to say, an unexpected behavior in the argument of the transitive verb.

By default, such verbs are found in their active voice which includes a distinct subject and an object. For instance, ''enav̀kàccəń'' ('they hunted it') is marked as having a human third person subject and a definite non-human third person object.

A '''reflexive''' voice marker ''-as'' is required to indicate that the subject and object coincide, that the subject does the action to itself. The resulting verb is only marked for its theme, as in ''ooccəńas'' for 'it hunted itself'.

The '''reciprocal''' or '''mutual''' marker ''-ubbàm'' has a similar usage except that it indicates that individuals within a group do something to each other (but not to themselves). For instance, ''əmàccəńubbàm'' translates to 'they hunted each other'. This would indicate that there were at least two parties, one hunting the other and vice-versa, as opposed to reflexive ''əmàccəńas'' 'they hunted themselves'. Informally, however, it would be relatively common for native Tinnermockaar speakers themselves to use both forms interchangeable, indicating that this distinction is seemingly falling out of use.

For verbals with a distinct subject and object, the '''passive''' and '''antipassive''' voices allow for one of those arguments to be dropped. '''Passive''' ''-it'' converts a transitive verb into a syntactically intransitive one with the original object as its theme as in ''ookàccəńit'' for 'it was hunted', '[someone] hunted it'. Conversely, '''antipassive''' ''-àk'' allows the subject alone to to be marked, also becoming the theme of a syntactically intransitive verb as in ''ikàccəńàk'' for 'they hunted [something]'.

Verbals corresponding to an ''intransitive'' verb might take the '''causative''' marker ''-eeś'' which turns them into a transitive verb where the subject influences the theme to reach the state normally marked by the intransitive verb. For instance, ''oodeìkvvrm'' 'it was hot' might be used to derive ''enav̀deìkvvrmeeś'', 'they made it hot'. It should be noted, however, that many intransitive verbs have a transitive counterpart that will usually be preferred to a causative form; thus to specify an agent responsible for the state of being hot indicated by ''oodeìkvvrm'' a separate transitive verb, ''enav̀-aakvvr'', 'they heated it'.

====The attributive verbal ''an''====

The word ''an'' is a verb-like element with two main uses:
- Acting as a copula verb (like English 'to be') for equaling two nominals, as in 'X is Y'.
- Being used as a particle to introduce relative clauses.

Unlike ordinary Tinnermockaar verbs, ''an'' presents an irregular paradigm. It might only be conjugated for mood (taking the usual mood prefixes) and for argument agreement (through completely irregular forms). Despite the fact that ''an'' takes two arguments when used as a copula verb, its conjugation only references the grammatical person for single argument, without any number or animacy distinctions for the third person:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Conjugation of ''an''
|-
! Person !! Form of ''an''
|-
| '''1.EXCL''' || ''əńaàn'' (spelled as ''əhanàn'' in Tinnermockaar script)
|-
| '''1.INCL''' || ''amyńan''
|-
| '''2''' || ''tsaan''
|-
| '''3''' || ''an''
|}

In addition to not being permitted to take aspect and voice markers, ''an'' might not appear in present or future tense constructions; its tense is unless a time adverb is added.

See the sections on noun copula and relatives under the ''Syntax'' header for more information.

===Nominals===

Tinnermockaar nominals include nouns, certain verb forms such gerunds used in present-tense constructions as well as adverbs, determiners and, arguably, even pronouns. Tinnermockaar's own (intrafictional) tradition would also include conjunctions and prepositions under this category.

The structure of nominals is not as rigid as that of verbals, but it's often composed of the following elements:

{| class="wikitable"
! Component !! Optional / Mandatory !! Default (if not present)
|-
| '''Secondary root prefix''' || Optional || -
|-
| '''Root''' || Mandatory || -
|-
| '''Derivational suffix''' || Mandatory Multiple suffixes may be used || -
|-
| '''Definiteness marking''' || Optional || Indefinite
|-
| '''Number marking''' || Optional || Singular or collective (depending on the noun)
|-
| '''Case marking''' || Optional || Absolutive
|}

Nominals are typically consonant-initial (as are most roots, primary or secondary) and are very commonly vowel-final although exceptions to this are not uncommon.

The citation form of a nominal is the one without definiteness, number and case markers.

====Derivational suffixes====

Tinnermockaar nominals require at least one derivational suffix to be added to the primary or secondary root. These suffixes typically hint at the intended meaning of the nominal, although some derivations might be unexpected.

The language has a wide array of derivational suffixes including:
* '''-aa''' - a noun denoting an action or an event, as in ''ccəńaa'', 'hunt'.
* '''-avr''' - groups, as in ''bankumbavr'', 'crowd'.
* '''-eemə''' - materials, as in ''havpeemə'', 'copper'.
* '''-eer''' - Animals or plants, as in ''ddebbeer'' for 'bird' (from ''ooddebb'', 'to fly')
* '''-i''' - an animate actor, as in ''ccəńi'', 'hunter'.
* '''-ò''' - a patient of a concluded transitive action, as in ''ccəńò'' (game, prey that has been hunted).
* '''-v''' - a person who is characterized by an intransitive verb as in ''mindv'', 'visitor' (from ''imind'', 'to arrive').

=====Verb nominals: participles and gerunds=====

Certain derivational suffixes are used for nominals related to verbs. This includes two forms dubbed 'participles' used in relative clauses (the active participle ''-yrbba'' and the passive participle ''-àkka'') and a number of gerunds used for present and future tense constructions whose derivational suffixes encode the verb's voice:
* '''-eynər''' - active voice gerund (also used for reciprocal voice).
* '''-eeccər''' - passive voice gerund (also used for reflexive voice).
* '''-aettsər''' - antipassive voice gerund.

Verbal stems might also form nominals using a gerundive suffix '''''-ae''''' which indicates purpose and which might be required to be used along modal verbs.

====Definiteness====

Nominals corresponding to nouns may be made definite by applying the following sound changes on their final vowel:
* Non-glottalized short vowels are lengthened.
* The resulting vowel or diphthong is replaced by a 'rhotic counterpart' when one exists, as shown below:

{| class="wikitable"
! '''Original''' !! '''Definite''' !! '''Original''' !! '''Definite''' !! '''Original''' !! '''Definite''' !! '''Original''' !! '''Definite'''
|-
| ''a'', ''aa'' || '''''əər''''' || ''à'' || '''''ə̀r''''' || ''aà'' || '''''aà''''' || ''ar'', ''aar'' || '''''əər'''''
|-
| ''e, ee'' || '''''yyr''''' || ''è'' || '''''è''''' || ''eè'' || '''''eè''''' || ''er'', ''eer'' || '''''eer'''''
|-
| ''i, ii'' || '''''ii''''' || - || - || - || - || - || -
|-
| ''o, oo'' || '''''vvr''''' || ''ò'' || '''''ə̀r''''' || ''oò'' || '''''oò''''' || ''or'', ''oor'' || '''''oor'''''
|-
| ''u, uu'' || '''''uu''''' || - || - || - || - || - || -
|-
| ''v, vv'' || '''''vvr''''' || ''v̀'' || '''''ə̀r''''' || ''vv̀'' || '''''vv̀''''' || ''vr, vvr'' || '''''vvr'''''
|-
| ''y, yy'' || '''''yyr''''' || ''ỳ'' || '''''ỳ''''' || ''yỳ'' || '''''yỳ''''' || ''yr, yyr'' || '''''yyr'''''
|-
| ''ə, əə'' || '''''əər''''' || ''ə̀'' || '''''ə̀r''''' || ''əə̀'' || '''''əə̀''''' || ''ər, əər'' || '''''əər'''''
|-
| ''ae'' || '''''aer''''' || ''aè'' || '''''aè''''' || - || - || ''aer'' || '''''aer'''''
|-
| ''av'' || '''''avr''''' || ''av̀'' || '''''av̀''''' || - || - || ''avr'' || '''''avr'''''
|-
| ''ey'' || '''''yyr''''' || ''eỳ'' || '''''eỳ''''' || - || - || - || -
|-
| ''ov'' || '''''vvr''''' || ''ov̀'' || '''''ov̀''''' || - || - || - || -
|-
| ''əi'' || '''''əir''''' || ''əì'' || '''''əì''''' || - || - || ''əir'' || '''''əir'''''
|}

====Number====

By default, Tinnermockaar nouns might be either singular (referring to a single object) or collective (referring to a group of non-distinct objects or to an uncountable substance); this is a lexical property that cannot be determined from affixes alone.

For non-collective nouns (singular by default), three additional grammatical numbers can be formed through suffixes:
* '''Partitive''' (suffix ''-dər'') - indicates a group of elements drawn from a larger group.
* '''Paucal''' (suffix ''-bà'') - indicates a small number of elements.
* '''Plural''' (suffix ''-ga'') - indicates a large number of elements.

The distinction between paucal and plural is a fuzzy one, groups below 3 or 4 objects will generally be marked as paucal while groups above 5 or 6 will usually be marked as plural but the paucal vs plural distinction might also reflect a contrast with expectations. For instance, if a mythological creature had 4 eyes, those might be referred in plural to highlight the anomaly, while a garrison of 10 soldiers where several dozen would be expected might be referred to in the paucal. The partitive number, on the other hand, does not distinguish whether the number of elements is high or low, it only focuses on the fact that only some of the elements (in an otherwise unstated group) are relevant.

Plural marking is mandatory, even when a numeral is given.

Collective nouns, meanwhile, may also take the '''partitive''' suffix (''-dər'') to indicate fraction of the collective or substance, or a '''singulative''' (''-ceèt'' if word final, ''-ceè'' if followed by a case suffix) for indicating a single element drawn from the collective (not applicable to substances).

Finally, nouns of either type (but more usually non-collective ones) might take a '''negative''' suffix ''xoòt'' (or ''-xoò'' if followed by a case suffix) indicating a null quantity.

As an example, consider ''ccəńi'' ('hunter'), a countable noun, which might take the following suffixes:

{| class="wikitable"
! '''Number''' !! '''Example''' !! '''Translation'''
|-
| Singular || ''ccəńi'' || a hunter
|-
| Partitive || ''ccəńi'''dər''''' || some of the hunters
|-
| Paucal || ''ccəńi'''bà''''' || some hunters
|-
| Plural || ''ccəńi'''ga''''' || many hunters
|-
| Negative || ''ccəńi'''xoòt''''' || no hunters
|}

Meanwhile, collective nouns might be exemplified by ''bankumbavr'' (crowd) and ''havpeemə'' (copper) as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! '''Number''''' !! '''Example 1''' !! '''Translation''' !! '''Example 2''' !! '''Translation'''
|-
| Collective || ''bankumbavr'' || a crowd || ''havpeemə'' || (some) copper
|-
| Singulative || ''bankumbavr'''ceèt''''' || a person in the crowd || - || -
|-
| Partitive || ''bankumbavr'''dər''''' || part of the crowd || ''havpeemə'''dər''''' || part of the copper
|-
| Negative || ''bankumbavr'''xoòt''''' || no crowd || ''havpeemə'''xoòt''''' || no copper
|}

====Cases====

Tinnermockaar nouns inflect for three cases: absolutive (unmarked), marked nominative (or 'ergative', suffix ''-cə'') and benefactive (suffix ''-ngeè''). Unlike other suffixes, case markers are separated from the nominal with a hyphen in Latin script orthography, so the benefactive form of ''ccəńi'' will be spelled as ''ccəńi-ngeè'' rather than ''ccəńingeè''.

The ergative case, which perhaps could be better deemed as 'marked nominative' case, is ''optionally'' required for subjects. Its marker, ''-cə'', is generally found in subjects of transitive verbs although it is often left out for subjects occurring in a fronted position (moved to the beginning of the sentence for emphasis).

More unusually, the suffix might ''-cə'' may be occasionally found in intransitive subjects for verbs with which also have an oblique argument and in present-tense constructions (where the primary verb gerund could also be considered to act as an oblique argument to the auxiliary).

Pronouns seldom bear the ''-cə'' marker, regardless of the situation.

The benefactive case marker, ''-ńgeè'', may be used to indicate an argument other than a subject or theme that benefits or has commanded the action. This case is also used for indirect objects in verbs such as ''eynđ'' ('to give').

All other roles are expressed with the unmarked absolutive case, possibly in combination with prepositions such as locative ''byr'' ('in').

====Pronouns====

Pronouns are used sparingly in Tinnermockaar as they are made largely redundant due to the polypersonal agreement in verbs. They will commonly occur for oblique roles that wouldn't be marked otherwise, though.

Since Tinnermockaar pronouns work largely in the same way as nouns, they might be inflected for number, allowing for finer distinctions than the ones shown in verb prefixes. For instance, while first person exclusive markers don't distinguish between singular "I, me" and plural "we ~ me and others", the overt pronoun ''haańà'' can specify the argument as singular, while the addition of number-marking suffixes can yield more precise plural meanings such as ''haańàdər'' (only some of us), ''haańàbà'' (me and a few others), ''haańàga'' (me and many others) and ''haańàxoòt'' (none of us). It should be noted, however, that it's usually more idiomatic for a Tinnermockaar speaker to drop pronouns.

Tinnermockaar personal pronouns are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! !! '''Singular''' !! '''(Dual)''' !! '''Paucal''' !! '''Plural''' !! '''Partitive''' !! '''Negative'''
|-
| '''First person exclusive''' (me [and others]) || ''haańa'' || || ''haańabà'' || ''haańaga'' || ''haańadər'' || ''haańàxoòt''
|-
| '''First person inclusive''' (you and me [and others]) || || ''hàmyy'' || ''hàmyybà'' || ''hàmyyga'' || ''hàmyydər'' || ''hàmyyxoòt''
|-
| '''Second person''' (you [and others]) || ''tsidi'' || || ''tsidibà'' || ''tsidiga'' || ''tsididər'' || ''tsidixoòt''
|-
| '''Third person animate''' (he/she/they) || ''hee-i'' || || ''heerbà'' || ''heerga'' || ''heerdər'' || ''heerxoòt''
|-
| '''Third person inanimate''' (it/they) || ''ccy'' || || ''ccybà'' || ''ccyga'' || ''ccydər'' || ''ccyxoòt''
|}

Number marking is largely regular aside from unmarked 'singular' ''hàmyy'' actually referring to two people ('you and me') and the third person animate pronoun using different roots for singular ''hee-i'' (which doesn't accept any number markings) and plural ''*heer'' (which requires a number marker).

Other than that, Tinnermockaar pronouns only differ from nouns in that they hardly ever take the 'ergative' ''-cə'' marker.

==Syntax==

Tinnermockaar is a somewhat typologically ambiguous language. As intransitive and transitive verbs differ considerably in their paradigm (as far as argument marking is concerned), it is hard to unambiguously classify it as having a nominative-accusative or an ergative-absolutive alignment, morphological clues suggest a tendency towards the latter although it can be noted that what could be interpreted as an ergative case marker might occasionally be used for intransitive subjects, a feature more in line with a nominative-accusative language. While this sort of typologically ambiguity is sometimes found in natural languages, it might not be out of line for one to question the naturalisticness of this conlang.

===Word order===

Tinnermockaar has a fairly flexible word order, although sentences default towards verb-initial orders, mainly VSO (verb-subject-object). This might be altered to place emphasis, with SVO word orders highlighting the subject and VOS (or, more rarely, OVS) word orders highlighting subjects (a practice referred to as 'subject fronting' which usually also involves dropping case makers for this argument). Oblique complements such as adverbial phrases or benefactives are typically found at the end of the sentence, although they might be placed directly after the verb for greater emphasis.

Arguments can be dropped, although transitive verbs will be marked for both their arguments unless given in a valency-decreasing voice (reflexive, passive, antipassive). An entire sentence might consist of just a verb, with all its arguments being left implicit.

Verbs might be expressed as a single ''verbal'' (for generic or past-tense statements) or as an auxiliary verbal followed by a ''nominal'' form of the verb (for present or future tense).

Modifiers, including the equivalent to relative phrases, come after the element they modify.

===Present and future tense constructions===

As previously mentioned, by default a Tinnermockaar verb will refer either to an event in the past or to a generic or habitual statement (this two interpretations usually being distinguished by context alone, although time adverbs could be used to lift any resulting ambiguity).

In order to speak of a specific event taking place in the present, the auxiliary verb '''''iś''''' must be used, followed by a gerund of the intended verb, typically ending in ''-eynər''. The auxiliary takes all the markings related to mood, subject/theme agreement and aspect. Voice marking might involve both the auxiliary and the gerund, as shown in the following table:

{| class="wikitable"
! '''Voice''' !! '''Voice marker in the auxiliary''' !! '''Gerund'''
|-
| '''Active''' || None (active as default) || Active (''-eynər'')
|-
| '''Reflexive''' || Reflexive (''-as'') || Passive (''-eeccər'')
|-
| '''Reciprocal''' || Reciprocal (''-ubbàm'') || Active (''-eynər'')
|-
| '''Passive''' || None (marked only in the gerund) || Passive (''-eeccər'')
|-
| '''Antipassive''' || None (marked only in the gerund) || Antipassive (''-aettsər'')
|-
| '''Causative''' || Reciprocal (''-ééś'') || Active (''-eynər'')
|}

For instance, ''eenəccəń'' might be interpreted as 'they hunted' or 'they hunt (regularly)'; adverbs such as ''mimbyr'', 'yesterday' or ''kkaè'', 'often' may be given to further specify one of those interpretations. In order to indicate a current event such as 'they ''are'' hunting', the auxiliary verb construction with ''iś'' will be needed, resulting in ''eenəś ccəńeynər'', with ''iś'' displaying the agreement markers for subject and object while the primary verb is found as an active gerund.

It should be noted that the verb '''''iś''''' is slightly irregular: telic forms are given as ''-kəəs'' instead of the expected ''-kaś''.

Future tense can be expressed through a similar construction using the auxiliary verb '''''imind''''' (which might also be used on its own as a verb meaning 'to arrive') with the difference that the auxiliary must be marked as having an irrealis mood. For instance, we might find ''indeenəmind ccəńeynər'' for 'they will hunt'.

It is worth noticing, however, that many usages which might be covered by a future tense in other languages might be expressed using moods in Tinnermockaar, such as the potential mood to indicate an unrealized possibility or the optative to indicate a desired future state.

===Negatives===

Tinnermockaar utilizes two negation strategies depending on whether the arguments of the verb are included in the sentence.

If either the subject or the object of the verb are present in the sentence (aside from being referenced by verbal prefixes), then negation is most commonly marked by using the negative 'number' suffix on the relevant noun. For instance, the negation of ''əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacv'' (the man sees a woman) might be given as any of the following:
* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr'''xoò'''-cə nacv'' (negating the subject, literally 'No man sees a woman')
* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacv'''xoòt''''' (negating the object, literally 'The man sees no woman')

Colloquially, negating both elements (still keeping a negative meaning) is also an option, although this wording might be perceived as non-standard.
* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr'''xoò'''-cə nacv'''xoòt'''''.

Since the negative marker ''-xoò(t)'' takes the position of number markers, it might get in the way of expressing certain finer distinctions or imply an unwanted degree of totality in the negation. For instance the wording ''əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacvxoòt'' (~ the man sees no woman) may be taken to imply that that the subject is not seeing any woman so it wouldn't be appropriate to indicate that the man doesn't see ''a'' woman in particular (possibly being able to see others) .

An alternative method involves using the negative particle ''xav'' which must always precede the primary verb of the sentence - before the verbal if there is no auxiliary and between the auxiliary and the gerund otherwise:
* ''Əmbaś '''xav''' jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacv'' (negating the verb, literally ''The man doesn't see a woman').

This second strategy is required for verbs lacking a explicit subject or object. It should be noted that using ''xav'' and avoiding explicit pronouns is by far a more common strategy than using explicit pronouns that might take the ''-xoò(t)'' prefix, although the latter option might be occasionally be used for emphasis:
* '''''Xav''' ijeekajaacc'' (I didn't see you, most common wording with negation using ''xav'' and implicit pronouns)
* ''Ijeekajaacc haańà'''xoòt''''' ('''''''I''''' didn't see you, explicit negated first person pronoun for emphasis)
* ''Ijeekajaacc tsidi'''xoòt''''' (I didn't see '''''you''''', explicit negated first person pronoun for emphasis)

If both negation strategies are combined (something seldom found), the result is typically interpreted as a '''positive''':
* ''Əmbaś '''xav''' jaacceynər nacv'''xoòt''' mpànvvr-cə'' (negating the verb and the object, understood as meaning 'No woman isn't seen by the man').

===Interrogatives===

Polar questions (those that can be answered in English with 'yes' or 'no) are formed in the same way as declarative sentences other than requiring the interrogative mood prefix ''kkaah-''. To continue with the prior example, the polar question 'Does the man see the woman?' may be translated as '''''Kkaah'''əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə nacv?''.

Other questions, such as the ones formed in English using the 'wh-words' (like 'who' or 'what') generally do '''not''' require the interrogative prefix ''kkaah-''. Interrogative pronouns like ''đvv'' (what, used for inanimates) and ''đey'' (who, used for animates) behave like regular nominals and, unlike personal pronouns, inflect for case a usual. For instance, we might have:
* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər '''đey-cə''' nacv?'' (Who sees a woman?)
* ''Əmbaś jaacceynər mpànvvr-cə '''đey'''?'' (Who does the man see?)

Tinnermockaar does not have a 'wh-fronting' rule like English requiring interrogative pronouns to be moved to the beginning of the sentence, although Tinnermockaar's flexible word order does allows this order, which comes out as somewhat more emphatic. As usual, the ergative marker ''-cə'' is typically omitted for a fronted subject.
* '''''Đey''' əmbaś jaacceynər nacv?'' (Who sees a woman?)

The interrogative mood marker might be combined with an interrogative pronoun in order to make a wh-question about an uncertain event. For instance '''''Kkaah'''əmbaś '''đey-cə''' nacvvr?'' might be translated as 'Does anyone see the woman? If so, who?'. Such combined questions would expect either a negative answer (''Xav əmbaś'' ~ No one does) or the answer to the question word (''Mpànvvr'' ~ the man).

====Yes/no answers====

Polar questions are typically answered by repeating the verb (adjusting argument agreement markers if needed) or the auxilliary, preceded by ''xav'' if negative.

For instance, the expected answers for ''Kkaatsəńỳś jaacceynər?'', 'Do you see me?' will be either ''Ijeeś'' (I do [see you]) or ''Xav ijeeś'' (I do not [see you]).

===Imperatives===

Imperatives (sentences given an order to a second person) are formed using an auxiliary verb (''ittsat'', root ''-ttsat'') and gerunds, in a construction not disimilar from those used for expressing the present and future tense.

Imperatives are generally considered polite for Tinnermockaar speakers, speakers might issue direct commands rather than requiring some workaround construction for politeness like English usually does (compare the blunt sounding ''"Do it!"'' with gentler formulae such as ''"Could you do it?"'' or ''"Would you mind doing it?"'').

Orders where the second person takes the role of a subject (be it of a transitive or intransitive verb) require the active gerund, as in ''Iìttsat mindeynər'' for 'Come!' or ''Ətsèttsat jaacceynər mpànvvr!'' for 'See the man!'.

Imperatives where the second person is required to take the role of a transitive direct object are formed in the same way but using the passive gerund. Note, however, that the auxiliary verb will still be conjugated as a transitive verb in this case. For instance, we might have ''Əncettsat jaacceeccər mpànvvr-cə!'' for 'Be seen by the man!', with the auxiliary taking the prefix ''ənce-'' marking it as a transitive verb with a singular third person animate subject and a second person object.

It should be observed that passive imperatives still represent a command the second person must actively seek to accomplish. The previous example, ''Əncettsat jaacceeccər mpànvvr-cə!'', implies that the listener must to do something to ensure the man sees them, rather than placing responsibility on the man (the latter might indicated instead using a jussive mood construction).

Antipassive gerunds are required for orders with an antipassive meaning. In this case, the auxiliary verb is conjugated as an intransitive verb and does not require the ''-àk'' marker. For instance, ''Iìttsat ccəńaettsər!'' translates to 'Hunt (something)!'.

Negative imperatives are formed by preceding the auxiliary verb with the negative particle ''xav'' (rather than placing it between the auxiliary and the main verb as in present/future-tense constructions). Thus, ''Xav iìttsat ccəńaettsər!'' becomes 'Do not hunt!'.

It is worth remembering that many imperative-like constructions might be formed through verbal mood markers instead, including jussive for indicating a mandatory state (but not one that necessarily requires the second person to take an action towards) and the optative mood for wishes. Compare the following:
* ''Əncettsat jaacceeccər mpànvvr-cə!'' (using a passive imperative) - 'Be seen by the man!' (orders the speaker to ensure that the other person sees them).
* ''Əcaantəncejaacc mpànvvr-cə!'' (using a jussive form of ''əncejaacc'', 'he sees you') - 'The man must see you!' (the requirement is not necessarily the listener's responsibility, pressumably both parties will be required to comply).
* ''Iìttsat ccəńaettsər!'' - 'Hunt something!' (a command, using an imperative construction).
* ''Eytiìccəńàk!'' - 'May you hunt something!' (a wish, using the optative voice).

===Possessives===

Possession is marked with the particle ''əl'' which is placed between the possession and the possessor as in ''havpeeməərdər əl mpànvvr'' for 'some of the copper (''havpeeməərdər'') of the man (''mpànvvr'')' or 'some of the man's copper'.

The same pattern might be used alongside pronouns, such as ''əl tsidi'' for 'your(s)'.

===Noun copula===

Sentences where a noun is equated with another, such as 'X is Y' are typically expressed using the verbal ''an'', whose highly irregular conjugation was showcased earlier on.

Although ''an'' acts as a verb in this construction, it might only take mood and person prefixes (no aspect, voice or tense marking). ''An'' constructions are not necessarily taken to be habitual or past-tense as sentences with bare verbal usually are; its interpretation in regards to tense is usually left to context although time adverbs might be added if necessary.

If ''X'' and ''Y'' are both nouns, the sentence is given as ''an X Y''. For instance, 'the man is a hunter' might be given as ''an mpànvvr ccəńi'' (ATTR man\\DEF hunter) although, depending on the context, the sentence might also be interpreted as 'the man was a hunter' or similar variations.

Pronouns are usually omitted, being marked instead in the conjugation of ''an''. It should be noted, however, that ''an'', nearly all other Tinnermockaar verbs, fails to distinguish number and animacy in the third person. Even though number is unmarked in the verb, it will be marked on the noun that appears as the remaining argument in the copula, so, for instance, the following sentences with ''ccəńiga'', the plural form of ''ccəńi'' (hunter), will necessarily have a plural interpretation:
* ''Əńaàn ccəńiga.'' - We (exclusive) are hunters.
* ''Amyńan ccəńiga.'' - We (inclusive) are hunters.
* ''Tsaan ccəńiga.'' - You all are hunters.
* ''An ccəńiga.'' - They are hunters.

Negatives are formed as usual with the particle ''xav'': as in ''xav əńaàn ccəń'' for 'I am not a hunter'.

Interrogatives also work as usual, with the interrogative mood prefix ''kkaah-'' being required for polar questions.
* ''Kkaahan ccəńiga?'' - Were they hunters?
* ''Tsaan đey?'' - Who are you?

Imperatives for the copula are rare but they might be formed by using ''ittsat'' (usually an auxiliary) on its own:
* ''Iìttsat ccańi!'' - Be a hunter!

===Relative clauses===

The attributive verbal ''an'' is also used for Tinnermockaar's equivalent to relative clauses, sharing the same limitations such as being unable to state tense and aspect. It should be noted that, should the need arise, these limitations can be circumvented by saying the phrases independently. For instance, English 'The man ''who the woman saw'' is hunting' would generally be expressed through a construction that could be roughly interpreted as 'the ''seen-by-the-woman'' man is hunting', which fails to capture explicitly whether the woman is observing him in the present or whether she saw him in the past; should that distinction prove crucial to the discourse speakers might describe the situation through two separate phrases instead: 'The woman saw the man. / He is hunting.'.

Relative constructions where the inner sentence is comprised of a copula between nouns are formed simply by following the antecedent with ''an'' and the nominal to which it is equated: ''mpànvvr an ccəńi'' for 'the man who is a hunter' (or 'who was a hunter').

Otherwise, ''an'' must be followed by a participle. The choice of participle depends on the syntactic role of the antecedent within the relative clause, using active participles (suffix ''-yrbba'') when it appears as a subject or the passive participle (suffix ''-àkka'') when it appears as a direct object (other roles are not supported and require the speaker to use separate clauses instead). Examples include:
* ''mpànvvr an mindyrbba'' - the man who arrived / who is arriving / who is going to arrive
* ''mpànvvr an ccəńyrbba'' - the man who hunted / is hunting / is going to hunt
* ''mpànvvr an ccəńàkka'' - the man who was hunted / is hunted / will be hunted

Other arguments can be introduced to the relative clause using ''əl'' for a subject (as if it was a possessive) or ''ttə'' for a direct object:
* ''mpànvvr an ccəńyrbba ttə ahuulə'' - the man who hunted a wolf
* ''mpànvvr an ccəńàkka əl ahuulə'' - the man who a wolf hunted

Relative clauses are negated by placing ''xav'' before ''an'': ''mpànvvr xav an mindyrbba'' for 'the man who didn't arrive'.

====Alternative relative clause construction====

Modern Tinnermockaar seems to be in the process of developing an alternate construction for relative clauses where the attributive ''an'' is not followed by a participle but by a full verb as in ''mpànvvr an ovrccəń'' for 'the man who hunts it' rather than standard ''mpànvvr an ccəńyrbba'' (~ the hunting man).

This construction, however, is still perceived as non-standard and is often relegated to informal situations.

==Numerals==

Tinnermockaar has a fairly simple base-10 numeration system. Numerals follow the noun to which they apply, which must still bear grammatical number suffixes as usual, as in singular ''mpànv pè'' for 'one man', paucal ''mpànvbà cynə'' for 'three men' and plural ''mpànvga bbov'' for 'eight men'.

There is no numeral for 'zero' as null quantities are expressed through the 'negative' grammatical number instead: ''mpànvxoòt'' for 'no men' or 'zero men'.

Numbers from 1 to 10 are expressed as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! '''Number''' !! '''Tinnemockaar'''
|-
| '''1''' || ''pè''
|-
| '''2''' || ''ccer''
|-
| '''3''' || ''cynə''
|-
| '''4''' || ''pyyr''
|-
| '''5''' || ''zynə''
|-
| '''6''' || ''bbav''
|-
| '''7''' || ''kkuu''
|-
| '''8''' || ''bbov''
|-
| '''9''' || ''hav''
|-
| '''10''' || ''hati''
|}

Multiples of ten are formed by adding the 'tens' digit after ''hati'' as in ''hati ccer'' (ten-two) for 20. The units can then be stated by adding the conjunction ''aa'' (and) and the appropriate digit, as in ''hati hav aa cynə'' (ten-nine and three) for 93. The same pattern applies to larger numbers with ''attè'' for 'hundreds' and ''gumbə'' for 'thousands'. For example, the number 1234 will be given as ''gumbə aa attè ccer aa hati cynə aa pyyr'', literally 'thousand and hundreds-two and tens-three and four'.

==Tinnermockaar script==

Tinnermockaar's native writing system is an alphabet, written horizontally from left to right. The script has some featural elements. Dried palm leaves are its most common writing medium, often being tied together into books.

Most letters are based on incomplete circular outlines formed by a 'bow' which leaves an opening near the bottom of the glyph for letters corresponding to a consonant or near the top for letters for vowels and diphthongs.

Many glyphs come in pairs consisting a 'soft' character where all elements are written within the bow and a 'hard' character where one or more strokes stretch beyond the bow. Paired soft and hard glyphs generally correspond to phonemes with similar articular, such as unvoiced stops and their ejective counterparts or plain vowels and their glottalized counterparts.

===Consonants===

The Tinnermockaar script includes 36 consonant letters, traditionally listed in the following order:

[[File:Tinnermockaar consonants.png|800px|thumb|center|Tinnermockaar consonants]]

As mentioned within the ''Phonology'' section, the Tinnermockaar script retains a number of distinctions that have been lost in the spoken language, resulting in a slightly non-phonetic orthography. Irregularities to keep in mind include:
* The consonant /ts/ (romanized as '''''ts''''') might be written as either ''Ts'' or ''Nts'' depending on the word's etymology.
* Null onsets corresponding to a historical /ɡ/ are written with an initial ''Gg''.
* The glide /j/ is written as ''Gg'' or as ''Ñ'' depending on etymological considerations.
* The consonant /n/ is written as ''N̈'' before back vowels and in all forms of the attributive ''an'', otherwise /n/ is written as ''N''.
* A small number of words have irregular spellings reflecting earlier pronunciations such as the word ''àtte'' (one hundred) retaining an irregularly lost ''h'' and thus being spelled as ''*hàtte''.

===Vowels===

Each non-rhotic vowel or diphthong is represented by one of the following 38 letters, contrasting length and glottalization (or lack thereof):

[[File:Tinnermockaar vowels.png|800px|thumb|center|Tinnermockaar vowels]]

Rhotic vowels are written as their non-rhotic counterparts with a bar below, as seen in the final character of name ''ttỳnaamokkəər'' (Tinnermockaar, the native name of the language) which can be identified as an ''Əə'' character bearing the rhoticity marker above/

[[File:Tinnermockaar in native script.png|thumb|Example: ''ttỳnaamokkəər'' as written in the Tinnermockaar script]]

As shown in the example, Tinnermockaar letters are often written without any space between one another, although exceptions may be made depending on the shape of the intervening letters (as seen above with the ''N'' and the ''Aa''). It is most common for writers not to conjoin letters belonging to separate words, although this rule is by no means universal.

Aside from a few unpredictable irregular spellings (such as the pronoun ''heergà'', 'they', which is spelled as ''heeñiga'') written vowels match pronunciation with one exception: the glottal rhotic vowel /ɜˀɹ̆/ might be written either as ''ə̀r'' (matching its romanization) or as ''v̀r'', reflecting a historical /ʊˀɹ̆/ pronunciation that has since merged with ''ə̀r''.

===Punctuation===

Tinnermockaar punctuation is rather limited when compared to that used in the Latin script and also considerably more flexible in its usage. It includes the following marks:

[[File:Punctuation marks in Tinnermockaar.png|thumb|Punctuation marks in Tinnermockaar]]

{| class="wikitable"
! '''Punctuation''' !! '''Usage'''
|-
| Dot below || Used to separate words. Optional but fairly common. Often omitted after ''an'' (attributive particle/verb) and ''əl'' (possessive particle).
|-
| Two dots || Described intrafictionally as 'marking the end of an idea', this mark is generally used to separate sentences although some authors might omit it between sentences which share a topic.
|-
| Underline || A small underline under the first character of a word is used as an 'emphasis marker' which might be used for any elements that may be considered as particularly 'important' or worthy of deference within a passage. Personal names referring to others are always marked with this punctuation sign as a way to show respect towards them (regardless of whether their role within the text bears much relevance or not). By contrast, the writer's own name (or that of the patron in whose name a scribe composes a text) never bears this marker as doing so could be seen as inappropriately self-aggrandizing. No special considerations are held for marking pronouns, however.
|-
| End of section || This marker replaces the 'two dots' sign at the end of a group of related sentences. Although particulars about its usage might vary from author to author, it could be thought of as a paragraph separator. The 'end of section' mark implies that the text will be continued (possibly on the a different page).
|-
| End of text || Replaces the 'end of section' mark after the final section of a text.
|}

===Numerals in the Tinnermockaar script===

Numbers in written Tinnermockaar are typically expressed through a set of numerals which, much as our own Arabic numerals (0123456789) employ a positional base-10 notation with larger digits written on the left. This means that Arabic numerals might be converted to and from Tinnermockaar simply by replacing the glyphs for each digits.

[[File:Tinnermockaar numerals.png|500px|thumb|center|Tinnermockaar digits]]

==Sample sentences==

The following are four sample sentences to showcase some aspects of Tinnermockaar's morphology and syntax.

{| class="wikitable"
! Sample sentences:
|-
| (1) ''Əmàmańvm mpànv aa nacv.''
|-
| /ɜ.maˀ.ma.ŋʊm mpaˀ.nʊ aː na.tʊ/
|-
| A man and a woman were walking.
|-
|
|-
| (2) ''Kkaahaàmpakəəs jaacceynər nacvvrga-cə mpànvvrga?''
|-
| /kʼaː.haːˀ.mpa.kɜːs̻ ˈjaː.tʼeɪ̯.nɝ na.tʊːɹ̆.ɡ̊a.tɜ mpaˀ.nʊːɹ̆.ɡ̊a/
|-
| Do the women see the men?
|-
|
|-
| (3) ''Xav avńgakanđ càkə̀r an xaalàkka tsidi-ńgeè.''
|-
| /çaʊ̯ aʊ̯.ŋɡa.kan taˀ.kɝˀ an çaː.laˀ.kʼa tsi.d̪̥i.ŋɡeːˀ/
|-
| I didn’t give you the heavy stone.
|-
|
|-
| (4) ''Śə̀r an jaaccàkka əl tsidi ovrkəəs ccəńeynər ddebbeer an đđa-yrbba ttə tsanabà ccer əl haańa.''
|-
| /s̺ɝˀ an jaː.tʼaˀ.kʼa ɜl tsi.di oʊ̯ɹ̆.kɜːs̻ tʼɜ.ŋeɪ̯.nɝ d̪e.beːɹ̆ an da.ɪɹ̆.ba tʼɜ tsa.na.b̥aˀ tʼɝ ɜl haː.ŋa/
|-
| The person you saw is catching the bird that found my two children.
|}

{| class="wikitable"
! Glosses: !! !! !! !! !!
|-
| ''əmà-mańvm'' || ''mpànv'' || ''aa'' || ''nacv'' || ||
|-
| walk || man || and || woman || ||
|-
| || || || || ||
|-
| ''kkaah-aàmpa-kəəs'' || ''jaacc-eynər'' || ''nacv\:r-ga-cə'' || ''mpànv\:r-ga'' || ||
|-
| INT-3p.ANIM>3p.ANIM-TEL.PRS || see-GER || woman\DEF-PL-NOM || man\DEF-PL || ||
|-
| || || || || ||
|-
| ''xav'' || ''avńga-ka-nđ'' || ''càkò\:r '' || ''an'' || ''xaàlàkka'' || ''tsidi-ńgeè''
|-
| NEG || 1s>3s.INAN.DEF-TEL-give || stone\DEF || ATTR.3 || heavy || 2s-BEN
|-
| || || || || ||
|-
| ''śv̀\:r'' || ''an'' || ''jaacc-àkka'' || ''əl'' || ''tsidi'' || ''ovr-kəəs''
|-
| person\DEF || ATTR || see-PTCP.PAS || POS || 2s || 3s.ANIM>3s.INAN.DEF-TEL.PRS
|-
| ''ccəń-eynər'' || ''ddebbeer\:r'' || ''an'' || ''đđa-yrbba'' || ''ttə'' || ''tsana-bà''
|-
| hunt-GER || bird\DEF || ATTR || find-PTCP.ACT || REL.ACC || child-PAU
|-
| ''ccer'' || ''əl'' || ''haańa'' || || ||
|-
| two || POS || 1s || || ||
|}

In Tinnermockaar script:

[[File:Tinnermockaar sample sentences.png|800px|thumb|center|Sample sentences in Tinnermockaar script]]

[[Category:Tinnermockaar]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Scripts]]

Moon Draconic

2025-08-29T01:57:42Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

{{Infobox language
|name = Moon Draconic
|nativename = Ratihomer
|pronunciation =
|states (state) = N/A
|region =
|ethnicity = Sky Dragonborns Humanoids
|speakers = {{formatnum:15,000,000}}
|date = 2023
|familycolor =
|fam2 = Basaric Languages
|fam3 = Proto-Draconic
|fam4 = Old Draconic
|creator = [[User:Madoka mapper|Madoka]]
|created = 2022
|setting = Alt-Earth
|script = Draconic Alphabet
|nation = Kingdom of Draconia
|agency =
|image =
|imagealt =
|notice=IPA
}}

== Introduction ==
=== Goals ===
Moon Draconic is my third attempt in making an actual conlang. This time I really tried my best following steps I myself organised. The language is for a project I'm trying to create!
=== Setting ===
Moon Draconic is spoken by the north inhabitants of the Kingdom of Draconia, which is the most populated area of the kingdom excluding the capital, Irisamu. In older books, the Moon Draconic was considered a dialect of it's sister language, [[Sun Draconic]], just incorporated into one language named Draconic. With recent investigations and social, cultural movements, Moon Draconic gained independence from it's southern counterpart.

== Phonology ==
=== Consonants ===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan=2 | → PoA ↓ Manner !! Labial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Alveolopalatal !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasals
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || || '''n''' {{IPA|n}} || || || ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | Plosives !! Voiceless
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || || '''t''' {{IPA|t}} || || || '''k''' {{IPA|k}} || ||
|-
! Voiced
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || || '''d''' {{IPA|d}} || || || '''g''' {{IPA|ɡ}} || ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | Affricates !! Voiceless
| || || || '''tsh''' {{IPA|tʃ}} || || || ||
|-
! Voiced
| || || || '''dzh''' {{IPA|dʒ}} || || || ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricatives !! Voiceless
| || '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sh''' {{IPA|ʃ}} || || '''x''' {{IPA|x}} || || '''h''' {{IPA|h}}
|-
! Voiced
| || '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zh''' {{IPA|ʒ}} || || || ||
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximants
| || || || || || '''w''' {{IPA|w}} || ||
|-
! colspan=2 | Tap or flap
| || || '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || || || || ||
|-
! colspan=2 | Lateral Approximants
| || || '''l''' {{IPA|l}} || || || || ||
|}

=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! High
| '''i''' {{IPA|i}} || || '''u''' {{IPA|u}}
|-
! Mid
| '''e''' {{IPA|e}} || || '''o''' {{IPA|o}}
|-
! Low
| || '''a''' {{IPA|ɐ}} ||
|}

=== Phonotactics & Syllables ===
==== Syllabic Structure ====
The permissible syllable structures in Moon Draconic is '''(C)V(C)''', means a syllable may consist of:
* CV: Consonant followed by a vowel.
* V: A single vowel
* CVC: Consonant, vowel, and consonant.

Forbidden combinations include:
* VC: Vowel followed by a consonant
* VV: Two consecutive vowels, meaning that there are no hiatus nor diphtongs in Moon Draconic.

The onset in Moon Draconic syllables can be branched, but it is very restritive, this situation only happens when a plosive or the labiodental fricatives ({{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/v/}}) are followed by the alveolar tap ({{IPA|/ɾ/}}).
Codas in Moon Draconic cannot be branched and only a few set of consonants can fullfil the spot of coda:
* The two palatal fricatives: {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒ/}}
* The labio-velar approximant: {{IPA|/w/}}
* The alveolar lateral approximant: {{IPA|/l/}}
* The alveolar tap: {{IPA|/ɾ/}}

==== Stress ====

Stress in Moon Draconic is fixed and generally falls on the last syllable of a word. In cases when the word has its last syllable with coda, the stress moves to the penultimate syllable.

==== Phonological Rules ====
Moon Draconic also has several phonological rules that affect the pronunciation of certain sounds based on their position within a word or in relation to neighboring sound: this include Allophonic Variations and Vowel Shifts with Stress.

'''Allophonic Variation:'''
* {{IPA|[l]}} → {{IPA|[ɫ]}}: The lateral {{IPA|/l/}} becomes velarized {{IPA|[ɫ]}} when it occurs in the coda position.
*{{IPA|[ʃ]}} → {{IPA|[s]}}: The voiceless postalveolar fricative {{IPA|/ʃ/}} changes to the voiceless alveolar fricative {{IPA|[s]}} if it is in the coda position and the following word starts with a vowel or a voiceless consonant.
*{{IPA|[ʒ]}} → {{IPA|[z]}}: The voiced postalveolar fricative {{IPA|/ʒ/}} changes to the voiced alveolar fricative {{IPA|[z]}} if it is in the coda position and the following word starts with a vowel or a voiced consonant.
*{{IPA|[ɾ]}} → {{IPA|[ʀ~ʁ]}}: The alveolar tap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} becomes a uvular trill or fricative {{IPA|[ʀ~ʁ]}} when it occurs in the onset position and is the first syllable of the word.

'''Vowel Shifts with Stress'''
* {{IPA|/ɐ/}} → {{IPA|/a/}}: {{IPA|/ɐ/}} shifts to {{IPA|/a/}} when stressed.
* {{IPA|/e/}} → {{IPA|/ɛ/}}: {{IPA|/e/}} shifts to {{IPA|/ɛ/}} when stressed.
* {{IPA|/o/}} → {{IPA|/ɔ/}}: {{IPA|/o/}} shifts to {{IPA|/ɔ/}} when stressed.

=== Orthography ===
Moon Draconic uses three scripts: latin alphabet, cyrilic alphabet and the draconic alphabet. In Draconic's history, most of it's texts were written in the Draconic Alphabet. Only with the contact with the humans and the latin alphabet in the XVIII Century that draconic started to be written in latin alphabet. Later, in the XIX Century with the approach to the Russian Empire, Draconic started to be written in Cyrilic as well. Cyrilic became the official script between 1880-1990, with the coming back to the Draconic script as official in 1990 with the complementary of Latin and Cyrilic.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Order !! Draconic Alphabet !! IPA !! Cyrilic Alphabet !! Latin Alphabet
|-
| 1 || [[File:Draconic - a.png]] || {{IPA|ɐ}} || А а || A a
|-
| 2 || [[File:Draconic - p.png]] || {{IPA|p}} || П п || P p
|-
| 3 || [[File:Draconic - b.png]] || {{IPA|b}} || Б б || B b
|-
| 4 || [[File:Draconic - f.png]] || {{IPA|f}} || Ф ф || F f
|-
| 5 || [[File:Draconic - v.png]] || {{IPA|v}} || В в || V v
|-
| 6 || [[File:Draconic - m.png]] || {{IPA|m}} || М м || M m
|-
| 7 || [[File:Draconic - e.png]] || {{IPA|e}} || Е е || E e
|-
| 8 || [[File:Draconic - i.png]] || {{IPA|i}} || И и || I i
|-
| 9 || [[File:Draconic - h.png]] || {{IPA|h}} || Һ һ || H h
|-
| 10 || [[File:Draconic - d.png]] || {{IPA|d}} || Д д || D d
|-
| 11 || [[File:Draconic - s.png]] || {{IPA|s}} || С с || S s
|-
| 12 || [[File:Draconic - r.png]] || {{IPA|ɾ}} || Р р || R r
|-
| 13 || [[File:Draconic - n.png]] || {{IPA|n}} || Н н || N n
|-
| 14 || [[File:Draconic - k.png]] || {{IPA|k}} || К к || K k
|-
| 15 || [[File:Draconic - l.png]] || {{IPA|l}} || Л л || L l
|-
| 16 || [[File:Draconic - g.png]] || {{IPA|ɡ}} || Г г || G g
|-
| 17 || [[File:Draconic - t.png]] || {{IPA|t}} || Т т || T t
|-
| 18 || [[File:Draconic - o.png]] || {{IPA|o}} || О о || O o
|-
| 19 || [[File:Draconic - x.png]] || {{IPA|x}} || Х х || X x
|-
| 20 || [[File:Draconic - u.png]] || {{IPA|u}} || У у || U u
|-
| 21 || [[File:Draconic - z.png]] || {{IPA|z}} || У у || U u
|-
| 22 || [[File:Draconic - w.png]] || {{IPA|w}} || З з || Z z
|-
| 23 || [[File:Draconic - c.png]] || {{IPA|ʃ}} || Ш ш || Sh shC c (PC)
|-
| 24 || [[File:Draconic - j.png]] || {{IPA|ʒ}} || Ж ж || Zh zhJ j (PC)
|-
| 25 || [[File:Draconic - q.png]] || {{IPA|tʃ}} || Ч ч || Tsh tshQ q (PC)
|-
| 26 || [[File:Draconic - y.png]] || {{IPA|dʒ}} || Џ џ || Dzh dzhY y (PC)
|-
|}

== Grammar ==
=== Nouns ===
Nouns in Moon Draconic inflect in number and case. There's no grammatical gender. The declension is divided in two: nouns that end in vowel, nouns that end in consonant in coda position. The four cases that exist are the following:
* Nominative: doesn't suffer morphological changes, it indicates the subject
* Accusative: it is used on nouns to showcase the direct object, it is also showcases obliques that are near, inside or in the future
* Dative: it is used on nouns to showcase the indirect object, it is also showcases obliques that are away, outside or in the past
* Genitive: used to express possession, use

{|class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
!
! colspan=2| ome = animal
! colspan=2| belmil = brain
|-
!
!singular
!plural
!singular
!plural
|-
|align="right"|'''Nominative'''
|ome ||ome-ome
|belmil ||belmil-belmil
|-
|align="right"|'''Accusative'''
|ome'''r''' ||ome-ome'''r'''
|belmil'''er''' ||belmil-belmil'''er'''
|-
|align="right" |'''Dative'''
|ome'''pur''' ||ome-ome'''pur'''
|belmil'''epur''' ||belmil-belmil'''epur'''
|-
|align="right"|'''Genitive'''
|ome'''su''' ||ome-ome'''su'''
|belmil'''esu''' ||belmil-belmil'''esu'''
|-
|}

=== Pronouns & Determinants ===
=== Adjectives ===
=== Verbs ===
=== Adverbs and Other Particles ===
=== Numerals and Quantifiers ===
=== Syntax ===

== Vocabulary ==

== Sample Texts ==

[[Category:Moon Draconic]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]
[[Category:Scripts]]

Rakas writing systems

2025-08-29T01:55:23Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: created page

The '''Higsata and Yusuki syllabaries''' are used to write [[Rakas]]. Higsata is written by pressing specialised tools into wood to imprint marks into it. It is the older of the two, used for public signage and in formal situations. Yusuki is written with a brush on paper, and is used for personal notes and correspondences.

[[Category:Scripts]]
[[Category:Stubs]]

Vexilian

2025-08-29T01:51:23Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

{{Infobox language
| name = Vexilian
| nativename = Załojąļčæɂ/Заԓоӽъԡчӕь/زِلشےَحٛلژچٰا/זַלשֹכֲּלשׁצ׳ָא
| pronunciation = zäɬo̞ˈq͡χɐɮʧæʔ
| familycolor = conlang
| fam1 = a priori language
| creator = User:QaiZar
| created = 2024
| scripts = Latin Cyrillic Arabic Hebrew Vexilian Abugida
| clcr = none
| image = [[File:Vexilian_autoglotonym_wirink'oq.png|frameless]]
| notice = IPA
}}
==Introduction==

THIS IS STILL A WIP, I'LL WRITE MORE LATER -QAIZAR
Vexilian is a constructed language designed to be the vernacular language for vexilians. A highly militarized alien culture based on a hierarchical and nationalistic system. The language features a complex phonology, a polysynthetic morphology inspired by languages such as Chilean Spanish, German, Nahuatl, Abkhaz, Navajo, Klingon, indigenous languages of Chile, and Tungusic, Berber, Mongolian, and Chukotko-Kamchatka/Luorawetlan languages, and a unique writing system with adaptations to the Latin, Cyrillic, Arabic, and Hebrew alphabets. Its linguistic structure reflects the cultural values of the Vexilians, where militarism, nationalism, and hierarchical order play a fundamental role.

==Phonology==
===Orthography===
===Consonants===
Vexilian has 45 consonants and 13 vowels. At the left of each cell in the table below is the [[w:phoneme|phoneme]], and at the left its transliterated representation if it is not written the same in IPA as in romanized vexilian. The consonants are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
|
|Bilabial
|Labiodental
|Dental
|Alveolar
|Palatoalveolar
|Retroflex
|palatal
|Velar
|Uvular
|Pharyngeal
|Epiglottal
|Glotal
|-
|Nasal
|m
|
|n [n̪]
|
|
|
|ñ [ɲ]
|ŋ
|
|
|
|
|-
|Oclusive
|p

b
|
|t [t̪]

d [d̪]
|
|
|
|
|k

g
|q
|
|q̇ [ʡ]
|ɂ [ʔ]
|-
|Implosive
|ɓ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Africate
|
|
|
|c [t͡s]

ç [d͡z]
|č [t͡ʃ]

ĵ [d͡ʒ]
|
|
|
|ꝗ [q͡χ]
|
|
|
|-
|Fricative
|
|f
|ŧ [θ]

ð
|s [s]

z [z]
|š [ʃ]

ž [ʒ]
|
|(ʝ)
|j [x]

ƣ [ɣ]
|(χ)

ř [ʁ]
|ƹ [ʕ]
|
|h
|-
|Aprox.
|w

ƕ [ʍ]
|v [ʋ]
|
|
|
|ŕ [ɻ]
|y [j]

ÿ[ɥ]
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|trill
|ḅ [ʙ]

ṗ [ʙ̥]
|
|
|r
|
|
|
|
|(ʀ)
|
|
|
|-
|Lateral Afr.
|
|
|
|tł [t͡ɬ]

dļ [d͡ɮ]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Lateral Fr.
|
|
|
|ł [ɬ]

ļ [ɮ]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Lateral Aprox.
|
|
|
|l
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Click
|
|
|
|kl [ǁ]
|
|
|kly [ǂ]
|
|
|
|
|
|}

===Vowels===
The 12 vowels of vexilian are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|
|Front
|Near-Front
|Central
|Near-Back
|Back
|-
|Closed
|i
|
|ɨ (ü)
|
|u
|-
|Near-Closed
|
|ɪ (į)
|
|ʊ (ų)
|
|-
|Mid
|e̞ (e)
ø̞ (ø)
|
|ə (ę)
|
|o̞ (o)
ɤ̞ (ǫ)
|-
|Near-Open
|æ
|
|ɐ (ą)
|
|
|-
|Open
|
|
|ä (a)
|
|}

===Phonotactics===
Vexilian present a very ample phonetic inventory
The vocalic system distinguishes short and long vowels with nasal and long nasal variants

'''Syllabic structure'''
*
* The maximum syllabic structure is C(C)V(C)
*
* Most syllables start with a consonant.
*
* A 2 element consonant group is allowed, where the second is always an approximant (/j w ɥ/) or a liquid consonant (/l r/).
*
* Affricates and ejectives count as a single segment in the syllabic structure.
*
* Nucleus:
*
* It can contain a long, short, nasal, or long nasal vowel.
*
* Dipthongs are exclusively decrescent (ej. [ei̯], [au̯]).
*

'''Coda:'''

Nasalized coda assimilates its articulation point to the next consonant.

'''Phonologic processes:'''
* Nasal assimilation: /n/ adopts the articulation point of the previous consonant (/n/ → [ŋ] on velar/uvular consonants, /n/ → [ɲ] on palatal consonants).
*
* Vowel reduction: On a atone syllable, short vowels often get reduced to /ə/, except for /i/, which reduces to [ɪ].
*
* Glotal epenthesis: Between 2 identical vowels in sequence, /ʔ/ gets inserted to avoid hiatus.
*
* Lenition: Voiced stops get turned into fricatives between vowels (/b/ → [β], /d/ → [ð], /ɡ/ → [ɣ]).
*
* Emphatic glottalization: In poetic or ritual contexts, certain words are pronounced with an additional glottal stop, even if they're not graphically represented.
*
'''Distribution of /t͡s/, /t͡sʼ/ and /d͡z/:'''

/t͡s/, /t͡sʼ/ y /d͡z/ behave like coronal consonants. They're frequent on initial and middle pose, but they rarely appear in coda.

'''Neutralized eyectives in coda'''

Ejective stops lose their audible release at the end of a word:

/pʼ/ → [p̚]

/tʼ/ → [t̚]

/kʼ/ → [k̚]

/qʼ/ → [q̚]

===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
The verb structure is as follows:

'''Evidentiality prefix + time/mode prefixes + Verbal root + object incorporation + Derivative sufixes + Subject marks'''
===Evidentiality prefixes===
* Direct: Ƹa- (I saw with my own eyes).
* Indirect/Audible: Ƹe- (I heard someone saw).
* Doubtful/Imaginary: Ƹę- (I Assume it happened).

===Time/Mode prefixes===
* Present: ta-
* Past: ka-
* Future: sa-
* Hypothetical: za-
* Perfective (completed action): q̇ę-
* Imperfective (action in process): nę-

===Derivative sufixes===
* Causative: -łę (make someone do something).
* Passive: -tłę
* Reflexive: -řę

===Subject marks===
* 1st person: -ɂ
* 2nd person: -kę
* 3rd person: -sę

===Quantity sufixes===
* Plural: -tł
* Dual: -dļ
* Paucal: -jł
* Nular: -q̇oq

==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
Vexilian uses a Verb-Object-Subject order, like the algonquian languages or malagasy.

===Noun phrase===
'''Basic order:'''
(Determinant) + (Nucleus) + (Adjectives) + (Postpositions) + (Clitics/Modifiers)

'''Ejemplo:'''
''Zat ghoti-kho''

''That big fish'' (Determinant + Sustantive + Adjective)

===Verb phrase===
Time/Aspect/Modality + Verbal Prefixes (theme, cause, applications, incorporations) + Verbal Root + Sufixes (plural, directional, etc.)

'''Example:'''
''Kapikoñažukq̇li
Ka-piko-ña-žuk-q̇li''

''¿Did you see me?'' (Ka = past, piko = interrogative, ña = object, žuk = see, q̇li = pronoun "you")

===Sentence phrase===
Evidentiality prefix + time/mode prefixes + Verbal root + object incorporation + Derivative sufixes + Subject marks

Ƹasašaŋghotiłęɂ

Ӏасашаңгһотиԓэь

عَسَشَڭگھۆتِڷها

עַסַשַנּגהֹתִלְּא

/ʕäsäʃäŋɡʰo̞t̪iɬəʔ/

Ƹa-sa-šaŋ-ghoti-łę-ɂ

= "[I] will make [myself] eat a fish (and i see it)."
* Ƹa-: Direct evidential (i see it).
* sa-: Future.
* šaŋ: Root "eat".
* ghoti: incorporated object ("fish").
* łę: Causative.
* ɂ: First person.

===Dependent clauses===

==Numbers==
Unlike most languages, vexilian uses a septenary numeral system since they have 5 fingers on each hand and 2 toes on each foot. The numbers are as follows.

* 0: Xa
* 1₇: Yx
* 2₇: Hosf
* 3₇: Łañ
* 4₇: Nęn̈ꝗi
* 5₇: Qeq̇
* 6₇: Kǫǫs
* 10₇: Xłereq̇
* 100₇: Yuz
* 1000₇: Čæn
* -illion₇: -nonok'

===Examples of more complex numbers===

* 13₇: Xłereq̇-ha-Łañ (ten and three)
* 41₇: Nęn̈ꝗi-Xłereq̇-ha-Yx (Four tens and one)
* 123₇: Yuz-Hosf-Xłereq̇-ha-Łañ (Hundred two tens and three)

==Example texts==

==Other resources==




[[Category:Vexilian]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Scripts]]

Chian

2025-08-29T01:49:45Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

{{Infobox language
|boxsize=23em
|name=Chian
|nativename=Poluotši
|pronunciation=po.luo.t͡ʃi
|image=Script Chian.png
|imagealt=The name of the language, "Poluotši", written in the Tajadajlic script
|state=Tsuotši
|nation=Tsuotši
|minority={{unbulleted list
|Soisasäï (Saubalzlą̆)
|Juttafu (Tusauzlun)
}}
|familycolor=Mablani
|creator=[[User:Thetacola|thetacola]]
|script=Tajadajlic
|fam1=[[Mablani languages|Mablani]]
|fam2=[[Zofzafian languages|Zofzafian]]
|fam3=[[Lyamtizian languages|Lyamtizian]]
|notice=IPA
}}
'''Chian''' /t͡ʃi.ɛn/ (Chian: /po.luo.t͡ʃi/) is a [[Lyamtizian languages|Lyamtizian language]] spoken primarily in and around the country of Tsuotši. Along being the official language of Tsuotši, it has regional status in some neighboring countries, such as in the province of Saubalzlą̆ in Soisasäï, and in the province of Tusauzlun in Juttafu.

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===
Like other Lyamtizian languages, Chian distinguishes via palatalization for certain consonants, those being /m/, /n/, /f/, /v/, /s/, /ʒ/, /l/, and /w/.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;"
! style="font-weight:normal;" |
! colspan="2" | Bilabial
! colspan="2" | Labiodental
! colspan="2" | Alveolar
! colspan="2" | Postalveolar
! colspan="2" | Alveolopalatal
! colspan="2" | Palatal
! colspan="2" | Labiovelar
! colspan="2" | Velar
! colspan="2" | Pharyngeal
! colspan="2" | Glottal
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Plosive
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | p
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | b
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | t
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | d
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | k
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ʔ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Nasal
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | m mʲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | n nʲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ɲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ŋ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Affricate
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | p̪͡f
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | b̪͡v
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | t͡s
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | d͡z
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | t͡ʃ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | d͡ʒ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | t͡ɕ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | d͡ʑ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Fricative
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | f fʲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | v vʲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | s sʲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | z
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ʃ
| style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#ffffff;" | ʒ ʒʲ
| style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#ffffff;" | ɕ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ʑ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | x
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ħ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | h
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Trill
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | r
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Tap
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ɾ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Approximant
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | j
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#ffffff;" | w wʲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Lateral approximant
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | l lʲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|}
=== Vowels ===
Chian has a much higher amount of vowels than average, however has noticeably fewer vowels than the average Lyamtizian language. /a/ is also the only vowel to be distinguished by length, as many vowels that were once long have since been split into diphthongs.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;"
!
! colspan="2" | Front
! colspan="2" | Central
! colspan="2" | Back
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Close
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | i
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ɨ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ʉ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | u
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Close-mid
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | e
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | o
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Open-mid
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ʌ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Open
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | a a:
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|}

== Orthography ==
Chian is typically written in the Tajadajlic script, however also has a standard romanization. The Tajadajlic script is a abugida with a default vowel of /a/. Vowels are written above the preceding consonant.
=== Tajadajlic ===

==== Consonants ====
Consonants with no diacritic are implied to be representing the vowel /a/ afterwards. As such, each consonant in this table has a diacritic to remove the vowel from the consonant. Palatalized consonants are marked with a diacritic underneath the consonant called a bāḥā.
[[File:Chian-consonant-chart.png]]
==== Vowels ====
Vowels are written via diacritics. A lack of diacritic is used to mark /a/. Not shown in this table is the diacritic to remove a vowel from a character, that diacritic is shown in the consonant table instead. The vowel character, shown here for all vowels displayed, is only used when a syllable has no onset consonants.
[[File:Chian-vowel-chart.png]]

=== Romanization ===
The romanization is not necessarily one-to-one with Tajadajlic. Palatalization is marked with ⟨y⟩ in the romanization despite it being marked with a bāḥā in Tajadajlic, /ɲ/ is marked ⟨ñ⟩ in the romanization despite it being marked with the equivalent of ⟨nj⟩ in Tajadajlic, and so on. This romanization is made to be one-to-one with pronunciation regardless of how it is marked in Tajadajlic.
==== Consonants ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;"
! style="font-weight:normal;" |
! colspan="2" | Bilabial
! colspan="2" | Labiodental
! colspan="2" | Alveolar
! colspan="2" | Postalveolar
! colspan="2" | Alveolopalatal
! colspan="2" | Palatal
! colspan="2" | Labiovelar
! colspan="2" | Velar
! colspan="2" | Pharyngeal
! colspan="2" | Glottal
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Plosive
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | p
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | b
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | t
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | d
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | k
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | '
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Nasal
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | m my
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | n ny
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ñ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ŋ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Affricate
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | pf
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | bv
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ts
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | dz
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | tš
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | dž
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | tç
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | dź
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Fricative
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | f fy
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | v vy
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | s sy
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | z
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | š
| style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#ffffff;" | ž žy
| style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#ffffff;" | ç
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ź
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | x
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ḥ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | h
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Trill
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | rr
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Tap
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | r
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Approximant
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | j
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#ffffff;" | w wʲ
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Lateral approximant
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | l ly
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|}

==== Vowels ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;"
!
! colspan="2" | Front
! colspan="2" | Central
! colspan="2" | Back
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Close
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | i
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ï
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ü
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | u
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Close-mid
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | e
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | o
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Open-mid
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | ö
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | Open
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" | a ā
| style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffffff;" |
|}
== Grammar ==
Chian is a agglutinative language with fusional characteristics. Chian follows a free word order, however typically defaults to OVS word order unless some other part of the sentence is being emphasized. Chian is also a head-final language.
=== Nouns ===
Chian marks nouns for five cases, number, and definiteness. Case can be nominative, accusative, dative, locative, and illative; number can be either singular, paucal, or plural; and definiteness is only marked if a noun is definite. Definiteness is not marked for plural dative nouns and paucal illative nouns, and must be inferred via context. Most are marked via suffixes, except for dative nouns, singular definite nouns, and paucal definite nouns, which can be marked with prefixes or circumfixes. Younger speakers have increasingly used the locative case as a genitive case as well.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;"
!
! SG
! SG.DEF
! PAU
! PAU.DEF
! PL
! PL.DEF
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | NOM
|
| ḥ-
| -b
| -v
| -'a
| -o
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | ACC
| -z
| ḥ-z
| -zb
| -zv
| -iz
| -izts
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | DAT
| i-
| ḥi-
| i-b
| i-v
| colspan="2" | i-'i
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | LOC
| -n
| ḥ-n
| -nb
| -nv
| -'an
| -on
|-
| style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left;" | ILL
| -p
| ḥ-p
| colspan="2" | -vp
| -'ap
| -op
|}
Note that older speakers may pronounce an initial ḥ on paucal definite nouns.
=== Verbs ===
{{Under construction}}

[[Category:Scripts]]

Category:Scripts

2025-08-29T01:49:07Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: clarity

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Talk:Altwiebisch/Script

2025-08-29T01:36:57Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: ask about deletion

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Category:Scripts

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ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: created category

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ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: Single language listed above Subcategories already included in Languages list so removed

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Guide:Writing system

2025-08-29T01:20:58Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: plural

So you've decieded you want to make a script for your conlang. You probably want to do it because you've seen other languages have their writings or maybe you just want to be artistic, or maybe even your sister is reading your private diary so you want to be able to write it without her reading about your adventures! Well whatever the reason is it is quite the undertaking and you'll need to ask yourself a few questions.

==Why do you want to make a script/writing system? What is the purpose?==
This is important because it determines alot of the work that needs to be put in.

Is the answer you simply want to hide what you write so no one can read it? For sake of simplicity let's assume that whomever you are hiding it from has no knowledge in cryptography, a simple ceasar cipher might suffice then but you still want to be extra sure no one reads it by making your own symbols. Sure, replace every alphabetical symbol with one of your own and you're probably safe, but it is a cipher not really a script but it works! A hint is that you give common words like "the" their own symbol, it is the quickest way to crack your cipher to look for those simple words! You don't need to read much more in this article.

----

What? You're still reading? So you're not after a cipher but want a genuine writing system because other languages have it that does not match our writing? Then you have come to the right place! Keep on reading cause there is alot to learn.

==Language structure==
If you are doing a script for your own conlang or your own native tounge this one still matters. No no I am not talking about the long ass lists of conjugations, declensions and....wait what? you got more than just those!? Holy moly, well anyway that is not what I am talking about. The grammatical structure is the least important aspect of this but I am talking about the phonological and syllabic structure.

How many {{lg|phonemes}} does your language have? How are they arranged?

You probably ask now, "why would it matter?", it is simple, the type of script a language uses is affected by how it is structured. English which has a CCCVCCCC structure, 24 phonemes, 20 vowels or diphthongs gives the english language a total of 159 252 480, almost 160 MILLION possible syllables. So writing with a syllabic writing system or logographic like chinese and or japanese is clearly out of the picture, while most syllables are not used the number still grows to a point where you need to know tens of thousands possible symbols. In chinese you only need between 2 and 5 thousand symbols to be literate and thats hard enough!

Chinese on the other than has the structure of CVC, where the last C can only be m or n, even with 30 consonants and 30 tonal vowels (not real numbers just to illustrate) thats 900 base symbols sych a system would demand, a much more feasable amount to memorize. So what syllabic structure and the phoneme inventory does play a huge role.

But even that is not alone, grammatical structure does play a role aswell. Languages like chinese can avoid a more phoneticly based writing system because they technicly lack conjugations, declensions and the like directly on the word add words around to change meaning. So the words needs no more marking once they have been written out. A language like japanese which do conjugate their verbs is a whole other story. they MUST mark it in writing to give the right information. "But japanese uses Kanji which is chinese!" you probably say, yes they do. That is a result due to history but japanese have Hirigana and Katakana also, those are syllabic in structure, a much better fit for japanese syllable structure, to mark just phoneticly the endings verbs take.

==Script Types==
Thought it was over eh? OH NO!

You have already been presented somewhat to a few types but here I'll go into the writing types of the world and their implications and needs.

A feature most languages eventually tend toward is a phonetic representation but that can be divided into two categories, Syllable or Phonemic.

===Syllable===
These scrips writes out entire syllables, more or less, of the language in a distinct {{lg|grapheme}}. There are two of these.
====Logographic====
This script usually encompasses larger form of syllables, roughly around CVC structure and not larger. The script usually have a few hundred to several thousand symboles that must be memorized. It can be quite structured at first but like all systems the langauge changes and soon it is just a question of memorizing everything. This system fits languages with a smaller consonant inventory and simple syllable structure like the previously mentioned one. Chinese is an example.

*Grapheme count: Few hundred to thousands
*Phoneme count: Small

====Syllabary====
As the name suggest it goes for syllables but generally only CV form, if the langauge has such syllable structure (or close like only a single consonant can appear after) this system is quite useful. and important thing to remember with this system is that the grapheme for "pa", "pe" and "da" are all unrelated, you cannot see any connection between them. The phoneme inventory can be medium sized and it is quite feasable.

*Grapheme count: 30-100
*Phoneme count: medium

===Phonemic===
These writing systems catches the phonemes of the languages and generally fit any language, no matter syllable structure, that fullfill the criterias needed for them.
====Abjad====
An abjad catches only the consonants of a language. You might wonder how is that even useful? How would one tell apart words like "bet" "bat" "bit" if all you see is "bt"? The answer is simply that in european languages the vowels play a much more important role. In semitic languages the vowels role is lesser and consonants are more important, but even if it does play an important role you can still use it. "I bt 100 dllrs tht y cn't d tht", if you check that you might still be able to read what it says, context does everything!

*Grapheme count: 10-40
*Phoneme count: small to large

====Abugida====
Also known as Alphasyllaberies, the characteristics is that like a syllabery each symbol marks a CV cluster, but while "pa" and "pe" symbols are unrelated in syllaberies they are related graphicly to each other in an abugida. The vowel is changed by adding some tiny change, mark or whatnot. But it is important to notice that the original base symbol always have an inherent vowel to it that is modified and you need to add a symbol to even remove the vowel so it is a consonant alone. This language fits almost all languages but might not be suitible to languages that have too many non-CV syllables because otehrwise the vowel removal symbol will pop up quite frequently

*Grapheme count: 10-40
*Phoneme count: small to large

====Alphabet====
PHEW! this one we all know right? Yes and no, while western civilizations have grown around this there is still alot to it. It is capable to more or less represent all the basic sounds of a language it is by no means perfect or ideal. Vowels are more marked than an abjad for example but even within an alphabet the vowel marking is often at best just an approximation than something absolute.

*Grapheme count: 10-40
*Phoneme count: small to large

==Direction==
Everyone knows you read from left to right, up to down, as I call it LRUD. So thats natural isn't it?

Well no, you can do it in a total of 4 ways, LRUD, RLUD (Right to left, Up and downward), UDLR (up and downward first, then left to right, reading in columns rather than rows) and Lastely UDRL. You might think that it could possbibly be down and up, while it is a concievable thing no script system has ever utilized it.

Examples
*LRUD, Latin
*RLUD, Arabic or hebrew
*UDRL, Japanese
*UDLR, Mongolian

the direction in which it is written forms heavily how the symbols are written to minimize effort in that direction. so the direction does matter.

==Traits==

==Tools==

==Choosing==

==Graphemes==

[[Category:Scripts]]

Aoma/Script

2025-08-29T01:19:55Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

Aoma uses a quite phonemic script where graphemes correlate with phonemes.

For more phonemic details, see the [[Aoma#Orthography|orthography]].

==Lore history==

Scripts for writing Aoma were developed in Eastern Sceptre from the Eastern Temple Marks of third era (about 3000 BP). Shinesharers, spreaders of the religion of Light, took the original marks to north where they were developed into Northern script (our Latin).

==Styles==

===Hakorasa Wohalure===

Eastern templar script was developed from the [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/art/Development-of-Northern-and-Eastern-Scripts-351960933 temple marks] during fourth era.

===Jauhmø===

Highly decorational [http://juhhmi.deviantart.com/art/Beginners-guide-to-Jauhmoe-348647904?q=gallery%3Ajuhhmi%2F42429210&qo=2 Jauhmø script] originates to fifth era, but it's descendants are still in use mainly for formal documentation.

===Mihkanor===

Born from various forms of hand-written Jauhmø in the sixth era. See the [[Aoma/Script#Gallery|gallery]].

===Duutesi Bocör===

''Duutesi Bocör'' (Writing of Merchants) is a faster handwritten script of the current seventh era. For diphthongs, ''i'' can be written as a diacritic over the vowel (grave accent for preceding and acute for following ''i''). See the [[Aoma/Script#Gallery|gallery]].

==See also==
*[[Literature:Hymn of Light/Aoma|Hymn of Light]]

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Mihkanor.JPG|Mihkanor
File:Bocoere.JPG|Duutesi Bocör
</gallery>

[[Category:Aoma texts]]
[[Category:Scripts]]

Rokadong script

2025-08-29T01:19:18Z

ᚱᚢᚾ᛫ᛗᚫᚾ: category

{{Contains Rokadong}}
The '''Rokadong script''' is an [[w:abugida|abugida]] of the [[Nenta family]] that is related to other Nentan languages, such as the [[Kairitelan script]]. Like Kairitelan, it is derived from the [[Classical Nenta script]]. The script has been in use for about 750 years, being created in the year Kagyaha 28 (772 years prior to the present) and officially adopted in the year Kagyaha 62 (738 years prior to the present).

The Rokadong script is officially called ''{{term|telajang}}'' (literally "branch letters"). However, due to many of the letters' resemblance to the peaks of a mountain range or mountain island, the script is also referred to as ''{{term|curakjang}}'' (literally "mountain letters").

==Basic Rokadong==
While Rokadong as a whole tends to use more than just the following letters, these are the most common letters in Rokadong text. Generally speaking, [[Liðakuin]] or Hindu-Arabic numerals are preferred, but terajang numerals (which function similarly to Sinitic numerals) are the historic method of writing numbers.

Rokadong separates individual words with spaces. A small center dot, akin to the ''i'' diacritic, is used at the end of sentences. A variation on angle brackets is used for quotations, though unlike languages like English, the title of a story or song is also put in quotations.

The script's diacritics are attached here to the base letter ''ka'' ({{Roka-text|K}}) to disambiguate similar ones.

{| style="border:0px; background:none;"
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!''' '''
!''' '''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|p
|width=50|[p]
|''pa''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|b
|width=50|[b]
|''ba''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|t
|width=50|[t]
|''ta''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|d
|width=50|[d]
|''da''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|c
|width=50|[t͡ʃ]
|''ca''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|j
|width=50|[d͡ʒ]
|''ja''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|k
|width=50|[k]
|''ka''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|g
|width=50|[g]
|''ga''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|h
|width=50|[ʔ]
|''ahha''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|f
|width=50|[f]
|''fa''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|v
|width=50|[v]
|''va''
|}
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!''' '''
!''' '''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|s
|width=50|[s]
|''sa''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|z
|width=50|[z]
|''za''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|sh
|width=50|[ʃ]
|''sha''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|h
|width=50|[h]
|''ha''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|l
|width=50|[l]
|''la''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|y
|width=50|[j]
|''ya''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|w
|width=50|[w]
|''wa''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|r
|width=50|[ɾ]
|''ra''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|m
|width=50|[m]
|''ma''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|n
|width=50|[n]
|''na''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|ny
|width=50|[ɲ]
|''nya''
|}
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!''' '''
!''' '''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|ng
|width=50|[ŋ]
|''ang''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|a
|width=50|[a]
|''á''
|-
|colspan=4|'''''Diacritics (on ka)'''''
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|a á
|width=50|[a aː]
|
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|i í
|width=50|[i iː]
|
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|u ú
|width=50|[u uː]
|
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|e é
|width=50|[e eː]
|
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika| }}
|width=75|o ó
|width=50|[o oː]
|
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|  }}
|width=75|ai au oi
|width=50|[aj aw oj]
|
|-
|width=75| {{Roka-shika|}}
|width=75|
|width=50|''no vowel''
|
|}
|}

===Orthographical notes===
Consonants followed by /j/ are written in their base form, instead of the no vowel form: ''kya'' {{Roka-shika|}}. It is not necessarily standardized to do so, but the same applies to /w/: ''kwa'' {{Roka-shika|}}. These are written with two glyphs, but considered one glyph, that is, diacritics are not placed between the two consonants in this kind of digraph. Similar behavior is done with the sequence /lɾ/, though these form a single phone, [r]: ''lra'' {{Roka-shika|}}. Additionally, if a word ends in a consonant, it is written in its base form.

A diacritic on the null consonant {{roka-shika|}} replaces the sound entirely.

==Extended Rokadong==
While basic Rokadong is enough to write any phonemic distinction in Coastal Rokadong dialects, there are also many considerations which in the past or present, have resulted in several more glyphs being added to Rokadong.

===Extended consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!''' '''
!''' '''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Use'''
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|q
|width=50|[q~ʔ]
|''qá''
|historic /ʔ/
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|rh
|width=50|[ʁ]
|''rhá''
|/ɾ/ using the growl allophone
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|lh
|width=50|[ʎ]
|''lhá''
|shorthand for {{Lida-text|}}
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|hl
|width=50|[ɬ]
|''hlá''
|
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|hr
|width=50|[r̥]
|''hrá''
|
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|th
|width=50|[θ]
|''thá''
|historic /θ/
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|dh
|width=50|[ð]
|''dhá''
|some historic /θ/
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|zh
|width=50|[ʒ]
|''zhá''
|shorthand for {{Lida-text|}}
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|kh
|width=50|[x]
|''khá'', ''há lizakoi''
|
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text|}}
|width=75|gh
|width=50|[ɣ]
|''ghá''
|
|}

===Extended vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!''' '''
!''' '''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Use'''
!'''Notes'''
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text| }}
|width=75|ə ə́ ä â
|width=50|[y yː] [ə əː]
|''í lizakoi''
|
|
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text| }}
|width=75|ü û
|width=50|
|''ú byahik''
|
|
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text| }}
|width=75|ö ô
|width=50|
|''ó byahik''
|
|
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text| }}
|width=75|ï î
|width=50|
|''í berek''
|
|
|-
|width=75| {{Lida-text| }}
|width=75|ë ê
|width=50|
|''é berek''
|
|
|}
<references />

[[Category:Rokadong]]
[[Category:Scripts]]